Traditional marijuana, high-potency cannabis and synthetic cannabinoids: increasing risk for psychosis

World Psychiatry

Volumn 15, Issue 3, 2016, Pages 195-204

  Murray, Robin M ^a   Quigley, Harriet ^a   Quattrone, Diego ^a   Englund, Amir ^a   Di Forti, Marta ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

brain structure; Cannabis; cognitive function; early adolescence; genetic predisposition; marijuana; psychosis; synthetic cannabinoids

Indexed keywords

AMISULPRIDE; CANNABIDIOL; CANNABINOID; CANNABIS; CLOZAPINE; DOPAMINE; NABIXIMOLS; TETRAHYDROCANNABINOL;

ADOLESCENCE; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; CANNABIS ADDICTION; CANNABIS USE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DOPAMINE RELEASE; EPILEPSY; EVIDENCE BASED MEDICINE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; INTOXICATION; MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS; MUSCLE SPASM; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NEUROPATHY; NONHUMAN; PAIN; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSIS; PUBLIC HEALTH MESSAGE; RECURRENCE RISK; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCHIZOPHRENIA; VULNERABLE POPULATION;

EID: 84988351583     PISSN: 17238617     EISSN: 20515545     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/wps.20341     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Room R. Cannabis policy: moving beyond stalemate. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.
2. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. World drug report 2015. New York: United Nations, 2015.
3. Room R. Legalizing a market for cannabis for pleasure: Colorado, Washington, Uruguay and beyond. Addiction 2014;109:345-51.
4. Hanus LO. Pharmacological and therapeutic secrets of plant and brain (endo)cannabinoids. Med Res Rev 2009;29:213-71.
5. Mechoulam R, Parker LA. The endocannabinoid system and the brain. Annu Rev Psychol 2013;64:21-47.
6. Howlett AC, Bidaut-Russell M, Devane WA et al. The cannabinoid receptor: biochemical, anatomical and behavioral characterization. Trends Neurosci 1990;13:420-3.
7. Katona I, Freund TF. Multiple functions of endocannabinoid signaling in the brain. Annu Rev Neurosci 2012;35:529-58.
8. Piomelli D. The molecular logic of endocannabinoid signalling. Nat Rev Neurosci 2003;4:873-84.
9. Pertwee RG. The diverse CB1 and CB2 receptor pharmacology of three plant cannabinoids: delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and delta9-tetrahydrocannabivarin. Br J Pharmacol 2008;153:199-215.
10. Lutz B. On-demand activation of the endocannabinoid system in the control of neuronal excitability and epileptiform seizures. Biochem Pharmacol 2004;68:1691-8.
11. Bocker KB, Gerritsen J, Hunault CC et al. Cannabis with high delta9-THC contents affects perception and visual selective attention acutely: an event-related potential study. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2010;96:67-74.
12. D'Souza DC, Fridberg DJ, Skosnik PD et al. Dose-related modulation of event-related potentials to novel and target stimuli by intravenous Delta(9)-THC in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;37:1632-46.
13. Ilan AB, Gevins A, Coleman M et al. Neurophysiological and subjective profile of marijuana with varying concentrations of cannabinoids. Behav Pharmacol 2005;16:487-96.
14. Murray RM, Morrison PD, Henquet C et al. Cannabis, the mind and society: the hash realities. Nat Rev Neurosci 2007;8:885-95.
15. Morrison PD, Nottage J, Stone JM et al. Disruption of frontal theta coherence by Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol is associated with positive psychotic symptoms. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:827-36.
16. Morgan CJ, Page E, Schaefer C et al. Cerebrospinal fluid anandamide levels, cannabis use and psychotic-like symptoms. Br J Psychiatry 2013;202:381-2.
17. Miller LL, Cornett TL. Marijuana: dose effects on pulse rate, subjective estimates of intoxication, free recall and recognition memory. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1978;9:573-7.
18. Tinklenberg J, Melges F, Hollister L et al. Marijuana and immediate memory. Nature 1970;226:1171-2.
19. Morrison PD, Zois V, McKeown DA et al. The acute effects of synthetic intravenous Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on psychosis, mood and cognitive functioning. Psychol Med 2009;39:1607-16.
20. Hart CL, Ilan AB, Gevins A et al. Neurophysiological and cognitive effects of smoked marijuana in frequent users. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2010;96:333-41.
21. Nordstrom BR, Hart CL. Assessing cognitive functioning in cannabis users: cannabis use history an important consideration. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006;31:2798-9.
22. Schoeler T, Bhattacharyya S. The effect of cannabis use on memory function: an update. Subst Abuse Rehabil 2013;4:11-27.
23. Hall W. What has research over the past two decades revealed about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use? Addiction 2015;110:19-35.
24. D'Souza DC, Abi-Saab WM, Madonick S et al. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol effects in schizophrenia: implications for cognition, psychosis, and addiction. Biol Psychiatry 2005;57:594-608.
25. D'Souza DC, Ranganathan M, Braley G et al. Blunted psychotomimetic and amnestic effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in frequent users of cannabis. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008;33:2505-16.
26. Freeman D, Dunn G, Murray RM et al. How cannabis causes paranoia: using the intravenous administration of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to identify key cognitive mechanisms leading to paranoia. Schizophr Bull 2015;41:391-9.
27. Bisogno T, Hanus L, De Petrocellis L et al. Molecular targets for cannabidiol and its synthetic analogues: effect on vanilloid VR1 receptors and on the cellular uptake and enzymatic hydrolysis of anandamide. Br J Pharmacol 2001;134:845-52.
28. Thomas A, Ross RA, Saha B et al. 6“-Azidohex-2”-yne-cannabidiol: a potential neutral, competitive cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist. Eur J Pharmacol 2004;487:213-21.
29. Thomas A, Baillie GL, Phillips AM et al. Cannabidiol displays unexpectedly high potency as an antagonist of CB1 and CB2 receptor agonists in vitro. Br J Pharmacol 2007;150:613-23.
30. McPartland JM, Duncan M, Di Marzo V et al. Are cannabidiol and Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabivarin negative modulators of the endocannabinoid system? A systematic review. Br J Pharmacol 2015;172:737-53.
31. Karniol IG, Shirakawa I, Kasinski N et al. Cannabidiol interferes with the effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in man. Eur J Pharmacol 1974;28:172-7.
32. Zuardi AW, Shirakawa I, Finkelfarb E et al. Action of cannabidiol on the anxiety and other effects produced by delta 9-THC in normal subjects. Psychopharmacology 1982;76:245-50.
33. Hindocha C, Freeman TP, Schafer G et al. Acute effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol and their combination on facial emotion recognition: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in cannabis users. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015;25:325-34.
34. Leweke FM, Schneider U, Radwan M et al. Different effects of nabilone and cannabidiol on binocular depth inversion in man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2000;66:175-81.
35. Englund A, Morrison PD, Nottage J et al. Cannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairment. J Psychopharmacol 2013;27:19-27.
36. Potter DJ. A review of the cultivation and processing of cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) for production of prescription medicines in the UK. Drug Test Anal 2014;6:31-8.
37. Hardwick S, King LA. Home Office cannabis potency study 2008. St. Albans: Home Office Scientific Development Branch, 2008.
38. Pijlman FT, Rigter SM, Hoek J et al. Strong increase in total delta-THC in cannabis preparations sold in Dutch coffee shops. Addict Biol 2005;10:171-80.
39. Swift W, Wong A, Li KM et al. Analysis of cannabis seizures in NSW, Australia: cannabis potency and cannabinoid profile. PLoS One 2013;8:e70052.
40. ElSohly MA, Mehmedic Z, Foster S et al. Changes in cannabis potency over the last 2 decades (1995-2014): analysis of current data in the United States. Biol Psychiatry 2016;79:613-9.
41. Seely KA, Lapoint J, Moran JH et al. Spice drugs are more than harmless herbal blends: a review of the pharmacology and toxicology of synthetic cannabinoids. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2012;39:234-43.
42. Spaderna M, Addy PH, D'Souza DC. Spicing things up: synthetic cannabinoids. Psychopharmacology 2013;228:525-40.
43. European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction. European drug report 2016. Lisbon: European Monitoring Center for Drugs and Drug Addiction, 2016.
44. Tait RJ, Caldicott D, Mountain D et al. A systematic review of adverse events arising from the use of synthetic cannabinoids and their associated treatment. Clin Toxicol 2016;54:1-13.
45. Winstock A, Lynskey M, Borschmann R, et al. Risk of emergency medical treatment following consumption of cannabis or synthetic cannabinoids in a large global sample. J Psychopharmacol 2015;29:698-703.
46. Schifano F, Orsolini L, Duccio Papanti G et al. Novel psychoactive substances of interest for psychiatry. World Psychiatry 2015;14:15-26.
47. Clouston TS. The Cairo Asylum − Dr. Warnock on hasheesh insanity. Br J Psychiatry 1896;42:790-5.
48. Andréasson S, Engström A, Allebeck P et al. Cannabis and schizophrenia. A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet 1987;330:1483-6.
49. Anonymous. Deglamorising cannabis. Lancet 1995;346:1241.
50. Gage SH, Hickman M, Zammit S. Association between cannabis and psychosis: epidemiologic evidence. Biol Psychiatry 2016;79:549-56.
51. Murray RM, Di Forti M. Cannabis and psychosis: what degree of proof do we require? Biol Psychiatry 2016;79:514-5.
52. Tien AY, Anthony JC. Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences. J Nerv Ment Dis 1990;178:473-80.
53. Zammit S, Allebeck P, Andréasson S et al. Self reported cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia in Swedish conscripts of 1969: historical cohort study. BMJ 2002;325:1199.
54. Manrique-Garcia E, Zammit S, Dalman C et al. Cannabis, schizophrenia and other non-affective psychoses: 35 years of follow-up of a population-based cohort. Psychol Med 2012;42:1321-8.
55. van Os J, Bak M, Hanssen M et al. Cannabis use and psychosis: a longitudinal population-based study. Am J Epidemiol 2002;156:319-27.
56. Weiser M, Knobler HY, Noy S et al. Clinical characteristics of adolescents later hospitalized for schizophrenia. Am J Med Genet 2002;114:949-55.
57. Fergusson DM, Horwood LJ, Swain-Campbell NR. Cannabis dependence and psychotic symptoms in young people. Psychol Med 2003;33:15-21.
58. Arseneault L, Cannon M, Poulton R et al. Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study. BMJ 2002;325:1212-3.
59. Ferdinand RF, Sondeijker F, van der Ende J et al. Cannabis use predicts future psychotic symptoms, and vice versa. Addiction 2005;100:612-8.
60. Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J et al. Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people. BMJ 2005;330:11.
61. Wiles NJ, Zammit S, Bebbington P et al. Self-reported psychotic symptoms in the general population: results from the longitudinal study of the British National Psychiatric Morbidity Survey. Br J Psychiatry 2006;188:519-26.
62. Rössler W, Hengartner MP, Angst J et al. Linking substance use with symptoms of subclinical psychosis in a community cohort over 30 years. Addiction 2012;107:1174-84.
63. Gage SH, Hickman M, Heron J et al. Associations of cannabis and cigarette use with psychotic experiences at age 18: findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Psychol Med 2014;44:3435-44.
64. Rognli EB, Berge J, Håkansson A et al. Long-term risk factors for substance-induced and primary psychosis after release from prison. A longitudinal study of substance users. Schizophr Res 2015;168:185-90.
65. Marconi A, Di Forti M, Lewis CM et al. Meta-analysis of the association between the level of cannabis use and risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2016;42:1262-9.
66. Di Forti M, Marconi A, Carra E et al. Proportion of patients in south London with first-episode psychosis attributable to use of high potency cannabis: a case-control study. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2:233-8.
67. Di Forti M, Morgan C, Dazzan P et al. High-potency cannabis and the risk of psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 2009;195:488-91.
68. Di Forti M, Sallis H, Allegri F et al. Daily use, especially of high-potency cannabis, drives the earlier onset of psychosis in cannabis users. Schizophr Bull 2014;40:1509-17.
69. Schubart CD, Sommer IE, van Gastel WA et al. Cannabis with high cannabidiol content is associated with fewer psychotic experiences. Schizophr Res 2011;130:216-21.
70. Morgan CJ, Curran HV. Effects of cannabidiol on schizophrenia-like symptoms in people who use cannabis. Br J Psychiatry 2008;192:306-7.
71. Pierre JM, Gandal M, Son M. Cannabis-induced psychosis associated with high potency “wax dabs”. Schizophr Res 2016;172:211-2.
72. Castaneto MS, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA et al. Synthetic cannabinoids: epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014;144:12-41.
73. Papanti D, Schifano F, Botteon G et al. “Spiceophrenia”: a systematic overview of “spice”-related psychopathological issues and a case report. Hum Psychopharmacol 2013;28:379-89.
74. Fattore L. Synthetic cannabinoids − further evidence supporting the relationship between cannabinoids and psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 2016;79:539-48.
75. Large M, Sharma S, Compton MT et al. Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: a systematic meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011;68:555-61.
76. Loberg EM, Helle S, Nygard M et al. The cannabis pathway to non-affective psychosis may reflect less neurobiological vulnerability. Front Psychiatry 2014;5:159.
77. Arnold C, Allott K, Farhall J et al. Neurocognitive and social cognitive predictors of cannabis use in first-episode psychosis. Schizophr Res 2015;168:231-7.
78. Ferraro L, Russo M, O'Connor J et al. Cannabis users have higher premorbid IQ than other patients with first onset psychosis. Schizophr Res 2013;150:129-35.
79. Ruiz-Veguilla M, Callado LF, Ferrin M. Neurological soft signs in patients with psychosis and cannabis abuse: a systematic review and meta-analysis of paradox. Curr Pharm Des 2012;18:5156-64.
80. Ksir C, Hart CL. Cannabis and psychosis: a critical overview of the relationship. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2016;18:12.
81. Hill M. Perspective: Be clear about the real risks. Nature 2015;525:S14.
82. Haney M, Evins AE. Does cannabis cause, exacerbate or ameliorate psychiatric disorders? An oversimplified debate discussed. Neuropsychopharmacology 2016;41:393-401.
83. Fergusson DM, Boden JM, Horwood LJ. Psychosocial sequelae of cannabis use and implications for policy: findings from the Christchurch Health and Development Study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2015;50:1317-26.
84. Bianconi F, Bonomo M, Marconi A et al. Differences in cannabis-related experiences between patients with a first episode of psychosis and controls. Psychol Med 2016;46:995-1003.
85. Boydell J, van Os J, Caspi A et al. Trends in cannabis use prior to first presentation with schizophrenia, in South-East London between 1965 and 1999. Psychol Med 2006;36:1441-6.
86. Ksir C, Hart CL. Correlation still does not imply causation. Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3:401.
87. McGuire PK, Jones P, Harvey I et al. Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis. Schizophr Res 1995;15:277-81.
88. Power RA, Verweij KJ, Zuhair M et al. Genetic predisposition to schizophrenia associated with increased use of cannabis. Mol Psychiatry 2014;19:1201-4.
89. Gage SH, Munafò MR, MacLeod J et al. Cannabis and psychosis. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2:380.
90. Di Forti M, Vassos E, Lynskey M et al. Cannabis and psychosis - Authors' reply. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2:382.
91. Martin AK, Robinson G, Reutens D et al. Cannabis abuse and age at onset in schizophrenia patients with large, rare copy number variants. Schizophr Res 2014;155:21-5.
92. Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M et al. Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: longitudinal evidence of a gene x environment interaction. Biol Psychiatry 2005;57:1117-27.
93. Tunbridge EM, Dunn G, Murray RM et al. Genetic moderation of the effects of cannabis: catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) affects the impact of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on working memory performance but not on the occurrence of psychotic experiences. J Psychopharmacol 2015;29:1146-51.
94. van Winkel R, van Beveren NJ, Simons C. AKT1 moderation of cannabis-induced cognitive alterations in psychotic disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2011;36:2529-37.
95. Di Forti M, Iyegbe C, Sallis H et al. Confirmation that the AKT1 (rs2494732) genotype influences the risk of psychosis in cannabis users. Biol Psychiatry 2012;72:811-6.
96. Morgan CJ, Freeman TP, Powell J et al. AKT1 genotype moderates the acute psychotomimetic effects of naturalistically smoked cannabis in young cannabis smokers. Transl Psychiatry 2016;6:e738.
97. Colizzi M, Iyegbe C, Powell J et al. Interaction between functional genetic variation of DRD2 and cannabis use on risk of psychosis. Schizophr Bull 2015;41:1171-82.
98. Gill KE, Poe L, Azimov N et al. Reasons for cannabis use among youths at ultra high risk for psychosis. Early Interv Psychiatry 2015;9:207-10.
99. Bossong MG, Mehta MA, van Berckel BN et al. Further human evidence for striatal dopamine release induced by administration of 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): selectivity to limbic striatum. Psychopharmacology 2015;232:2723-9.
100. Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Telang F et al. Decreased dopamine brain reactivity in marijuana abusers is associated with negative emotionality and addiction severity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2014;111:E3149-56.
101. Murray RM, Mehta M, Di Forti M. Different dopaminergic abnormalities underlie cannabis dependence and cannabis-induced psychosis. Biol Psychiatry 2014;75:430-1.
102. Ginovart N, Tournier BB, Moulin-Sallanon M, et al. Chronic Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure induces a sensitization of dopamine D(2)/(3) receptors in the mesoaccumbens and nigrostriatal systems. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012;37:2355-67.
103. Schoeler T, Monk A, Sami MB et al. Continued versus discontinued cannabis use in patients with psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3:215-25.
104. Brunette MF, Dawson R, O'Keefe CD et al. A randomized trial of clozapine vs. other antipsychotics for cannabis use disorder in patients with schizophrenia. J Dual Diagn 2011;7:50-63.
105. Budney AJ, Roffman R, Stephens RS et al. Marijuana dependence and its treatment. Addict Sci Clin Pract 2007;4:4-16.
106. Lopez-Quintero C, Perez de los Cobos J, Hasin DS et al. Probability and predictors of transition from first use to dependence on nicotine, alcohol, cannabis, and cocaine: results of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Drug Alcohol Depend 2011;115:120-30.
107. Anthony J. The epidemiology of cannabis dependence. In: Roffman RA, Stephens RS (eds). Cannabis dependence: its nature, consequences and treatment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006:58-105.
108. Health & Social Care Information Centre. Statistics on drug misuse. England 2014. London: Health & Social Care Information Centre, 2014.
109. Freeman T, Winstock A. Examining the profile of high-potency cannabis and its association with severity of cannabis dependence. Psychol Med 2015;45:3181-9.
110. Toftdahl NG, Nordentoft M, Hjorthøj C. Prevalence of substance use disorders in psychiatric patients: a nationwide Danish population-based study. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2016;51:129-40.
111. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. The relationship between cannabis use, depression and anxiety among Australian adults: findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2001;36:219-27.
112. Feingold D, Weiser M, Rehm J et al. The association between cannabis use and anxiety disorders: results from a population-based representative sample. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2016;26:493-505.
113. Kedzior KK, Laeber LT. A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population − a meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry 2014;14:1-22.
114. Chen C-Y, Wagner AF, Anthony CJ. Marijuana use and the risk of major depressive episode. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2002;37:199-206.
115. Feingold D, Weiser M, Rehm J et al. The association between cannabis use and mood disorders: a longitudinal study. J Affect Disord 2015;172:211-8.
116. Crippa JA, Zuardi AW, Martín-Santos R et al. Cannabis and anxiety: a critical review of the evidence. Hum Psychopharmacol 2009;24:515-23.
117. Manrique-Garcia E, Zammit S, Dalman C et al. Cannabis use and depression: a longitudinal study of a national cohort of Swedish conscripts. BMC Psychiatry 2012;12:112.
118. Degenhardt L, Hall W, Lynskey M. Exploring the association between cannabis use and depression. Addiction 2003;98:1493-504.
119. Moore THM, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 2007;370:319-28.
120. Lev-Ran S, Roerecke M, Le Foll B et al. The association between cannabis use and depression: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychol Med 2014;44:797-810.
121. Blanco C, Hasin DS, Wall MM et al. Cannabis use and risk of psychiatric disorders: prospective evidence from a US national longitudinal study. JAMA Psychiatry 2016;73:388-95.
122. Cougle JR, Bonn-Miller MO, Vujanovic AA et al. Posttraumatic stress disorder and cannabis use in a nationally representative sample. Psychol Addict Behav 2011;25:554-8.
123. Kevorkian S, Bonn-Miller MO, Belendiuk K et al. Associations among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, cannabis use, and cannabis use disorder in a nationally representative epidemiologic sample. Psychol Addict Behav 2015;29:633-8.
124. Kilpatrick DG, Acierno R, Saunders B et al. Risk factors for adolescent substance abuse and dependence: data from a national sample. J Consult Clin Psychol 2000;68:19-30.
125. Chilcoat HD, Breslau N. Posttraumatic stress disorder and drug disorders: testing causal pathways. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1998;55:913-7.
126. Vlahov D, Galea S, Resnick H et al. Increased use of cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana among Manhattan, New York, residents after the September 11th terrorist attacks. Am J Epidemiol 2002;155:988-96.
127. Notzon DP, Pavlicova M, Glass A et al. ADHD is highly prevalent in patients seeking treatment for cannabis use disorders. J Atten Disord (in press).
128. Fergusson DM, Boden JM. Cannabis use and adult ADHD symptoms. Drug Alcohol Depend 2008;95:90-6.
129. Chang Z, Lichtenstein P, Larsson H. The effects of childhood ADHD symptoms on early-onset substance use: a Swedish twin study. J Abnorm Child Psychol 2012;40:425-35.
130. Experimental Medicine in ADHD − Cannabinoids (EMA-C). https://clinicaltrials.gov/.
131. Weiland BJ, Thayer RE, Depue BE et al. Daily marijuana use is not associated with brain morphometric measures in adolescents or adults. J Neurosci 2015;35:1505-12.
132. French L, Gray C, Leonard G et al. Early cannabis use, polygenic risk score for schizophrenia and brain maturation in adolescence. JAMA Psychiatry 2015;72:1002-11.
133. Pagliaccio D, Barch DM, Bogdan R et al. Shared predisposition in the association between cannabis use and subcortical brain structure. JAMA Psychiatry 2015;72:994-1001.
134. Yucel M, Lorenzetti V, Suo C et al. Hippocampal harms, protection and recovery following regular cannabis use. Transl Psychiatry 2016;6:e710.
135. Demirakca T, Sartorius A, Ende G et al. Diminished gray matter in the hippocampus of cannabis users: possible protective effects of cannabidiol. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011;114:242-5.
136. Rigucci S, Marques TR, Di Forti M et al. Effect of high-potency cannabis on corpus callosum microstructure. Psychol Med 2016;46:841-54.
137. Schoeler T, Kambeitz J, Behlke I et al. The effects of cannabis on memory function in users with and without a psychotic disorder: findings from a combined meta-analysis. Psychol Med 2016;46:177-88.
138. Volkow ND, Swanson JM, Evins AE et al. Effects of cannabis use on human behavior, including cognition, motivation, and psychosis: a review. JAMA Psychiatry 2016;73:292-7.
139. Meier MH, Caspi A, Ambler A, et al. Persistent cannabis users show neuropsychological decline from childhood to midlife. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2012;109:E2657-64.
140. Mokrysz C, Landy R, Gage SH et al. Are IQ and educational outcomes in teenagers related to their cannabis use? A prospective cohort study. J Psychopharmacol 2016;30:159-68.
141. Jackson NJ, Isen JD, Khoddam R et al. Impact of adolescent marijuana use on intelligence: results from two longitudinal twin studies. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2016;113:E500-8.
142. Auer R, Vittinghoff E, Yaffe K et al. association between lifetime marijuana use and cognitive function in middle age: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. JAMA Intern Med 2016;176:352-61.
143. Hall W, Lynskey M. Long-term marijuana use and cognitive impairment in middle age. JAMA Intern Med 2016;176:362-3.
144. Schreiner AM, Dunn ME. Residual effects of cannabis use on neurocognitive performance after prolonged abstinence: a meta-analysis. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2012;20:420-9.
145. Morgan CJ, Schafer G, Freeman TP et al. Impact of cannabidiol on the acute memory and psychotomimetic effects of smoked cannabis: naturalistic study. Br J Psychiatry 2010;197:285-90.
146. Morgan CJ, Gardener C, Schafer G et al. Sub-chronic impact of cannabinoids in street cannabis on cognition, psychotic-like symptoms and psychological well-being. Psychol Med 2012;42:391-400.
147. Pope HG Jr, Gruber AJ, Hudson JI et al. Early-onset cannabis use and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of the association? Drug Alcohol Depend 2003;69:303-10.
148. Meier MH, Hill ML, Small PJ et al. Associations of adolescent cannabis use with academic performance and mental health: a longitudinal study of upper middle class youth. Drug Alcohol Depend 2015;156:207-12.
149. Cerdá M, Moffitt TE, Meier MH et al. Persistent cannabis dependence and alcohol dependence represent risks for midlife economic and social problems: a longitudinal cohort study. Clin Psychol Sci (in press).
150. Silins E, Horwood LJ, Patton GC et al. Young adult sequelae of adolescent cannabis use: an integrative analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 2014;1:286-93.
151. Stiby AI, Hickman M, Munafo MR et al. Adolescent cannabis and tobacco use and educational outcomes at age 16: birth cohort study. Addiction 2015;110:658-68.
152. Leweke FM, Piomelli D, Pahlisch F et al. Cannabidiol enhances anandamide signaling and alleviates psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. Transl Psychiatry 2012;2:e94.
153. McGuire P. A double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, parallel group trial of cannabidiol as adjunctive therapy in the first line treatment of schizophrenia or related psychotic disorder. Presented at the 5th Schizophrenia International Research Society Conference, Florence, April 2016.
154. Abrams DI, Jay C, Shade S et al. Cannabis in painful HIV-associated sensory neuropathy. A randomized placebo-controlled trial. Neurology 2007;68:515-21.
155. Andreae MH, Carter GM, Shaparin N et al. Inhaled cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. J Pain 2015;16:1221-32.
156. Patti F, Messina S, Solaro C et al. Efficacy and safety of cannabinoid oromucosal spray for multiple sclerosis spasticity. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2016;87:944-51.
157. Koppel BS, Brust JCM, Fife T et al. Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: Report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 2014;82:1556-63.
158. Brust JC, Ng SK, Hauser AW et al. Marijuana use and the risk of new onset seizures. Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association 1992;103:176-81.
159. Gloss D, Vickrey B. Cannabinoids for epilepsy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;6.
160. Porter BE, Jacobson C. Report of a parent survey of cannabidiol-enriched cannabis use in pediatric treatment-resistant epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2013;29:574-7.
161. Press CA, Knupp KG, Chapman KE. Parental reporting of response to oral cannabis extracts for treatment of refractory epilepsy. Epilepsy Behav 2015;45:49-52.
162. Friedman D, Devinsky O. Cannabinoids in the treatment of epilepsy. N Engl J Med 2015;373:1048-58.
163. Gage SH, Hickman M, Zammit S. Association between cannabis and psychosis: epidemiologic evidence. Biol Psychiatry 2016;79:549-56.
164. Large M. The need for health warnings about cannabis and psychosis. Lancet Psychiatry 2016;3:188-9.
165. Hasin DS, Wall M, Keyes KM et al. Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the USA from 1991 to 2014: results from annual, repeated cross-sectional surveys. Lancet Psychiatry 2015;2:601-8.
166. Shi Y, Lenzi M, An R. Cannabis liberalization and adolescent cannabis use: a cross-national study in 38 countries. PLoS One 2015;10:e0143562.