Pathologies of studying public opinion, political communication, and democratic responsiveness

Political Communication

Volumn 31, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 467-492

  Druckman, James N ^a  

^a NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Opinion formation; Responsiveness

Indexed keywords

EID: 84987932309     PISSN: 10584609     EISSN: 10917675     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10584609.2013.852643     Document Type: Article

References (172)

1. Aaroe, L. (2011). Investigating frame strength: The case of episodic and thematic frames. Political Communication, 28, 207-226
2. Achen, C. (1975). Mass political attitudes and the survey response. American Political Science Review, 69, 1218-1231
3. Althaus, S. (2006). False starts, dead ends, and new opportunities in public opinion research. Critical Review, 18, 75-104
4. Ansolabehere, S., Rodden, J., & Snyder, J. M. (2008). The strength of issues: Using multiple measures to gauge preference stability, ideological constraint, and issue voting. American Political Science Review, 102, 215-232
5. Arceneaux, K. (2012). Cognitive biases and the strength of political arguments. American Journal of Political Science, 56, 271-285
6. Bartels, L. M. (1996). Uninformed votes: Information effects in presidential elections. American Journal of Political Science, 40, 194-230
7. Bartels, L. M. (2002). Beyond the running tally: Partisan bias in political perceptions. Political Behavior, 24, 117-150
8. Bartels, L. M. (2003). Democracy with attitudes. In M. B. MacKuen & G. Rabinowitz (Eds.), Electoral democracy (pp. 48-82). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
9. Bartels, L. M. (2008). Unequal democracy: The political economy of the new gilded age. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
10. Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (2011). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental motivation. In J. Plaks (Ed.), The social psychology of motivation (pp. 2-28). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
11. Benoit, W. L. (2001). The functional approach to presidential television spots: Acclaiming, attacking, defending 1952-2000. Communication Studies, 52, 109-126
12. Bentham, J. (1989). First principles preparatory for the constitutional code. Oxford, England: Clarendon.
13. Berelson, B. R., Lazarsfeld, P. F., & McPhee, W. N. (1954). Voting: A study of opinion formation in a presidential campaign. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
14. Bolsen, T., Druckman, J. N., & Cook, F. L. (2014). The influence of partisan motivated reasoning on public opinion. Political Behavior, 36, 235-262
15. Boninger, D. S., Krosnick, J., & Berent, M. (1995). Origins of attitude importance: Self-interest, social identification, and value relevance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 61-80
16. Borah, P. (2011). Seeking more information and conversations: Influence of competitive frames and motivated processing. Communication Research, 38, 303-325
17. Bowler, S., & Donovan, T. (2011). Electoral competition and the voter. Public Opinion Quarterly, 75, 151-164
18. Brewer, P. R. (2008). Value war: Public opinion and the politics of gay rights. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
19. Bullock, J. G. (2011). Elite influence on public opinion in an informed electorate. American Political Science Review, 105, 496-515
20. Campbell, A. L. (2002). Self-interest, Social Security, and the distinctive participation patterns of senior citizens. American Political Science Review, 96, 565-574
21. Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W., & Stokes, D. (1960). The American voter. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
22. Cappella, J. N, & Jamieson, K. H. (1997). Spirals of cynicism: The press and the public good. New York, NY: Oxford University Press
23. Chapp, C. (2012). Religious rhetoric in American politics: The endurance of civil religion in electoral campaigns. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
24. Chong, D. (2007). The value of information and endorsements. Unpublished manuscript, Northwestern University.
25. Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2007). Framing public opinion in competitive democracies. American Political Science Review, 101, 637
26. Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2010). Dynamic public opinion: Communication effects over time. American Political Science Review, 104, 663-680
27. Chong, D., & Druckman, J. N. (2011). Dynamics in mass communication effects research. In H. Semetko & M. Scammell (Eds.), The Sage handbook of political communication (pp. 238-267). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
28. Converse, P. E. (1990). Popular representation and the distribution of information. In J. A. Ferejohn & J. H. Kuklinski (Eds.), Information and democratic processes (pp. 369-388). Urbana: University of Illinois Press
29. Converse, P. E. (2006a). The nature of beliefs systems in mass publics. Critical Review, 18, 1-74
30. Converse, P. E. (2006b). Democratic theory and reality. Critical Review, 18, 297-329
31. Cutler, F. (1999). Jeremy Bentham and the Public Opinion Tribunal. Public Opinion Quarterly, 63, 321-346
32. Dahl, R. A. (1971). Polyarchy: Participation and opposition. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
33. Delli Carpini, M. X., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans know about politics and why it matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
34. De Vreese, C. H. (2004). Primed by the Euro. Scandinavian Political Studies, 27, 45-65
35. Dewey, J. (2008). The public and its problems. In J. Boydston & B. Walsh (Eds.), John Dewey: The later works, Volume 2: 1925-1927 (pp. 235-372). Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press
36. Disch, L. (2011). Toward a mobilization conception of democratic representation. American Political Science Review, 105, 100-114
37. Disch, L. (2012). Democratic representation and the constituency paradox. Perspectives on Politics, 10, 599-616
38. Disch, L. (2013, June). On the benefits of ‘strategic speech’ for deliberative democracy. Paper presented at the University of British Columbia Workshop on Strategic Uses of Language, Vancouver.
39. Downs, A. (1957). An economic theory of democracy. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.
40. Druckman, J. N. 2001. The implications of framing effects for citizen competence. Political Behavior, 23, 225-256
41. Druckman, J. N. (2003). The power of television images: The first Kennedy-Nixon debate revisited. Journal of Politics, 65, 559-571
42. Druckman, J. N. (2004). Political preference formation: Competition, deliberation, and the (ir)relevance of framing effects. American Political Science Review, 98, 671-686
43. Druckman, J. N. (2010). Competing frames in a political campaign. In B. F. Schaffner & P. J. Sellers (Eds.), Winning with words (pp. 101-120). New York, NY: Routledge.
44. Druckman, J. N., Fein, J., &. Leeper, T. (2012). A source of bias in public opinion stability. American Political Science Review, 106, 430-454
45. Druckman, J. N., Hennessy, C., St. Charles, K., & Webber, J. (2010). Competing rhetoric over time: Frames versus cues. Journal of Politics, 72, 136-148
46. Druckman, J. N., & Jacobs, L. R. (2006). Lumpers and splitters: The public opinion information that politicians use. Public Opinion Quarterly, 70, 453-476
47. Druckman, J. N., & Jacobs, L. R. (2009). Presidential responsiveness to public opinion. In G. C. Edwards II & W. G. Howell (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of the American presidency (pp. 160-181). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
48. Druckman, J. N., Kuklinski, J. H., & Sigelman, L. (2009). The unmet potential of interdisciplinary research: Political psychological approaches to voting and public opinion. Political Behavior, 31, 485-510
49. Druckman, J. N., & Leeper, T. J. (2012). Is public opinion stable? Resolving the micro-macro disconnect in studies of public opinion. Daedalus, 141, 50-68
50. Druckman, J. N., & Miller, J. (2004). The political psychology of electoral campaigns: Introduction to the symposium. Political Psychology, 25, 501-506
51. Druckman, J. N., & Nelson, K. (2003). Framing and deliberation: How citizens’ conversations limit elite influence. American Journal of Political Science, 47, 729-745
52. Druckman, J. N., Peterson, E., & Slothuus, R. (2013). How elite partisan polarization affects public opinion formation. American Political Science Review, 107, 57-79
53. Eagly, A. H, & Chaiken, S. (1993). The psychology of attitudes. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
54. Ecker, H., Ullrich K., Lewandowsky, S., Swire, B., & Chang, D. (2011). Correcting false information in memory: Manipulating the strength of misinformation encoding and its retraction. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 18, 570-578
55. Enns, P. K., & Wlezien, C. (2011). Group opinion and the study of representation. In P. K. Enns & C. Wlezien (Eds.), Who gets represented? (pp. 1-26). New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation.
56. Erikson, R. S., Mackuen, M., & Stimson, J. A. (2002). The macro polity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
57. Eveland, W. P., Jr. (2004). The effect of political discussion in producing informed citizens: The roles of information, motivation, and elaboration. Political Communication, 21, 177-193
58. Fazio, R. H. (2007). Attitudes as object-evaluation associations of varying strength. Social Cognition, 25, 603-637
59. Feldman, S. (2003). Values, ideology, and structure of political attitudes. In D. O. Sears, L. Huddy, & R. Jervis (Eds.), Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 477-510). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
60. Feldman, S., & Johnston, C. (in press). Understanding the determinants of political ideology: Implications of structural complexity. Political Psychology.
61. Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row, Peterson.
62. Fiorina, M. P. (1981). Retrospective voting in American national elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
63. Friedman, J. (2006). Democratic competence in normative and positive theory: Neglected implications of “The nature of belief systems in mass publics.” Critical Review, 18, i-xliii.
64. Gaines, B. J., Kuklinski, J. H., Quick, P., Peyton, B., & Verkuilen, J. (2007). Same facts, different interpretations: Partisan motivation and opinion on Iraq. Journal of Politics, 69, 957-974
65. Garsten, B. (2009). Representative government and popular sovereignty. In I. Shapiro, S. C. Stokes, E. J.Wood, & A. S. Kirshner (Eds.), Political representation (pp. 90-110). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
66. Gastil, J., Braman, D., Kahan, D., & Slovic, P. (2011). The cultural orientation of mass political opinion. PS: Political Science & Politics, 44, 711-714
67. Geer, J. G. (2010). Fanning the flames: The news media’s role in the rise of negativity in presidential campaigns. Retrieved from http://www.hks.harvard.edu/presspol/publications/papers/ discussion_papers/d55_geer.pdf
68. Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. (2006). Media bias and reputation. Journal of Political Economy, 114, 280-316
69. Gerber, A. S., Gimpel, J. Green, D. P., & Shaw, D. (2011). How large and long-lasting are the persuasive effects of televised campaign ads? Results from a randomized field experiment. American Political Science Review, 105, 135-150
70. Gerber, A. S., Green, D. P., & Larimer, C. (2008). Social pressure and voter turnout: Evidence from a larger scale field experiment. American Political Science Review, 102, 33-48
71. Gerber, A. S., & Huber, G. A. (2009). Partisanship and economic behavior: Do partisan differences in economic forecasts predict real economic behavior? American Political Science Review, 103, 407-426
72. Gerber, A. S., & Huber, G. A. (2010). Partisanship, political control, and economic assessments. American Journal of Political Science, 54, 153-173
73. Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., & Washington, E. (2010). Party affiliation, partisanship, and political beliefs: A field experiment. American Political Science Review, 104, 720-744
74. Gibson, J. L., & Caldeira, G. (2009). Knowing the Supreme Court? A reconsideration of public ignorance of the high court. Journal of Politics, 71, 429-441
75. Goren, P., Federico, C., & Kittilson, M. (2009). Source cues, partisan identities, and political value expression. American Journal of Political Science, 53, 805-820
76. Green, D. P, Palmquist, B., & Schickler, E. (2004). Partisan hearts and minds: Political parties and the social identities of voters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
77. Grimmer, J. (2013). Appropriators not position takers: The distorting effects of electoral incentives on congressional representation. American Journal of Political Science, 57, 624
78. Groenendyk, E. (2010, September). Being earnest about importance: The impact of partisan motivation on issue priorities. Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Political Science Association, Washington, DC.
79. Habermas, J. (1990). Moral consciousness and communicative action. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
80. Haidt, J. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. New York, NY: Vintage.
81. Hansen, K. M. (2007). The sophisticated public. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30, 377-396
82. Holm, E. M. (2012). Emotions as mediators of framing effects. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Aarhus University.
83. Houston, D. A., & Fazio, R. (1989). Biased processing as a function of attitude accessibility: Making objective judgments subjectively. Social Cognition, 7, 51-66
84. Iyengar, S. (1991). Is anyone responsible? How television frames political issues. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
85. Iyengar, S., Hahn, K. S., Krosnick, J. A., & Walker, J. (2008). Selective exposure to campaign communication: The role of anticipated agreement and issue public membership. Journal of Politics, 70, 186-200
86. Iyengar, S., & Kinder, D. R. (1987). News that matters: Television and American opinion. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
87. Iyengar, S., Sood, S., & Lelkes, Y. (2012). Affect, not ideology: A social identity perspective on polarization. Public Opinion Quarterly, 76, 405-431
88. Jacobs, L. R., & Page, B. I. (2005). Who influences U.S. foreign policy? American Political Science Review, 99, 107-123
89. Jacobs, L. R., & Shapiro, R. Y. (1994). Issues, candidate image and priming. American Political Science Review, 88, 527-540
90. Jacobs, L. R., & Shapiro, R. Y. (2000). Politicians don’t pander: Political manipulation and the loss of democratic responsiveness. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
91. Jerit, J. (2009). How predictive appeals affect policy opinions. American Journal of Political Science, 53, 411-426
92. Kam, C. D., & Utych, S. M. (2011). Close elections and cognitive engagement. Journal of Politics, 73, 1251-1266
93. Kinder, D. R. (1998). Communication and opinion. Annual Review of Political Science, 1, 167-197
94. Klar, S. (2013). Partisanship in a social context: The influence of diverse deliberation on strong and weak partisans. Unpublished manuscript.
95. Krosnick, J. A. (1988). The role of attitude importance in social evaluation: A study of policy preferences, presidential candidate evaluations, and voting behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 55, 196-210
96. Krosnick, J. A., & Smith, W. R. (1994. Attitude strength. In V. S. Ramachandran (Eds.), Encyclopedia of human behavior (pp. 279-289). San Diego, CA: Academic Press
97. Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P., Jerit, J., Schwieder, D., & Rich, R. (2000). Misinformation and the currency of democratic citizenship. Journal of Politics, 62, 790-816
98. Kuklinski, J. H., Riggle, E., Ottati, V., Schwarz, N., & Wyer, R. (1991). The cognitive and affective bases of political tolerance judgment. American Journal of Political Science, 35, 1-27
99. Kunda, Z. (1990). The case for motivated reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 108, 480-498
100. Kunda, Z. (2001). Social cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
101. Lavine, H. G., Johnston, C., & Steenbergen, M. (2012). The ambivalent partisan: How critical loyalty promotes democracy. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
102. Levendusky, M. S. (2009). The partisan sort: How liberals became Democrats and conservatives became Republicans. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
103. Levendusky, M. S. (2013). How partisan media polarize America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
104. Lenz, G. S. (2012). Follow the leader: How voters respond to politicians’ policies and performance. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
105. Lippmann, W. (1922). Public opinion. New York, NY: Pelican Books.
106. Lippmann, W. (1925). The phantom public. New York, NY: Macmillan.
107. Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2000). Three steps toward a theory of motivated political reasoning. In A. Lupia, M. D. McCubbins, & S. L. Popkin (Eds.), Elements of reason: Cognition, choice, and the bounds of rationality (pp. 183-213). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
108. Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2008). The rationalizing voter. Unpublished manuscript, Stony Brook University.
109. Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013). The rationalizing voter. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
110. Lord, C. G., Ross, L, & Lepper, M. (1979). Biased assimilation and attitude polarization: The effects of prior theories on subsequently considered evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 27, 2098-2109
111. Lupia, A. (1994). Shortcuts versus encyclopedias: Information and voting behavior in California insurance reform elections. American Political Science Review, 88, 63-76
112. Lupia, A. (2002). Deliberation disconnected: What it takes to improve civic competence. Law and Contemporary Problems, 65, 133-150
113. Lupia, A. (2006). How elitism undermines the study of voter competence. Critical Review, 18, 217-232
114. Lupia, A., & McCubbins, M. (1998). The democratic dilemma: Can citizens learn what they need to know? Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press
115. Maio, G. R., & Olson, J. (2000). What is a ‘value-expressive’ attitude? In G. R. Maio & J. M. Olson (Eds.), Why we evaluate: Functions of attitudes (pp. 249-270). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
116. Mansbridge, J. J. (1983). Beyond adversary democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press
117. Mansbridge, J. (2003). Rethinking representation. American Political Science Review, 97, 515-528
118. Mansbridge, J. J. (2011). Clarifying the concept of representation. American Political Science Review, 105, 621-630.
119. McGraw, K. (2003). Political impressions: Formation and management. In Oxford handbook of political psychology (pp. 394-433). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
120. Miller, J. M., & Peterson, D. (2004). Theoretical and empirical implications of attitude strength. Journal of Politics, 66, 847-867.
121. Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. E. (1963). Constituency influence in Congress. American Political Science Review, 57, 45-56
122. Moskowitz, R. L. (2013, April). Integration and segregation in 21st century schools: Voter conflicts over equality, local control, and community. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, IL.
123. Mullainathan, S., & Shleifer, A. (2005). The market for news. American Economic Review, 95, 1031-1053
124. Murayama, K., Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., & von Hofe, R. (2013). Predicting long-term growth in students’ mathematics achievement: The unique contributions of motivation and cognitive strategies. Child Development, 84, 1475-1490
125. Mutz, D. C. (2006). Hearing the other side: Deliberative versus participatory democracy. NewYork, NY: Cambridge University Press
126. Mutz, D., & Reeves, B. (2005). The new videomalaise: Effects of televised incivility on political trust. American Political Science Review, 99, 1-15
127. Mutz, D. C., Sniderman, P. M., & Brody, R. A. (1996). Political persuasion and attitude change. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
128. Nabi, R. L. (2003. Exploring the framing effects of emotion: Do discrete emotions differentially influence information accessibility, information seeking, and policy preference? Communication Research, 30, 224-247
129. Nelson, T. E., Clawson, R., & Oxley, Z. (1997). Media framing of a civil liberties conflict and its effect on tolerance. American Political Science Review, 91, 567-583
130. Nicholson, S. P., & Segura, G. (2012). Who’s the party of the people? Economic populism and the U.S. public’s beliefs about political parties. Political Behavior, 34, 369-389
131. Nisbet, M. C., & Scheufele, D. A. (2009). What’s next for science communication?: Promising directions and lingering distractions. American Journal of Botany, 96, 1767-1778
132. Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32, 303-330.
133. O’Keefe, D. J. (2002). Persuasion (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
134. Page, B. I., & Shapiro, R. Y. (1983). Effects of public opinion on policy. American Political Science Review, 77, 175-190
135. Page, B. I., & Shapiro, R. Y. (1992). The rational public: Fifty years of trends in Americans’ policy preferences. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
136. Parks, L., & Guay, R. P. (2009). Personality, values, and motivation. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 675-684
137. Plaks, J. (Ed.). (2011). The social psychology of motivation. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
138. Plotke, D. (1997). Representation is democracy. Constellations, 4, 19-34
139. Price, V., & Tewksbury, D. (1997). News values and public opinion: A theoretical account of media priming and framing. In G. A. Barnett&F. J. Boster (Eds.), Progress in communication sciences: Advances in persuasion (pp. 173-212). Greenwich, CT: Ablex.
140. Prior, M., & Lupia, A. (2008). Money, time, and political knowledge: Distinguishing quick recall and political learning skills. American Journal of Political Science, 52, 169-183
141. Rahn, W. M. (1993). The role of partisan stereotypes in information processing about political candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37, 472-496
142. Redlawsk, D. (2002). Hot cognition or cool consideration? Journal of Politics, 64, 1021-1044
143. Rehfeld, A. (2006). Towards a general theory of political representation. Journal of Politics, 68, 1-21
144. Riker, W. H. (1986). The art of political manipulation. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
145. Robison, J. (2013, April). Who knows: Question format and political knowledge. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Chicago, IL.
146. Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY: Free Press.
147. Rucker, D. D., & Petty, R. E. (2006). Increasing the effectiveness of communications to consumers: Recommendations based on elaboration likelihood and attitude certainty perspectives. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 25, 39-53
148. Schattschneider, E. E. (1960). The semisovereign people: A realist’s view of democracy in America. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
149. Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Are there universal aspects in the structure and content of human values? Journal of Social Issues, 50, 19-45
150. Shapiro, R. Y. (2011). Public opinion and American democracy. Public Opinion Quarterly, 75, 982-1017
151. Sinclair, B. (2012). The social citizen: Peer networks in political behavior. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
152. Slothuus, R., & de Vreese, C. (2010). Political parties, motivated reasoning, and issue framing effects. Journal of Politics, 72, 630-645
153. Sniderman, P. M., Brody, R. A., & Tetlock, P. E. (1991). Reasoning and choice: Explorations in political psychology. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
154. Sniderman, P. M., & Hagendoorn, L. (2007). When ways of life collide: Multiculturalism and its discontents in the Netherlands. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press
155. Sniderman, P. M., & Highton, B. (2011). Introduction: Facing the challenge of democracy. In P. M. Sniderman&B. Highton (Eds.), Facing the challenge of democracy: Explorations in the analysis of public opinion and political participation (pp. 1-19). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
156. Sniderman, P. M., & Stiglitz, E. (2012). The reputational premium: A theory of party identification and policy reasoning. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
157. Sniderman, P. M., & Theriault, S. (2004). The structure of political argument and the logic of issue framing. In W. Saris & P. M. Sniderman (Eds.), Studies in public opinion (pp. 133-165). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
158. Somin, I. (2006). Knowledge about ignorance: New directions in the study of political information. Critical Review, 18, 255-279
159. Soroka, S. N., & Wlezien, C. (2010). Degrees of democracy: Politics, public opinion, and policy. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
160. Strolovitch, D. Z. (2007). Affirmative advocacy: Race, class, and gender in interest group politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
161. Stroud, N. J. (2008). Media use and political predispositions: Revisiting the concept of selective exposure. Political Behavior, 30, 341-366
162. Stroud, N. J. (2010). Polarization and partisan selective exposure. Journal of Communication, 60, 556-576
163. Taber, C. S., & Lodge, M. (2006). Motivated skepticism in the evaluation of political beliefs. American Journal of Political Science, 50, 755-769
164. Tewksbury, D., Jones, J., Peske, M. Raymond, A., & Vig, W. (2000). The interaction of news and advocate frames. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 804-829
165. Tomz, M., & Van Houweling, R. (2012). Political pledges as credible commitments. Unpublished manuscript.
166. Visser, P. S., Bizer, G., & Krosnick, J. A. (2006). Exploring the latent structure of strength-related attitude attributes. In M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1-67). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
167. Walsh, K. (2004). Talking about politics: Informal groups and social identity in American life. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
168. Weatherford, M. S. (1982). Interpersonal networks and political behavior. American Journal of Political Science, 26, 117-143
169. Weingast, B. R. (1997). The political foundations of democracy and the rule of law. American Political Science Review, 91, 245-263
170. White, R. W. (2011). Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. In J. Plaks (Ed.), The social psychology of motivation (pp. 51-68). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press
171. Wood, W. (2000). Attitude change: Persuasion and social influence. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 539-570
172. Zaller, J. (1992). The nature and origins of mass opinion. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.