Bacterial Resistance: Acquired Resistance

Russell, Hugo and Ayliffe's Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization: Fourth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 170-183

  Poole, Keith ^a  

^a QUEEN S UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Acquired resistance; Efflux; Impermeability; Mechanisms; Target alteration

Indexed keywords

EID: 84986907072     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470755884.ch6b     Document Type: Chapter

References (141)

1. Aguiar, J.M., Guzman, E. & Martinez, J.L. (1990) Heavy metals, chlorine and antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli isolates from ambulatory patients. Journal of Chemotherapy, 2, 238-240.
2. Akimitsu, N., Hamamoto, H., Inoue, R. et al. (1999) Increase in resistance of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to b-lactams caused by mutations conferring resistance to benzalkonium chloride, a disinfectant widely used in hospitals. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 43, 3042-3043.
3. Alekshun, M.N. & Levy, S.B. (1999) The mar regulon: multiple resistance to antibiotics and other toxic chemicals. Trends in Microbiology, 7, 410-413.
4. Azachi, M., Henis, Y., Shapira, R. & Oren, A. (1996) The role of the outer membrane in formaldehyde tolerance in Escherichia coli VU3695 and Halomonas sp. MAC. Microbiology, 142, 1249-1254.
5. Bamber, A.I. & Neal, T.J. (1999) An assessment of triclosan susceptibility in methicillin-resistant and methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 41, 107-109.
6. Bass, L., Liebert, C.A., Lee, M.D. et al. (1999) Incidence and characterization of integrons, genetic elements mediating multiple-drug resistance, in avian Escherichia coli. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 43, 2925-2929.
7. Block, C., Robenshtok, E., Simhon, A. & Shapiro, M. (2000) Evaluation of chlorhexidine and povidone iodine activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis using a surface test. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 147-152.
8. Bridges, K., Kidson, A., Lowbury, E.J. & Wilkins, M.D. (1979) Gentamicin-and silver-resistant Pseudomonas. British Medical Journal, 1, 446-449.
9. Brown, M.H. & Skurray, R.A. (2001) Staphylococcal multidrug efflux protein QacA. Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, 3, 163-170.
10. Candal, E.J. & Eagon, R.G. (1984) Evidence for plasmidmediated bacterial resistance to industral biocides. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 20, 221-224.
11. Cervantes-Vega, C. & Chavez, J. (1987) Susceptibility to mercurials of clinical Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated in Mexico. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek, 53, 253-259.
12. Chuanchuen, R., Beinlich, K., Hoang, T.T., Becher, A., Karkhoff-Schweizer, R.R. & Schweizer, H.P. (2001) Cross-resistance between triclosan and antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is mediated by multidrug efflux pumps: exposure of a susceptible mutant strain to triclosan selects nfxB mutants overexpressing MexCDOprJ. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 45, 428-432.
13. Chuanchuen, R., Narasaki, C.T. & Schweizer, H.P. (2002) The MexJK efflux pump of Pseudomonas aeruginosa requires OprM for antibiotic efflux but not for effect of triclosan. Journal of Bacteriology, 184, 5036-5044.
14. Chung, Y.J. & Saier, M.H., Jr. (2002) Overexpression of the Escherichia coli sugE gene confers resistance to a narrow range of quaternary ammonium compounds. Journal of Bacteriology, 184, 2543-2545.
15. Clark, D.L., Weiss, A.A. & Silver, S. (1977) Mercury and organomercurial resistances determined by plasmids in Pseudomonas. Journal of Bacteriology, 132, 186-196.
16. Cookson, B.D., Farrelly, H., Stapleton, P., Garvey, R.P. & Price, M.R. (1991) Transferable resistance to triclosan in MRSA. Lancet, 337, 1548-1549.
17. Dance, D.A., Pearson, A.D., Seal, D.V. & Lowes, J.A. (1987) A hospital outbreak caused by a chlorhexidine and antibiotic-resistant Proteus mirabilis. Journal of Hospital Infection, 10, 10-16.
18. Deshpande, L.M., Kapadnis, B.P. & Chopade, B.A. (1993) Metal resistance in Acinetobacter and its relation to blactamase production. Biometals, 6, 55-59.
19. Dhakephalkar, P.K. & Chopade, B.A. (1994) High levels of multiple metal resistance and its correlation to antibiotic resistance in environmental isolates of Acinetobacter. Biometals, 7, 67-74.
20. Edgar, R. & Bibi, E. (1997) MdfA, an Escherichia coli multidrug resistance protein with an extraordinarily broad spectrum of drug recognition. Journal of Bacteriology, 179, 2274-2280.
21. Fang, C.-T., Chen, H.-C., Chuang, Y.-P., Chang, S.-C. & Wang, J.-T. (2002) Cloning of a cation efflux pump gene associated with chlorhexidine resistance in Klebsiella pneumoniae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 46, 2024-2028.
22. Fraise, A.P. (2002) Biocide abuse and antimicrobial resistance-a cause for concern? Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 49, 11-12.
23. Gandhi, P.A., Sawant, A.D., Wilson, L.A. & Ahearn, D.G. (1993) Adaptation and growth of Serratia marcescens in contact lens disinfectant solutions containing chlorhexidine gluconate. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 59, 183-188.
24. Griffiths, P.A., Babb, J.R., Bradley, C.R. & Fraise, A.P. (1997) Glutaraldehyde-resistant Mycobacterium chelonae from endoscope washer disinfectors. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 82, 519-526.
25. Guerin-Mechin, L., Dubois-Brissonnet, F., Heyd, B. & Leveau, J.-Y. (1999) Specific variations of fatty acid composition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 induced by quaternary ammonium compounds and relation with resistance to bactericidal activity. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87, 735-742.
26. Guerin-Mechin, L., Dubois-Brissonnet, F., Heyd, B. & Leveau, J.-Y. (2000) Quaternary ammonium compound stresses induce specific variations in fatty acid composition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 55, 157-159.
27. Gupta, A., Matsui, K., Lo, J.F. & Silver, S. (1999) Molecular basis for resistance to silver cations in Salmonella. Nature Medicine, 5, 183-188.
28. Gupta, A., Phung, L.T., Taylor, D.E. & Silver, S. (2001) Diversity of silver resistance genes in IncH incompatibility group plasmids. Microbiology, 147, 3393-3402.
29. Gupta, A. & Silver, S. (1998) Silver as a biocide: will resistance become a problem? Nature Biotechnology, 16, 888-888.
30. Haefeli, C., Franklin, C. & Hardy, K. (1984) Plasmid-determined silver resistance in Pseudomonas stutzeri isolated from a silver mine. Journal of Bacteriology, 158, 389-392.
31. Harnett, N., McLeod, S., AuYong, Y. et al. (1998) Molecular characterization of multiresistant strains of Salmonella typhi from South Asia isolated in Ontario, Canada. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 44, 356-363.
32. Hawkey, P.M. (1985) Providencia stuartii: a review of multiply antibiotic-resistant bacterium. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 13, 209-226.
33. Heath, R.J. & Rock, C.O. (2000) A triclosan-resistant bacterial enzyme. Nature, 406, 145-146.
34. Heath, R.J., Li, J., Roland, G.E. & Rock, C.O. (2000a) Inhibition of the Staphylococcus aureus NADPH-dependent enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase by triclosan and hexachlorophene. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275, 4654-4659.
35. Heath, R.J., Su, N., Murphy, C.K. & Rock, C.O. (2000b) The enoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductases FabI and FabL from Bacillus subtilis. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275, 40128-40133.
36. Heath, R.J., Yu, Y.T., Shapiro, M.A., Olson, E. & Rock, C.O. (1998) Broad spectrum antimicrobial biocides target the FabI component of fatty acid synthesis. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 273, 30316-30320.
37. Heir, E., Sundheim, G. & Holck, A.L. (1995) Resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from the food industry and nucleotide sequence of the resistance plasmid pST827. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 79, 149-156.
38. Heir, E., Sundheim, G. & Holck, A.L. (1998) The Staphylococcus aureus qacH gene product: a new member of the SMR family encoding multidrug resistance. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 163, 49-56.
39. Heir, E., Sundheim, G. & Holck, A.L. (1999a) Identification and characterization of quaternary ammonium compound resistant staphylococci from the food industry. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 48, 211-219.
40. Heir, E., Sundheim, G. & Holck, A.L. (1999b) The qacGgene on plasmid pST94 confers resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in staphylococci isolated from the food industry. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 86, 378-388.
41. Hendry, A.T. & Stewart, I.O. (1979) Silver-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from hospital patients. Canadian Journal of Microbiology, 25, 915-921.
42. Hingst, V., Maiwald, M. & Sonntag, H.G. (1987) The enzymatic degradation of formaldehyde by isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie Mikrobiologie und Hygiene [B], 184, 167-181.
43. Hirai, K., Iyobe, S. & Mitsuhashi, S. (1982) Isolation and characterization of a streptomycin resistance plasmid from Pseudomonas cepacia. Journal of Antibiotics (Tokyo), 35, 1374-1379.
44. Hoang, T.T. & Schweizer, H.P. (1999) Characterization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase (FabI): a target for the antimicrobial triclosan and its role in acylated homoserine lactone synthesis. Journal of Bacteriology, 181, 5489-5497.
45. Jones, M.V., Herd, T.M. & Christie, H.J. (1989) Resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to amphoteric and quaternary ammonium biocides. Microbios, 58, 49-61.
46. Kaatz, G.W. & Seo, S.M. (1995) Inducible NorA-mediated multidrug resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 39, 2650-2655.
47. Kaatz, G.W., Seo, S.M., O'Brien, L., Wahiduzzaman, M. & Foster, T.J. (2000) Evidence for the existence of a multidrug efflux transporter distinct from NorA in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 44, 1404-1406.
48. Kaatz, G.W., Seo, S.M. & Ruble, C.A. (1993) Effluxmediated fluoroquinolone resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 37, 1086-1094.
49. Kaulfers, P.-M. & Marquardt, A. (1991) Demonstration of formaldehyde dehydrogenase activity in formaldehyde resistant Enterobacteraceae. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 79, 335-338.
50. Kaulfers, P.-M. & Brandt, D. (1987) Isolation of a conjugative plasmid in Escherichia coli determining formaldehyde resistance. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 43, 161-163.
51. Kaulfers, P.-M., Karch, H. & Laufs, R. (1987) Plasmid-mediated formaldehyde resistance in Serratia marcescens and Escherichia coli: alterations in the cell surface. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene [A], 266, 239-248.
52. Kazama, H., Hamashima, H., Sasatsu, M. & Arai, T. (1998a) Distribution of the antiseptic-resistance gene qacED1 in Gram-positive bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 165, 295-299.
53. Kazama, H., Hamashima, H., Sasatsu, M. & Arai, T. (1998b) Distribution of the antiseptic-resistance genes qacE and qacED1 in gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 159, 173-178.
54. Kazama, H., Hamashima, H., Sasatsu, M. & Arai, T. (1999) Characterization of the antiseptic-resistance gene qacED1 isolated from clinical and environmental isolates of Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio cholerae non-O1. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 174, 379-384.
55. Kovacs, B.J., Aprecio, R.M., Kettering, J.D. & Chen, Y.K. (1998) Efficacy of various disinfectants in killing a resistant strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by comparing zones of inhibition: implications for endoscopic equipment reprocessing. American Journal of Gastroenterology, 93, 2057-2059.
56. Kummerle, N., Feucht, H.H. & Kaulfers, P.M. (1996) Plasmid-mediated formaldehyde resistance in Escherichia coli: characterization of resistance gene. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 40, 2276-2279.
57. Lambert, R.J., Joynson, J. & Forbes, B. (2001) The relationships and susceptibilities of some industrial, laboratory and clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to some antibiotics and biocides. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 91, 972-984.
58. Leelaporn, A., Paulsen, I.T., Tennent, J.M., Littlejohn, T.G. & Skurray, R.A. (1994) Multidrug resistance to antiseptics and disinfectants in coagulase-negative staphylococci. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 40, 214-220.
59. Lemaitre, J.P., Echchannaoui, H., Michaut, G., Divies, C. & Rousset, A. (1998) Plasmid-mediated resistance to antimicrobial agents among listeriae. Journal of Food Protection, 61, 1459-1464.
60. Levy, S.B. (2000) Antibiotic and antiseptic resistance: impact on public health. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal, 19, S120-S122.
61. Liebert, C.A., Hall, R.M. & Summers, A.O. (1999) Transposon Tn21, flagship of the floating genome. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews, 63, 507-522.
62. Littlejohn, T.G., Paulsen, I.T., Gillespie, M.T. et al. (1992) Substrate specificity and energetics of antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 74, 259-265.
63. Liu, J., Takiff, H.G. & Nikaido, H. (1996) Active efflux of fluoroquinolones in Mycobacterium smegmatis mediated by LfrA, a multidrug efflux pump. Journal of Bacteriology, 178, 3791-3795.
64. Loughlin, M.F., Jones, M.V. & Lambert, P.A. (2002) Pseudomonas aeruginosa cells adapted to benzalkonium chloride show resistance to other membrane-active agents but not to clinically relevant antibiotics. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 49, 631-639.
65. Malek, S.M., Al Adham, I.S., Winder, C.L., Buultjens, T.E., Gartland, K.M. & Collier, P.J. (2002) Antimicrobial susceptibility changes and T-OMP shifts in pyrithione-passaged planktonic cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 92, 729-736.
66. Manzoor, S.E., Lambert, P.A., Griffiths, P.A., Gill, M.J. & Fraise, A.P. (1999) Reduced glutaraldehyde susceptibility in Mycobacterium chelonae associated with altered cell wall polysaccharides. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 43, 759-765.
67. Marcinkeviciene, J., Jiang, W., Kopcho, L.M., Locke, G., Luo, Y. & Copeland, R.A. (2001) Enoyl-ACP reductase (FabI) of Haemophilus influenzae: steady-state kinetic mechanism and inhibition by triclosan and hexachlorophene. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 390, 101-108.
68. Mayer, S., Boos, M., Beyer, A., Fluit, A.C. & Schmitz, F.J. (2001) Distribution of the antiseptic resistance genes qacA, qacB and qacC in 497 methicillin-resistant and -susceptible European isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 47, 896-897.
69. McAllister, T.A., Lucas, C.E., Mocan, H. et al. (1989) Serratia marcescens outbreak in a paediatric oncology unit traced to contaminated chlorhexidine. Scottish Medical Journal, 34, 525-528.
70. McDonnell, G. & Russell, A.D. (1999) Antiseptics and disinfectants: activity, action, and resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 12, 147-179.
71. McHugh, S.L., Moellering, R.C., Hopkins, C.C. & Swartz, M.N. (1975) Salmonella typhimurium resistant to silver nitrate, chloramphenicol, and ampicillin. Lancet, i, 235-240.
72. McMurry, L.M., Oethinger, M. & Levy, S.B. (1998b) Overexpression of marA, soxS, or acrAB produces resistance to triclosan in laboratory and clinical strains of Escherichia coli. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 166, 305-309.
73. McMurry, L.M., McDermott, P.F. & Levy, S.B. (1999) Genetic evidence that InhA of Mycobacterium smegmatis is a target for triclosan. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 43, 711-713.
74. McMurry, L.M., Oethinger, M. & Levy, S.B. (1998a) Triclosan targets lipid synthesis. Nature, 394, 531-532.
75. Mechin, L., Dubois-Brissonnet, F., Heyd, B. & Leveau, J.-Y. (1999) Adaptation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC 15442 to didecyldimethylammonium bromide induces changes in membrane fatty acid composition and in resistance of cells. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 86, 859-866.
76. Midgely, M. (1994) Characteristics of an ethidium efflux system in Enterococcus hirae. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 120, 119-124.
77. Millar, M.R., Griffin, N. & Keyworth, N. (1987) Pattern of antibiotic and heavy-metal ion resistance in recent hospital isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Epidemiology of Infection, 99, 343-347.
78. Miller, S.M. (1999) Bacterial detoxification of Hg(II) and organomercurials. Essays in Biochemistry, 34, 17-30.
79. Misra, T.K. (1992) Bacterial resistances to inorganic mercury salts and organomercurials. Plasmid, 27, 4-16.
80. Modak, S.M. & Fox, C.L. Jr (1981) Sulfadiazine silverresistant Pseudomonas in burns. New topical agents. Archives of Surgery, 116, 854-857.
81. Moken, M.C., McMurry, L.M. & Levy, S.B. (1997) Selection of multiple-antibiotic-resistant (mar) mutants of Escherichia coli by using the disinfectant pine oil: roles of the mar and acrAB loci. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 41, 2770-2772.
82. Nagai, I. & Ogase, H. (1990) Absence of role for plasmids in resistance to multiple disinfectants in three strains of bacteria. Journal of Hospital Infection, 15, 149-155.
83. Nakahara, H., Ishikawa, T., Sarai, Y., Kondo, I. & Kozukue, H. (1977a) Mercury resistance and R plasmids in Escherichia coli isolated from clinical lesions in Japan. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 11, 999-1003.
84. Nakahara, H., Ishikawa, T., Sarai, Y., Kondo, I., Kozukue, H. & Silver, S. (1977b) Linkage of mercury, cadmium, and arsenate and drug resistance in clinical isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 33, 975-976.
85. Nakahara, H. & Kozukue, H. (1981) Chlorhexidine resistance in Escherichia coli isolated from clinical lesions. Zentralblatt fur Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene [A], 251, 177-184.
86. Nishino, K. & Yamaguchi, A. (2001) Analysis of a complete library of putative drug transporter genes in Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology, 183, 5803-5812.
87. Nishino, K. & Yamaguchi, A. (2002) EvgA of the two-component signal transduction system modulates production of the YhiUV multidrug transporter in Escherichia coli. Journal of Bacteriology, 184, 2319-2323.
88. Noguchi, N., Hase, M., Kitta, M., Sasatsu, M., Deguchi, K. & Kono, M. (1999) Antiseptic susceptibility and distribution of antiseptic-resistance genes in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 172, 247-253.
89. Ogase, H., Nagai, I., Kameda, K., Kume, S. & Ono, S. (1992) Identification and quantitative analysis of degradation products of chlorhexidine with chlorhexidine-resistant bacteria with three-dimensional high performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 73, 71-78.
90. Parikh, S.L., Xiao, G. & Tonge, P.J. (2000) Inhibition of InhA, the enoyl reductase from Mycobacterium tuberculosis, by triclosan and isoniazid. Biochemistry, 39, 7645-7650.
91. Paulsen, I.T., Brown, M.H. & Skurray, R.A. (1996) Protondependent multidrug efflux systems. Microbiological Reviews, 60, 575-608.
92. Paulsen, I.T., Littlejohn, T.G., Radstrom, P. et al. (1993) The 3¢conserved segment of integrons contains a gene associated with multidrug resistance to antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 37, 761-768.
93. Ploy, M.C., Courvalin, P. & Lambert, T. (1998) Characterization of In40 of Enterobacter aerogenes BM2688, a class 1 integron with two new gene cassettes, cmlA2 and qacF. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 42, 2557-2563.
94. Poiata, A., Badicut, I., Indres, M., Biro, M. & Buiuc, D. (2000) Mercury resistance among clinical isolates of Escherichia coli. Roumanian Archives of Microbiology and Immunology, 59, 71-79.
95. Poole, K. (2000a) Efflux-mediated resistance to fluoroquinolones in Gram-negative bacteria. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 44, 2233-2241.
96. Poole, K. (2000b) Efflux-mediated resistance to fluoroquinolones in Gram-positive bacteria and the mycobacteria. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 44, 2595-2599.
97. Poole, K. (2001a) Multidrug efflux pumps and antimicrobial resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and related organisms. Journal of Molecular Microbiology and Biotechnology, 3, 255-264.
98. Poole, K. (2001b) Multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 4, 500-508.
99. Poole, K. (2002a) Outer membranes and efflux: the path to multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 3, 77-98.
100. Poole, K. (2002b) Mechanisms of bacterial biocide and antibiotic resistance. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 92 (Suppl. 1), 55S-64S.
101. Poole, K. (2003) Efflux-mediated multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Clinical Microbiology and Infection (in press).
102. Poole, K. & Srikumar, R. (2001) Multidrug efflux in Pseudomonas aeruginosa: components, mechanisms and clinical significance. Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry, 1, 59-71.
103. Pruitt, B.A., Jr., McManus, A.T., Kim, S.H. & Goodwin, C.W. (1998) Burn wound infections: current status. World Journal of Surgery, 22, 135-145.
104. Rahman, M. (1993) Epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (EMRSA): experience from a health district of central England over five years. Postgraduate Medical Journal, 69 (Suppl. 3), 126-129.
105. Randall, L.P., Cooles, S.W., Sayers, A.R. & Woodward, M.J. (2001) Association between cyclohexane resistance in Salmonella of different serovars and increased resistance to multiple antibiotics, disinfectants and dyes. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 50, 919-924.
106. Reboli, A.C., John, J.F. Jr & Levkoff, A.H. (1989) Epidemic methicillin-gentamicin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal intensive care unit. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 34-39.
107. Rossouw, F.T. & Rowbury, R.J. (1984) Effects of the resistance plasmid R124 on the level of the OmpF outer membrane protein and on the response of Escherichia coli to environmental agents. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 56, 63-79.
108. Russell, A.D. (1997) Plasmids and bacterial resistance to biocides. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 83, 155-165.
109. Russell, A.D. (1999) Bacterial resistance to disinfectants: present knowledge and future problems. Journal of Hospital Infection, 43 (Suppl.), 57-68.
110. Russell, A.D. (2000) Do biocides select for antibiotic resistance? Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 52, 227-233.
111. Russell, A.D., Tattawasart, U., Maillard, J.-Y. & Furr, J.R. (1998) Possible link between bacterial resistance and use of antibiotics and biocides. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 42, 2151.
112. Sasatsu, M. (1993) Triclosan-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-author's reply. Lancet, 342, 248-248.
113. Sasatsu, M., Shimizu, K., Noguchi, N. & Kono, M. (1993) Triclosan-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet, 341, 756.
114. Sasatsu, M., Shirai, Y., Hase, M. et al. (1995) The origin of the antiseptic-resistance gene ebr in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbios, 84, 161-169.
115. Schottel, J., Mandal, A., Clark, D., Silver, S. & Hedges, R.W. (1974) Volatilisation of mercury and organomercurials determined by inducible R-factor systems in enteric bacteria. Nature, 251, 335-337.
116. Schweizer, H.P. (1998) Intrinsic resistance to inhibitors of fatty acid biosynthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is due to efflux: application of a novel technique for generation of unmarked chromosomal mutations for the study of efflux systems. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 42, 394-398.
117. Schweizer, H.P. (2001) Triclosan: a widely used biocide and its link to antibiotics. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 202, 1-7.
118. Sidhu, M.S., Heir, E., Sorum, H. & Holck, A. (2001) Genetic linkage between resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds and b-lactam antibiotics in food-related Staphylococcus spp. Microbial Drug Resistance, 7, 363-371.
119. Sikka, R., Sabherwal, U. & Arora, D.R. (1989) Association of R plasmids of Klebsiella pneumoniae with resistance to heavy metals, klebocin and b-lactamase production and lactose fermentation. Indian Journal of Pathology and Microbiology, 32, 16-21.
120. Silver, S. & Phung, L.T. (1996) Bacterial heavy metal resistance: new surprises. Annual Reviews of Microbiology, 50, 753-789.
121. Skurray, R.A., Rouch, D.A., Lyon, B.R., et al. (1988) Multiresistant Staphylococcus aureus: genetics and evolution of epidemic Australian strains. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 21 (SupplC), C-19.
122. Slawson, R.M., Lohmeier-Vogel, E.M., Lee, H. & Trevors, J.T. (1994) Silver resistance in Pseudomonas stutzeri. Biometals, 7, 30-40.
123. Sondossi, M., Rossmoore, H.W. & Wireman, J.W. (1985) Observations of resistance and cross-resistance to formaldehyde and a formaldehyde condensate biocide in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 21, 105-106.
124. Stickler, D.J. & Thomas, B. (1980) Antiseptic and antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria causing urinary tract infection. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 33, 288-296.
125. Stickler, D.J., Thomas, B. & Chawla, J.C. (1981) Antiseptic and antibiotic resistance in Gram-negative bacteria causing urinary tract infection in spinal cord injured patients. Paraplegia, 19, 50-58.
126. Suller, M.T. & Russell, A.D. (1999) Antibiotic and biocide resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant enterococcus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 43, 281-291.
127. Suller, M.T. & Russell, A.D. (2000) Triclosan and antibiotic resistance in staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 46, 11-18.
128. Tattawasart, U., Hann, A.C., Maillard, J.-Y., Furr, J.R. & Russell, A.D. (2000) Cytological changes in chlorhexidineresistant isolates of Pseudomonas stutzeri. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 45, 145-152.
129. Tattawasart, U., Maillard, J.-Y., Furr, J.R. & Russell, A.D. (1999) Development of resistance to chlorhexidine diacetate and cetylpyridinium chloride in Pseudomonas stutzeri and changes in antibiotic susceptibility. Journal of Hospital Infection, 42, 219-229.
130. Thomas, L., Maillard, J.-Y., Lambert, R.J. & Russell, A.D. (2000) Development of resistance to chlorhexidine diacetate in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the effect of a 'residual' concentration. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 297-303.
131. Trevors, J.T. (1987) Silver resistance and accumulation in bacteria. Enzyme and Microbial Technology, 9, 331-333.
132. Turner, R. J., Taylor, D. E. & Weiner, J. L. Expression of Escherichia coli TehA gives resistance to antiseptics and disinfectants similar to that conferred by multidrug resistance efflux pumps. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 41, 440-444.
133. Vazquez, F., Fidalgo, S., Mendez, F.J. & Mendoza, M.C. (1989) Resistance to antibiotics and inorganic ions in virulent bacterial strains from a hospital. Journal of Chemotherapy, 1, 233-239.
134. Villalain, J., Mateo, C.R., Aranda, F.J., Shapiro, S. & Micol, V. (2001) Membranotropic effects of the antibacterial agent Triclosan. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 390, 128-136.
135. Webster, J., Faoagali, J.L. & Cartwright, D. (1994) Elimination of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus from a neonatal intensive care unit after hand washing with triclosan. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 30, 59-64.
136. Weiss, A.A., Murphy, S.D. & Silver, S. (1977) Mercury and organomercurial resistances determined by plasmids in Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Bacteriology, 132, 197-208.
137. Winder, C.L., Al Adham, I.S., Abdel Malek, S.M., Buultjens, T.E., Horrocks, A.J. & Collier, P.J. (2000) Outer membrane protein shifts in biocide-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 89, 289-295.
138. Wollmann, A. & Kaulfers, P.M. (1991) Formaldehyderesistance in Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: identification of resistance genes by DNAhybridization. Zentralblatt fur Hygiene Umweltmedizin, 191, 449-456.
139. Yerushalmi, H., Lebendiker, M. & Schuldiner, S. (1995) EmrE, an Escherichia coli 12-kDa multidrug transporter, exchanges toxic cations and H and is soluble in organic solvents. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 270, 6856-6863.
140. Zafar, A.B., Butler, R.C., Reese, D.J., Gaydos, L.A. & Mennonna, P.A. (1995) Use of 0.3% triclosan (Bacti-Stat) to eradicate an outbreak of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a neonatal nursery. American Journal of Infection Control, 23, 200-208.
141. Zscheck, K.K. & Murray, B.E. (1990) Evidence for a staphylococcal-like mercury resistance gene in Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 34, 1287-1289.