Efficient Electrocatalytic and Photoelectrochemical Hydrogen Generation Using MoS2 and Related Compounds

Chem

Volumn 1, Issue 5, 2016, Pages 699-726

  Ding, Qi ^a   Song, Bo ^b   Xu, Ping ^b   Jin, Song ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

^b HARBIN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY   (China)

Author keywords

defect engineering; electrocatalysis; electronic structure; hydrogen evolution reaction (HER); molybdenum disulfide (MoS2); nanosheets; photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion; vacancy

Indexed keywords

EID: 85008254501     PISSN: 24519294     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2016.10.007     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. 1 Chu, S., Majumdar, A., Opportunities and challenges for a sustainable energy future. Nature 488 (2012), 294–303.
2. 2 Turner, J.A., Sustainable hydrogen production. Science 305 (2004), 972–974.
3. 3 Lewis, N.S., Nocera, D.G., Powering the planet: chemical challenges in solar energy utilization. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 103 (2006), 15729–15735.
4. 4 Walter, M.G., Warren, E.L., McKone, J.R., Boettcher, S.W., Mi, Q.X., Santori, E.A., Lewis, N.S., Solar water splitting cells. Chem. Rev. 110 (2010), 6446–6473.
5. 5 Bard, A.J., Fox, M.A., Artificial photosynthesis - solar splitting of water to hydrogen and oxygen. Acc. Chem. Res. 28 (1995), 141–145.
6. 6 McKone, J.R., Lewis, N.S., Gray, H.B., Will solar-driven water-splitting devices see the light of day?. Chem. Mater. 26 (2014), 407–414.
7. 7 Khaselev, O., Turner, J.A., A monolithic photovoltaic-photoelectrochemical device for hydrogen production via water splitting. Science 280 (1998), 425–427.
8. 8 Faber, M.S., Jin, S., Earth-abundant inorganic electrocatalysts and their nanostructures for energy conversion applications. Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014), 3519–3542.
9. 9 Zeng, M., Li, Y.G., Recent advances in heterogeneous electrocatalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction. J. Mater. Chem. A 3 (2015), 14942–14962.
10. 10 Benck, J.D., Hellstern, T.R., Kibsgaard, J., Chakthranont, P., Jaramillo, T.F., Catalyzing the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) with molybdenum sulfide nanomaterials. ACS Catal. 4 (2014), 3957–3971.
11. 11 Laursen, A.B., Kegnaes, S., Dahl, S., Chorkendorff, I., Molybdenum sulfides-efficient and viable materials for electro - and photoelectrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Energy Environ. Sci. 5 (2012), 5577–5591.
12. 12 Morales-Guio, C.G., Hu, X.L., Amorphous molybdenum sulfides as hydrogen evolution catalysts. Acc. Chem. Res. 47 (2014), 2671–2681.
13. 13 Faber, M.S., Dziedzic, R., Lukowski, M.A., Kaiser, N.S., Ding, Q., Jin, S., High-performance electrocatalysis using metallic cobalt pyrite (CoS2) micro- and nanostructures. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014), 10053–10061.
14. 14 Caban-Acevedo, M., Stone, M.L., Schmidt, J.R., Thomas, J.G., Ding, Q., Chang, H.C., Tsai, M.L., He, J.H., Jin, S., Efficient hydrogen evolution catalysis using ternary pyrite-type cobalt phosphosulphide. Nat. Mater. 14 (2015), 1245–1251.
15. 15 Vesborg, P.C.K., Seger, B., Chorkendorff, I., Recent development in hydrogen evolution reaction catalysts and their practical implementation. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 6 (2015), 951–957.
16. 16 Popczun, E.J., McKone, J.R., Read, C.G., Biacchi, A.J., Wiltrout, A.M., Lewis, N.S., Schaak, R.E., Nanostructured nickel phosphide as an electrocatalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2013), 9267–9270.
17. 17 Callejas, J.F., Read, C.G., Roske, C.W., Lewis, N.S., Schaak, R.E., Synthesis, characterization, and properties of metal phosphide catalysts for the hydrogen-evolution reaction. Chem. Mater. 28 (2016), 6027–6044.
18. 18 Chhowalla, M., Shin, H.S., Eda, G., Li, L.J., Loh, K.P., Zhang, H., The chemistry of two-dimensional layered transition metal dichalcogenide nanosheets. Nat. Chem. 5 (2013), 263–275.
19. 19 Xu, M.S., Liang, T., Shi, M.M., Chen, H.Z., Graphene-like two-dimensional materials. Chem. Rev. 113 (2013), 3766–3798.
20. 20 Wang, Q.H., Kalantar-Zadeh, K., Kis, A., Coleman, J.N., Strano, M.S., Electronics and optoelectronics of two-dimensional transition metal dichalcogenides. Nat. Nano 7 (2012), 699–712.
21. 21 Cook, T.R., Dogutan, D.K., Reece, S.Y., Surendranath, Y., Teets, T.S., Nocera, D.G., Solar energy supply and storage for the legacy and non legacy worlds. Chem. Rev. 110 (2010), 6474–6502.
22. 22 Bockris, J.O.M., Potter, E.C., The mechanism of the cathodic hydrogen evolution reaction. J. Electrochem. Soc. 99 (1952), 169–186.
23. 23 Norskov, J.K., Bligaard, T., Logadottir, A., Kitchin, J.R., Chen, J.G., Pandelov, S., Norskov, J.K., Trends in the exchange current for hydrogen evolution. J. Electrochem. Soc. 152 (2005), J23–J26.
24. 24 Hinnemann, B., Moses, P.G., Bonde, J., Jorgensen, K.P., Nielsen, J.H., Horch, S., Chorkendorff, I., Norskov, J.K., Biomimetic hydrogen evolution: MoS2 nanoparticles as catalyst for hydrogen evolution. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 127 (2005), 5308–5309.
25. 25 Greeley, J., Jaramillo, T.F., Bonde, J., Chorkendorff, I.B., Norskov, J.K., Computational high-throughput screening of electrocatalytic materials for hydrogen evolution. Nat. Mater. 5 (2006), 909–913.
26. 26 Chianelli, R.R., Siadati, M.H., De la Rosa, M.P., Berhault, G., Wilcoxon, J.P., Bearden, R., Abrams, B.L., Catalytic properties of single layers of transition metal sulfide catalytic materials. Catal. Rev. 48 (2006), 1–41.
27. 27 Yang, D., Sandoval, S.J., Divigalpitiya, W.M.R., Irwin, J.C., Frindt, R.F., Structure of single-molecular-layer MoS2. Phys. Rev. B 43 (1991), 12053–12056.
28. 28 Mak, K.F., Lee, C., Hone, J., Shan, J., Heinz, T.F., Atomically thin MoS2: a new direct-gap semiconductor. Phys. Rev. Lett., 105, 2010, 136805.
29. 29 Mouri, S., Miyauchi, Y., Matsuda, K., Tunable photoluminescence of monolayer MoS2 via chemical doping. Nano Lett. 13 (2013), 5944–5948.
30. 30 Yin, Z.Y., Li, H., Li, H., Jiang, L., Shi, Y.M., Sun, Y.H., Lu, G., Zhang, Q., Chen, X.D., Zhang, H., Single-layer MoS2 phototransistors. ACS Nano 6 (2012), 74–80.
31. 31 Lee, H.S., Min, S.W., Chang, Y.G., Park, M.K., Nam, T., Kim, H., Kim, J.H., Ryu, S., Im, S., MoS2 nanosheet phototransistors with thickness-modulated optical energy gap. Nano Lett. 12 (2012), 3695–3700.
32. 32 Wu, S.F., Buckley, S., Schaibley, J.R., Feng, L.F., Yan, J.Q., Mandrus, D.G., Hatami, F., Yao, W., Vuckovic, J., Majumdar, A., et al. Monolayer semiconductor nanocavity lasers with ultralow thresholds. Nature 520 (2015), 69–72.
33. 33 Tributsch, H., Bennett, J.C., Electrochemistry and photochemistry of Mos2 layer crystals. 1. J. Electroanal. Chem. 81 (1977), 97–111.
34. 34 Jaramillo, T.F., Jorgensen, K.P., Bonde, J., Nielsen, J.H., Horch, S., Chorkendorff, I., Identification of active edge sites for electrochemical H-2 evolution from MoS2 nanocatalysts. Science 317 (2007), 100–102.
35. 35 Kong, D.S., Wang, H.T., Cha, J.J., Pasta, M., Koski, K.J., Yao, J., Cui, Y., Synthesis of MoS2 and MoSe2 films with vertically aligned layers. Nano Lett. 13 (2013), 1341–1347.
36. 36 Lukowski, M.A., Daniel, A.S., Meng, F., Forticaux, A., Li, L.S., Jin, S., Enhanced hydrogen evolution catalysis from chemically exfoliated metallic MoS2 nanosheets. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2013), 10274–10277.
37. 37 Yang, L., Hong, H., Fu, Q., Huang, Y.F., Zhang, J.Y., Cui, X.D., Fan, Z.Y., Liu, K.H., Xiang, B., Single-crystal atomic-layered molybdenum disulfide nanobelts with high surface activity. ACS Nano 9 (2015), 6478–6483.
38. 38 Kibsgaard, J., Chen, Z.B., Reinecke, B.N., Jaramillo, T.F., Engineering the surface structure of MoS2 to preferentially expose active edge sites for electrocatalysis. Nat. Mater. 11 (2012), 963–969.
39. 39 Xie, J.F., Zhang, H., Li, S., Wang, R.X., Sun, X., Zhou, M., Zhou, J.F., Lou, X.W., Xie, Y., Defect-rich MoS2 ultrathin nanosheets with additional active edge sites for enhanced electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Adv. Mater. 25 (2013), 5807–5813.
40. 40 Hong, J.H., Hu, Z.X., Probert, M., Li, K., Lv, D.H., Yang, X.N., Gu, L., Mao, N.N., Feng, Q.L., Xie, L.M., et al. Exploring atomic defects in molybdenum disulphide monolayers. Nat. Commun., 6, 2015, 6293.
41. 41 Qiu, H., Xu, T., Wang, Z.L., Ren, W., Nan, H.Y., Ni, Z.H., Chen, Q., Yuan, S.J., Miao, F., Song, F.Q., et al. Hopping transport through defect-induced localized states in molybdenum disulphide. Nat. Commun., 4, 2013, 2642.
42. 42 Yu, Z.H., Pan, Y.M., Shen, Y.T., Wang, Z.L., Ong, Z.Y., Xu, T., Xin, R., Pan, L.J., Wang, B.G., Sun, L.T., et al. Towards intrinsic charge transport in monolayer molybdenum disulfide by defect and interface engineering. Nat. Commun., 5, 2014, 5290.
43. 43 Lin, S.H., Kuo, J.L., Activating and tuning basal planes of MoO2, MoS2, and MoSe2 for hydrogen evolution reaction. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 17 (2015), 29305–29310.
44. 44 Li, H., Tsai, C., Koh, A.L., Cai, L.L., Contryman, A.W., Fragapane, A.H., Zhao, J.H., Han, H.S., Manoharan, H.C., Abild-Pedersen, F., et al. Activating and optimizing MoS2 basal planes for hydrogen evolution through the formation of strained sulphur vacancies. Nat. Mater., 15, 2016, 48.
45. 45 Li, H., Du, M., Mleczko, M.J., Koh, A.L., Nishi, Y., Pop, E., Bard, A.J., Zheng, X.L., Kinetic study of hydrogen evolution reaction over strained MoS2 with sulfur vacancies using scanning electrochemical microscopy. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 138 (2016), 5123–5129.
46. 46 Yin, Y., Han, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, X., Xu, P., Yuan, Q., Samad, L., Wang, X., Wang, Y., Zhang, Z., et al. Contributions of phase, sulfur vacancies, and edges to the hydrogen evolution reaction catalytic activity of porous molybdenum disulfide nanosheets. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 13 (2016), 7965–7972.
47. 47 Xie, J.F., Zhang, J.J., Li, S., Grote, F., Zhang, X.D., Zhang, H., Wang, R.X., Lei, Y., Pan, B.C., Xie, Y., Controllable disorder engineering in oxygen-incorporated MoS2 ultrathin nanosheets for efficient hydrogen evolution. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 135 (2013), 17881–17888.
48. 48 Ge, P., Scanlon, M.D., Peljo, P., Bian, X., Vubrel, H., O'Neill, A., Coleman, J.N., Cantoni, M., Hu, X., Kontturi, K., et al. Hydrogen evolution across nano-Schottky junctions at carbon supported MoS2 catalysts in biphasic liquid systems. Chem. Commun. 48 (2012), 6484–6486.
49. 49 Voiry, D., Salehi, M., Silva, R., Fujita, T., Chen, M.W., Asefa, T., Shenoy, V.B., Eda, G., Chhowalla, M., Conducting MoS2 nanosheets as catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction. Nano Lett. 13 (2013), 6222–6227.
50. 50 Ambrosi, A., Sofer, Z., Pumera, M., Lithium intercalation compound dramatically influences the electrochemical properties of exfoliated MoS2. Small 11 (2015), 605–612.
51. 51 Wang, H.T., Lu, Z.Y., Xu, S.C., Kong, D.S., Cha, J.J., Zheng, G.Y., Hsu, P.C., Yan, K., Bradshaw, D., Prinz, F.B., et al. Electrochemical tuning of vertically aligned MoS2 nanofilms and its application in improving hydrogen evolution reaction. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 110 (2013), 19701–19706.
52. 2 nanosheets for hydrogen evolution. Nat. Mater. 12 (2013), 850–855.
53. 53 Lukowski, M.A., Daniel, A.S., English, C.R., Meng, F., Forticaux, A., Hamers, R.J., Jin, S., Highly active hydrogen evolution catalysis from metallic WS2 nanosheets. Energy Environ. Sci. 7 (2014), 2608–2613.
54. 54 Eng, A.Y.S., Ambrosi, A., Sofer, Z., Simek, P., Pumera, M., Electrochemistry of transition metal dichalcogenides: strong dependence on the metal-to-chalcogen composition and exfoliation method. ACS Nano 8 (2014), 12185–12198.
55. 55 Ambrosi, A., Sofer, Z., Pumera, M., 2H → 1T phase transition and hydrogen evolution activity of MoS2, MoSe2, WS2 and WSe2 strongly depends on the MX2 composition. Chem. Commun. 51 (2015), 8450–8453.
56. 56 Gao, G.P., Jiao, Y., Ma, F.X., Jiao, Y.L., Wacawik, E., Du, A.J., Charge mediated semiconducting-to-metallic phase transition in molybdenum disulfide monolayer and hydrogen evolution reaction in new 1T'Phase. J. Phys. Chem. C 119 (2015), 13124–13128.
57. 57 Putungan, D.B., Lin, S.H., Kuo, J.L., A first-principles examination of conducting monolayer 1T′-MX2 (M = Mo, W; X = S, Se, Te): promising catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction and its enhancement by strain. Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 17 (2015), 21702–21708.
58. 58 Tsai, C., Chan, K.R., Norskov, J.K., Abild-Pedersen, F., Theoretical insights into the hydrogen evolution activity of layered transition metal dichalcogenides. Surf. Sci. 640 (2015), 133–140.
59. 59 Tang, Q., Jiang, D.-E., Mechanism of hydrogen evolution reaction on 1T-MoS2 from first principles. ACS Catal. 6 (2016), 4953–4961.
60. 60 Ye, G., Gong, Y., Lin, J., Li, B., He, Y., Pantelides, S.T., Zhou, W., Vajtai, R., Ajayan, P.M., Defects engineered monolayer MoS2 for improved hydrogen evolution reaction. Nano Lett. 16 (2016), 1097–1103.
61. 2 nanoparticles grown on graphene: an advanced catalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133 (2011), 7296–7299.
62. 62 Liao, L., Zhu, J., Bian, X.J., Zhu, L.N., Scanlon, M.D., Girault, H.H., Liu, B.H., MoS2 formed on mesoporous graphene as a highly active catalyst for hydrogen evolution. Adv. Funct. Mater. 23 (2013), 5326–5333.
63. 63 Yan, Y., Ge, X.M., Liu, Z.L., Wang, J.Y., Lee, J.M., Wang, X., Facile synthesis of low crystalline MoS2 nanosheet-coated CNTs for enhanced hydrogen evolution reaction. Nanoscale 5 (2013), 7768–7771.
64. 64 Chang, Y.H., Lin, C.T., Chen, T.Y., Hsu, C.L., Lee, Y.H., Zhang, W.J., Wei, K.H., Li, L.J., Highly efficient electrocatalytic hydrogen production by MoSx grown on graphene-protected 3D Ni foams. Adv. Mater. 25 (2013), 756–760.
65. 65 Merki, D., Fierro, S., Vrubel, H., Hu, X.L., Amorphous molybdenum sulfide films as catalysts for electrochemical hydrogen production in water. Chem. Sci. 2 (2011), 1262–1267.
66. 66 Vrubel, H., Hu, X.L., Growth and activation of an amorphous molybdenum sulfide hydrogen evolving catalyst. ACS Catal. 3 (2013), 2002–2011.
67. 67 Merki, D., Vrubel, H., Rovelli, L., Fierro, S., Hu, X.L., Fe, Co, and Ni ions promote the catalytic activity of amorphous molybdenum sulfide films for hydrogen evolution. Chem. Sci. 3 (2012), 2515–2525.
68. 68 Saadi, F.H., Carim, A.I., Velazquez, J.M., Baricuatro, J.H., McCrory, C.C.L., Soriaga, M.P., Lewis, N.S., Operand synthesis of macroporous molybdenum diselenide films for electrocatalysis of the hydrogen-evolution reaction. ACS Catal. 4 (2014), 2866–2873.
69. 69 Benck, J.D., Chen, Z.B., Kuritzky, L.Y., Forman, A.J., Jaramillo, T.F., Amorphous molybdenum sulfide catalysts for electrochemical hydrogen production: insights into the origin of their catalytic activity. ACS Catal. 2 (2012), 1916–1923.
70. 70 Vrubel, H., Merki, D., Hu, X.L., Hydrogen evolution catalyzed by MoS3 and MoS2 particles. Energy Environ. Sci. 5 (2012), 6136–6144.
71. 71 Huang, Y.F., Nielsen, R.J., Goddard, W.A., Soriaga, M.P., The reaction mechanism with free energy barriers for electrochemical dihydrogen evolution on MoS2. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137 (2015), 6692–6698.
72. 72 Tran, P.D., Tran, T.V., Orio, M., Torelli, S., Truong, Q.D., Nayuki, K., Sasaki, Y., Chiam, S.Y., Yi, R., Honma, I., et al. Coordination polymer structure and revisited hydrogen evolution catalytic mechanism for amorphous molybdenum sulfide. Nat. Mater., 15, 2016, 640.
73. 73 Lassalle-Kaiser, B., Merki, D., Vrubel, H., Gul, S., Yachandra, V.K., Hu, X.L., Yano, J., Evidence from in Situ X-ray absorption spectroscopy for the involvement of terminal disulfide in the reduction of protons by an amorphous molybdenum sulfide electrocatalyst. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 137 (2015), 314–321.
74. 74 Karunadasa, H.I., Montalvo, E., Sun, Y.J., Majda, M., Long, J.R., Chang, C.J., A molecular MoS2 edge site mimic for catalytic hydrogen generation. Science 335 (2012), 698–702.
75. 75 Huang, Z., Luo, W., Ma, L., Yu, M., Ren, X., He, M., Polen, S., Click, K., Garrett, B., Lu, J., et al. Dimeric [Mo2S12]2− cluster: a molecular analogue of MoS2 edges for superior hydrogen-evolution electrocatalysis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 54 (2015), 15181–15185.
76. 76 Kibsgaard, J., Jaramillo, T.F., Besenbacher, F., Building an appropriate active-site motif into a hydrogen-evolution catalyst with thiomolybdate [Mo3S13](2−) clusters. Nat. Chem. 6 (2014), 248–253.
77. 77 Zhang, X.W., Meng, F., Mao, S., Ding, Q., Shearer, M.J., Faber, M.S., Chen, J.H., Hamers, R.J., Jin, S., Amorphous MoSxCly electrocatalyst supported by vertical graphene for efficient electrochemical and photoelectrochemical hydrogen generation. Energy Environ. Sci. 8 (2015), 862–868.
78. 78 Ding, Q., Meng, F., English, C.R., Caban-Acevedo, M., Shearer, M.J., Liang, D., Daniel, A.S., Hamers, R.J., Jin, S., Efficient photoelectrochemical hydrogen generation using heterostructures of Si and chemically exfoliated metallic MoS2. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014), 8504–8507.
79. 79 Gong, Q., Cheng, L., Liu, C., Zhang, M., Feng, Q., Ye, H., Zeng, M., Xie, L., Liu, Z., Li, Y., Ultrathin MoS2(1–x)Se2x alloy nanoflakes for electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction. ACS Catal. 5 (2015), 2213–2219.
80. 80 Xu, K., Wang, F., Wang, Z., Zhan, X., Wang, Q., Cheng, Z., Safdar, M., He, J., Component-controllable WS2(1–x)Se2x nanotubes for efficient hydrogen evolution reaction. ACS Nano 8 (2014), 8468–8476.
81. 81 Chen, Y., Tran, P.D., Boix, P., Ren, Y., Chiam, S.Y., Li, Z., Fu, K., Wong, L.H., Barber, J., Silicon decorated with amorphous cobalt molybdenum sulfide catalyst as an efficient photocathode for solar hydrogen generation. ACS Nano 9 (2015), 3829–3836.
82. 82 Tran, P.D., Chiam, S.Y., Boix, P.P., Ren, Y., Pramana, S.S., Fize, J., Artero, V., Barber, J., Novel cobalt/nickel-tungsten-sulfide catalysts for electrocatalytic hydrogen generation from water. Energy Environ. Sci. 6 (2013), 2452–2459.
83. 83 Staszak-Jirkovsky, J., Malliakas, C.D., Lopes, P.P., Danilovic, N., Kota, S.S., Chang, K.C., Genorio, B., Strmcnik, D., Stamenkovic, V.R., Kanatzidis, M.G., et al. Design of active and stable Co-Mo-Sx chalcogels as pH-universal catalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction. Nat. Mater. 15 (2016), 197–203.
84. 84 Warren, E.L., Atwater, H.A., Lewis, N.S., Silicon microwire arrays for solar energy-conversion applications. J. Phys. Chem. C 118 (2014), 747–759.
85. 85 Liu, C., Dasgupta, N.P., Yang, P., Semiconductor nanowires for artificial photosynthesis. Chem. Mater. 26 (2014), 415–422.
86. 86 Li, L., Yu, Y., Meng, F., Tan, Y., Hamers, R.J., Jin, S., Facile solution synthesis of a-FeF3.3H2O nanowires and their conversion to a-Fe2O3 nanowires for photoelectrochemical application. Nano Lett. 12 (2012), 724–731.
87. 87 Wang, H.P., Lin, T.Y., Hsu, C.W., Tsai, M.L., Huang, C.H., Wei, W.R., Huang, M.Y., Chien, Y.J., Yang, P.C., Liu, C.W., et al. Realizing high-efficiency omnidirectional n-type Si solar cells via the hierarchical architecture concept with radial junctions. ACS Nano 7 (2013), 9325–9335.
88. 88 Zong, X., Yan, H., Wu, G., Ma, G., Wen, F., Wang, L., Li, C., Enhancement of photocatalytic H2 evolution on CdS by loading MoS2 as cocatalyst under visible light irradiation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130 (2008), 7176–7177.
89. 89 Reece, S.Y., Hamel, J.A., Sung, K., Jarvi, T.D., Esswein, A.J., Pijpers, J.J.H., Nocera, D.G., Wireless solar water splitting using silicon-based semiconductors and earth-abundant catalysts. Science 334 (2011), 645–648.
90. 90 Boettcher, S.W., Spurgeon, J.M., Putnam, M.C., Warren, E.L., Turner-Evans, D.B., Kelzenberg, M.D., Maiolo, J.R., Atwater, H.A., Lewis, N.S., Energy-conversion properties of vapor-liquid-solid-grown silicon wire-array photocathodes. Science 327 (2010), 185–187.
91. 91 Sun, K., Shen, S., Liang, Y., Burrows, P.E., Mao, S.S., Wang, D., Enabling silicon for solar-fuel production. Chem. Rev. 114 (2014), 8662–8719.
92. 92 Hou, Y.D., Abrams, B.L., Vesborg, P.C.K., Bjorketun, M.E., Herbst, K., Bech, L., Setti, A.M., Damsgaard, C.D., Pedersen, T., Hansen, O., et al. Bioinspired molecular co-catalysts bonded to a silicon photocathode for solar hydrogen evolution. Nat. Mater. 10 (2011), 434–438.
93. 93 Boettcher, S.W., Warren, E.L., Putnam, M.C., Santori, E.A., Turner-Evans, D., Kelzenberg, M.D., Walter, M.G., McKone, J.R., Brunschwig, B.S., Atwater, H.A., et al. Photoelectrochemical hydrogen evolution using Si microwire arrays. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 133 (2011), 1216–1219.
94. 94 Kelzenberg, M.D., Boettcher, S.W., Petykiewicz, J.A., Turner-Evans, D.B., Putnam, M.C., Warren, E.L., Spurgeon, J.M., Briggs, R.M., Lewis, N.S., Atwater, H.A., Enhanced absorption and carrier collection in Si wire arrays for photovoltaic applications. Nat. Mater., 9, 2010, 368.
95. 95 McKone, J.R., Warren, E.L., Bierman, M.J., Boettcher, S.W., Brunschwig, B.S., Lewis, N.S., Gray, H.B., Evaluation of Pt, Ni, and Ni-Mo electrocatalysts for hydrogen evolution on crystalline Si electrodes. Energy Environ. Sci. 4 (2011), 3573–3583.
96. 96 Warren, E.L., McKone, J.R., Atwater, H.A., Gray, H.B., Lewis, N.S., Hydrogen-evolution characteristics of Ni-Mo-coated, radial junction, n(+)p-silicon microwire array photocathodes. Energy Environ. Sci. 5 (2012), 9653–9661.
97. 97 Ding, Q., Zhai, J.Y., Caban-Acevedo, M., Shearer, M.J., Li, L.S., Chang, H.C., Tsai, M.L., Ma, D.W., Zhang, X.W., Hamers, R.J., et al. Designing efficient solar-driven hydrogen evolution photocathodes using semitransparent MoQ(x)Cl(y) (Q = S, Se) catalysts on Si micropyramids. Adv. Mater. 27 (2015), 6511–6518.
98. 98 Seger, B., Laursen, A.B., Vesborg, P.C.K., Pedersen, T., Hansen, O., Dahl, S., Chorkendorff, I., Hydrogen production using a molybdenum sulfide catalyst on a titanium-protected n plus p-silicon photocathode. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 51 (2012), 9128–9131.
99. 99 Benck, J.D., Lee, S.C., Fong, K.D., Kibsgaard, J., Sinclair, R., Jaramillo, T.F., Designing active and stable silicon photocathodes for solar hydrogen production using molybdenum sulfide nanomaterials. Adv. Energy Mater., 4, 2014, 1400739.
100. 100 Morales-Guio, C.G., Tilley, S.D., Vrubel, H., Gratzel, M., Hu, X.L., Hydrogen evolution from a copper(I) oxide photocathode coated with an amorphous molybdenum sulphide catalyst. Nat. Commun., 5, 2014, 3059.
101. 101 Morales-Guio, C.G., Liardet, L., Mayer, M.T., Tilley, S.D., Gratzel, M., Hu, X.L., Photoelectrochemical hydrogen production in alkaline solutions using Cu2O coated with earth-abundant hydrogen evolution catalysts. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 54 (2015), 664–667.
102. 102 Gao, L., Cui, Y.C., Wang, J., Cavalli, A., Standing, A., Vu, T.T.T., Verheijen, M.A., Haverkort, J.E.M., Bakkers, E.P.A.M., Notten, P.H.L., Photoelectrochemical hydrogen production on InP nanowire arrays with molybdenum sulfide electrocatalysts. Nano Lett. 14 (2014), 3715–3719.
103. 103 Standing, A., Assali, S., Gao, L., Verheijen, M.A., van Dam, D., Cui, Y.C., Notten, P.H.L., Haverkort, J.E.M., Bakkers, E.P.A.M., Efficient water reduction with gallium phosphide nanowires. Nat. Commun., 6, 2015, 7824.
104. 104 Britto, R.J., Benck, J.D., Young, J.L., Hahn, C., Deutsch, T.G., Jaramillo, T.F., Molybdenum disulfide as a protection layer and catalyst for gallium indium phosphide solar water splitting photocathodes. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 7 (2016), 2044–2049.
105. 105 Zhang, H., Ding, Q., He, D., Liu, H., Liu, W., Li, Z., Yang, B., Zhang, X., Lei, L., Jin, S., p-Si/NiCoSex core/shell nanopillar array photocathode for enhanced photoelectrochemical hydrogen production. Energy Environ. Sci. 9 (2016), 3113–3119.
106. 106 Unold, T., Schock, H.W., Nonconventional (non-silicon-based) photovoltaic materials. Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 41 (2011), 297–321.
107. 107 Caban-Acevedo, M., Kaiser, N.S., English, C.R., Liang, D., Thompson, B.J., Chen, H.-E., Czech, K.J., Wright, J.C., Hamers, R.J., Jin, S., Ionization of high-density deep donor defect states explains the low photovoltage of iron pyrite single crystals. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 136 (2014), 17163–17179.