Antiseptics and disinfectants: Activity, action, and resistance

Clinical Microbiology Reviews

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 1999, Pages 147-179

  Mcdonnell, Gerald ^a,b   Russell, A Denver ^c  

^a STERIS Corporation   (United States)

^b STERIS Corporation   (United States)

^c CARDIFF UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALCOHOL DERIVATIVE; ALDEHYDE; ALEXIDINE; ANILIDE; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BIGUANIDE DERIVATIVE; CHLORHEXIDINE; CHLORINE; DIAMIDINE DERIVATIVE; DISINFECTANT AGENT; FORMALDEHYDE; GLUTARALDEHYDE; HALOGEN; HALOPHENOL; HEXACHLOROPHENE; HYDROGEN PEROXIDE; IODINE; IODOPHOR; PERACETIC ACID; PHENOL DERIVATIVE; PHTHALALDEHYDE; QUATERNARY AMMONIUM DERIVATIVE; SILVER NITRATE; SULFADIAZINE SILVER; TRICLOSAN;

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY; BACTERIAL SPORE; FUNGUS; GENE MUTATION; GRAM NEGATIVE BACTERIUM; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; METHODOLOGY; MYCOBACTERIUM; NONHUMAN; PLASMID; PRION; PROTOZOON; REVIEW; STAPHYLOCOCCUS; VIRUS;

EID: 0032926818     PISSN: 08938512     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1128/cmr.12.1.147     Document Type: Review

References (548)

1. Adair, F. W., S. G. Geftic, and J. Gelzer. 1969. Resistance of Pseudomonas to quaternary ammonium compounds. I. Growth in benzalkonium chloride solution. Appl. Microbiol. 18:299-302.
2. Adair, F. W., S. G. Geftic, and J. Gelzer. 1971. Resistance of Pseudomonas to quaternary ammonium compounds. II. Cross resistance characteristics of a mutant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Appl. Microbiol. 21:1058-1063.
3. Adler-Storthz, K., L. M. Sehulster, G. R. Dreesman, F. B. Hollinger, and J. L. Melnick. 1983. Effect of alkaline glutaraldehyde on hepatitis B virus antigens. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2:316-320.
4. Agerton, T., S. Valway, B. Gore, C. Pozsik, B. Plikaytis, C. Woodley, and I. Onorato. 1997. Transmission of a highly drug-resistant strain (strain W1) of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. JAMA 278:1073-1077.
5. - strains of Escherichia coli to antibacterial agents and transfer of resistance to Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Curr. Microbiol. 3:89-94.
6. Alexandre, H., I. Rousseaux, and C. Charpentier. 1994. Relationship between ethanol tolerance, lipid composition and plasma membrane fluidity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Kloeckera apiculata. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 124:17-22.
7. Alfa, M. J., and D. L. Sitter. 1994. In-hospital evaluation of orthophthalaldehyde as a high level disinfectant for flexible endoscopes. J. Hosp. Infect. 26:15-26.
8. Al-Masaudi, S. B., M. J. Day, and A. D. Russell. 1991. Antimicrobial resistance and gene transfer in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 70: 279-290.
9. Alqurashi, A. M., M. J. Day, and A. D. Russell. 1996. Susceptibility of some strains of enterococci and streptococci to antibiotics and biocides. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 38:745.
10. Anderson, R. L. 1989. Iodophor antiseptics: intrinsic microbial contamination with resistant bacteria. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 10:443-446.
11. Anderson, R. L., J. H. Carr, W. W. Bond, and M. S. Favero. 1997. Susceptibility of vancomycin-resistant enterococci to environmental disinfectants. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 18:195-199.
12. Anderson, R. L., B. W. Holland, J. K. Carr, W. W. Bond, and M. S. Favero. 1990. Effect of disinfectants on pseudomonads colonized on the interior surface of PVC pipes. Am. J. Public Health 80:17-21.
13. Anderson, R. L., R. W. Vess, J. H. Carr, W. W. Bond, A. L. Panlilio, and M. S. Favero. 1991. Investigations of intrinsic Pseudomonas cepacia contamination in commercially manufactured povidone-iodine. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 12:297-302.
14. Anderson, R. L., R. W. Vess, A. L. Panlilio, and M. S. Favero. 1990. Prolonged survival of Pseudomonas cepacia in commercially manufactured povidone-iodine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:3598-3600.
15. Apostolov, K. 1980. The effects of iodine on the biological activities of myxoviruses. J. Hyg. 84:381-388.
16. Ascenzi, J. M. 1996. Glutaraldehyde-based disinfectants, p. 111-132. In J. M. Ascenzi (ed.), Handbook of disinfectants and antiseptics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
17. Ayliffe, G. A. J., D. Coates, and P. N. Hoffman. 1993. Chemical disinfection in hospitals, 2nd ed. Public Health Laboratory, London, England.
18. Ayres, H., J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1993. A rapid method of evaluating permeabilizing activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 17:149-151.
19. Azachi, M., Y. Henis, R. Shapira, and A. Oren. 1996. The role of the outer membrane in formaldehyde tolerance in Escherichia coli VU3695 and Halomonas sp. MAC. Microbiology 142:1249-1254.
20. Baillie, L. W. J., J. J. Wade, and M. W. Casewell. 1992. Chlorhexidine sensitivity of Enterococcus faecium resistant to vancomycin, high levels of gentamicin, or both. J. Hosp. Infect. 20:127-128.
21. Bailly, J.-L., M. Chambron, H. Peigue-Lafeuille, H. Laveran, C. de Champs, and D. Beytout. 1991. Activity of glutaraldehyde at low concentrations (<2%) against poliovirus and its relevance to gastrointestinal endoscope disinfection procedures. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 57:1156-1160.
22. Baldry, M. G. C., and J. A. L. Fraser. 1988. Disinfection with peroxygens. Crit. Rep. Appl. Chem. 22:91-116.
23. Baquero, F., C. Patron, R. Canton, and M. M. Ferrer. 1991. Laboratory and in-vitro testing of skin antiseptics: a prediction for in-vitro activity. J. Hosp. Infect. 18(Suppl. B):5-11.
24. Barett-Bee, K., L. Newboult, and S. Edwards. 1994. The membrane destabilizing action of the antibacterial agent chlorhexidine. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 119:249-254.
25. Barkvoll, P., and G. Rolla. 1994. Triclosan protects the skin against dermatitis caused by sodium lauryl sulphate exposure. Clin. Periodontol. 21: 717-719.
26. Barrette, W. C., Jr., D. M. Hannum, W. D. Wheeler, and J. K. Hurst. 1989. General mechanism for the bacterial toxicity of hypochlorous acid: abolition of ATP production. Biochemistry 28:9172-9178.
27. Barry, C. E., III, and K. Mdluli. 1996. Drug sensitivity and environmental adaptation of mycobacterial cell wall components. Trends Microbiol. 4: 275-281.
28. Bates, R. C., P. T. B. Schaffer, and S. M. Sutherland. 1977. Development of poliovirus having increased resistance to chlorine inactivation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 3:849-853.
29. Bayliss, C. E., W. M. Waites, and N. R. King. 1981. Resistance and structure of spores of Bacillus subtilis. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 50:379-390.
30. Beaver, D. J., D. P. Roman, and P. J. Stoffel. 1957. The preparation and bacteriostatic activity of substituted ureas. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79:1236-1245.
31. Behr, H., M. E. Reverdy, C. Mabilat, J. Freney, and J. Fleurette. 1994. Relation entre le niveau des concentrations minimales inhibitrices de cinq antiseptiques et la présence du gène qacA chez Staphylococcus aureus. Pathol. Biol. 42:438-444.
32. Belly, R. T., and G. C. Kydd. 1982. Silver resistance in microorganisms. Dev. Ind. Microbiol. 23:567-577.
33. Benarde, M. A., W. B. Snow, V. P. Olivieri, and B. Davidson. 1967. Kinetics and mechanism of bacterial disinfection by chlorine dioxide. Appl. Microbiol. 15:257-265.
34. Best, M., V. S. Springthorpe, and S. A. Sattar. 1994. Feasibility of a combined carrier test for disinfectants: studies with a mixture of five types of micro-organisms. Am. J. Infect. Control 22:152-162.
35. Beveridge, E. G., I. Boyd, I. Dew, M. Haswell, and C. W. G. Lowe. 1991. Electron and light microscopy of damaged bacteria. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:135-153.
36. Bishai, W. R., H. O. Smith, and G. J. Barcak. 1994. A peroxide/ascorbate-inducible catalase from Haemophilus influenzae is homologous to the Escherichia coli katE gene product. J. Bacteriol. 176:2914-2921.
37. Black, J. G., D. Howes, and T. Rutherford. 1975. Skin deposition and penetration of trichlorocarbanilide. Toxicology 3:253-264.
38. Block, S. S. 1991. Peroxygen compounds, p. 167-181. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
39. Block, S. S. 1991. Historical revievv, p. 3-17. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
40. Block, S. S. 1991. Definitions of terms, p. 18-125. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
41. Bloomfield, S. F. 1974. The effect of the phenolic antibacterial agent Fentichlor on energy coupling in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 37: 117-131.
42. Bloomfield, S. F. 1996. Chlorine and iodine formulations, p. 133-158. In J. M. Ascenzi (ed.), Handbook of disinfectants and antiseptics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
43. Bloomfield, S. F. Resistance of bacterial spores to chemical agents. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
44. Bloomfield, S. F., and M. Arthur. 1992. Interaction of Bacillus subtilis spores with sodium hypochlorite, sodium dichloroisocyanurate and chloramine-T. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 72:166-172.
45. Bloomfield, S. F., and M. Arthur. 1994. Mechanisms of inactivation and resistance of spores to chemical biocides. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 76:91S-104S.
46. Bloomfield, S. F., C. A. Smith-Burchnell, and A. G. Dalgleish. 1990. Evaluation of hypochlorite-releasing disinfectants against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). J. Hosp. Infect. 15:273-278.
47. Bobichon, H., and P. Bouchet. 1987. Action of chlorhexidine on budding Candida albicans: scanning and transmission electron microscopic study. Mycopathologia 100:27-35.
48. Bradley, C. R., and A. P. Fraise. 1996. Heat and chemical resistance in enterococci. J. Hosp. Infect. 34:191-196.
49. Bragg, P. D., and D. J. Rannie. 1974. The effect of silver ions on the respiratory chain of Escherichia coli. Can. J. Microbiol. 20:883-889.
50. Bridges, K., and E. J. L. Lowbury. 1977. Drug resistance in relation to use of silver sulphadiazine cream in a burn unit. J. Clin. Pathol. 31:160-164.
51. Broadley, S. J., P. A. Jenkins, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1991. Antimycobacterial activity of biocides. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 13:118-122.
52. Broadley, S. J., P. A. Jenkins, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1995. Potentiation of the effects of chlorhexidine diacetate and cetylpyridinium chloride on mycobacteria by ethambutol. J. Med. Microbiol. 43:458-460.
53. Bronowicki, J. P., V. Venard, C. Botte, N. Monhoven, I. Gastin, L. Chone, H. Hudziak, B. Rhin, C. Delanoe, A. LeFaou, M.-A. Bigard, and P. Gaucher. 1997. Patient-to-patient transmission of hepatitis C virus during colonoscopy. N. Engl. J. Med. 337:237-240.
54. Brown, M. R. W. 1975. The role of the cell envelope in resistance, p. 71-99. In M. R. W. Brown (ed.), Resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, England.
55. Brown, M. R. W., and R. A. Anderson. 1968. The bactericidal effect of silver ions on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 20(Suppl.):1S-3S.
56. Brown, M. R. W., P. J. Collies, and P. Gilbert. 1990. Influence of growth rate on susceptibility to antimicrobial agents: modification of the cell envelope and batch and continuous culture studies. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34:1623-1628.
57. Brown, M. R. W., and P. Gilbert. 1993. Sensitivity of biofilms to antimicrobial agents. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 74:87S-97S.
58. Brown, M. R. W., and J. Melling. 1969. Loss of sensitivity to EDTA by Pseudomonas aeruginosa grown under conditions of Mg limitation. J. Gen. Microbiol. 54:439-444.
59. Brown, M. R. W., and P. Williams. 1985. The influence of environment on envelope properties affecting survival of bacteria in infections. Annu. Rev. Microbial. 39:527-556.
60. Brown, T. A., and D. G. Smith. 1976. The effects of silver nitrate on the growth and ultrastructure of the yeast Cryptococcus albidus. Microbios Lett. 3:155-162.
61. Broxton, P., P. M. Woodcock, and P. Gilbert. 1983. A study of the antibacterial activity of some polyhexamethylene biguanides towards Escherichia coli ATCC 8739. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 54:345-353.
62. Broxton, P., P. M. Woodcock, and P. Gilbert. 1984. Interaction of some polyhexamethylene biguanides and membrane phospholipids in Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 57:115-124.
63. Broxton, P., P. M. Woodcock, and P. Gilbert. 1984. Injury and recovery of Escherichia coli ATCC 8739 from treatment with some polyhexamethylene biguanides. Microbios 40:187-193.
64. Broxton, P., P. M. Woodcock, and P. Gilbert. 1984. Binding of some polyhexamethylene biguanides to the cell envelope of Escherichia coli ATCC 8739. Microbios 41:15-22.
65. Bruck, C. W. 1991. Role of glutaraldehyde and other liquid chemical sterilants in the processing of new medical devices, p. 376-396. In R. F. Morrissey and Y. I. Prokopenko (ed.), Sterilization of medical products, vol. V. Polyscience Publications, Morin Heights, Canada.
66. Bruch, M. K. 1996. Chloroxylenol: an old-new antimicrobial, p. 265-294. In J. M. Ascenzi (ed.), Handbook of disinfectants and antiseptics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
67. Bsat, N., L. Chen, and J. D. Helmann. 1996. Mutation of the Bacillus subtilis alkyl hydroperoxide reductase (ahpCF) operon reveals compensatory interactions among hydrogen peroxide stress genes. J. Bacteriol. 178:6579-6586.
68. Bush, L. E., L. M. Benson, and J. H. White. 1986. Pig skin as a test substrate for evaluating topical antimicrobial activity. J. Clin. Microbiol. 24:343-348.
69. Cabral, J. P. S. 1991. Mode of antibacterial action of dodine (dodecylguanidine monoacetate) in Pseudomonas syringae. Can. J. Microbiol. 38:115-123.
70. Camper, A. K., and G. A. McFeters. 1979. Chlorine injury and the enumeration of waterborne coliform bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 37:633-641.
71. Candal, F. J., and R. G. Eagon. 1984. Evidence for plasmid-mediated bacterial resistance to industrial biocides. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 20: 221-224.
72. Carson, L. A., N. J. Petersen, M. S. Favero, and S. M. Aguero. 1978. Growth characteristics of atypical mycobacteria in water and their comparative resistance to disinfectants. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 36:839-846.
73. Caspentier, B., and O. Cerf. 1993. Biofilms and their consequences, with particular reference to hygiene in the food industry. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75: 499-511.
74. Cassone, A., D. Kerridge, and E. F. Gale. 1979. Ultrastructural changes in the cell wall of Candida albicans following the cessation of growth and their possible relationship to the development of polyene resistance. J. Gen. Microbiol. 110:339-349.
75. Chambon, M., J.-L. Bailly, and H. Peigue-Lafeuille. 1992. Activity of gluteraldehyde at low concentrations against capsid proteins of poliovirus type 1 and echovirus type 25. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3517-3521.
76. Chang, S. L. 1971. Modern concept of disinfection. J. Sanit. Eng. Div. Proc. ASCE 97:689.
77. Chaplin, C. E. 1951. Observations on quaternary ammonium disinfectants. J. Bot. 29:373-382.
78. Chaplin, C. E. 1952. Bacterial resistance to quaternary ammonium disinfectants. J. Bacteriol. 63:453-458.
79. Chawner, J. A., and P. Gilbert. 1989. A comparative study of the bactericidal and growth inhibitory activities of the bisbiguanides alexidine and chlorhexidine. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 66:243-252.
80. Chawner, J. A., and P. Gilbert. 1989. Interaction of the bisbiguanides chlorhexidine and alexidine with phospholipid vesicles: evidence for separate modes of action. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 66:253-258.
81. Chesney, J., J. W. Eaton, and J. R. Mahoney, Jr. 1996. Bacterial glutathione: a sacrificial defense against chlorine compounds. J. Bacteriol. 178: 2131-2135.
82. Chopra, I. 1982. Plasmids and bacterial resistance, p. 199-206. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford, England.
83. Chopra, I. 1987. Microbial resistance to veterinary disinfectants and antiseptics, p. 43-65. In A. H. Linton, W. B. Hugo, and A. D. Russell (ed.), Disinfection in veterinary and farm animal practice. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford, England.
84. Chopra, I. 1991. Bacterial resistance to disinfectants, antiseptics and toxic metal ions. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:45-64.
85. Chopra, I. 1992. Efflux-based antibiotic resistance mechanisms: the evidence for increasing prevalence. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 30:737-739.
86. Chopra, I., S. C. Johnson, and P. M. Bennett. 1987. Inhibition of Providencia stuartii cell envelope enzymes by chlorhexidine. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 19:743-751.
87. Christensen, E. A., and H. Kristensen. 1991. Gaseous sterilization, p. 557-572. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (eds.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 2nd ed. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford, England.
88. Cookson, B. D. 1994. Antiseptic resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an emerging problem? p. 227-234. In Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium on Staphylococci and Staphlococcal Infections. Gustav Fischer Verlag, Stuttgart, Germany.
89. Cookson, B. D., M. C. Bolton, and J. H. Platt. 1991. Chlorhexidine resistance in Staphylococcus aureus or just an elevated MIC? An in vitro and in vivo assessment. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 35:1997-2002.
90. Cookson, B. D., H. Farrelly, M.-F. Palepou, and R. George. 1992. Transferable resistance to triclosan in MRSA. Lancet 337:1548-1549.
91. Cookson, B. D., and I. Phillips. 1988. Epidemic methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 21(Suppl. C):57-65.
92. Corner, T. R., H. L. Joswick, J. N. Silvernale, and P. Gerhardt. 1971. Antimicrobial actions of hexachlorophane: lysis and fixation of bacterial protoplasts. J. Bacteriol. 108:501-507.
93. Costerton, J. D., Z. Lewandowski, D. DeBeer, D. Caldwell, D. Korber, and G. James. 1994. Biofilms, the customized niche. J. Bacteriol. 176:2137-2142.
94. Costerton, J. W., K.-J. Cheng, G. G. Geesey, T. I. Ladd, J. C. Nickel, M. Dasgupta, and T. J. Marrie. 1987. Bacterial biofilms in nature and disease. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 41:435-464.
95. Coulthard, C. E., and G. Skyes. 1936. Germicidal effect of alcohol. Pharm. J. 137:79-81.
96. Coward, J. S., H. S. Carr, and H. S. Rosenkranz. 1973. Silver sulfadiazine effect on the ultrastructure of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 3:621-624.
97. Cox, A. D., and S. G. Wilkinson. 1991. Ionizing groups of lipopolysaccharides of Pseudomonas cepacia in relation to antibiotic resistance. Mol. Microbiol. 5:641-646.
98. Cozens, R. M., and M. R. W. Brown. 1983. Effect of nutrient depletion on the sensitivity of Pseudomonas cepacia to antimicrobial agents. J. Pharm. Sci. 72:1363-1365.
99. Croshaw, B. 1971. The destruction of mycobacteria, p. 420-449. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
100. Crow, S. 1992. Peracetic acid sterilization: a timely development for a busy healthcare industry. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 13:111-113.
101. Dagely, S., E. A. Dawes, and G. A. Morrison. 1950. Inhibition of growth of Aerobacter aerogenes: the mode of action of phenols, alcohols, acetone and ethyl acetate. J. Bacteriol. 60:369-378.
102. Dance, D. A. B., A. D. Pearson, D. V. Seal, and J. A. Lowes. 1987. A hospital outbreak caused by a Chlorhexidine and antibiotic resistant Proteus mirabilis. J. Hosp. Infect. 10:10-16.
103. Dancer, B. N., E. G. M. Power, and A. D. Russell. 1989. Alkali-reduced revival of Bacillus spores after inactivation by glutaraldehyde. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 57:345-348.
104. D'Arcy, P. F. 1971. Inhibition and destruction of moulds and yeats, p. 613-686. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
105. David, H. L., N. Rastogi, S. Clavel-Sérès, F. Clément, and M.-F. Thorel. 1987. Structure of the cell envelope of Mycobacterium avium. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Ser. A 264:49-66.
106. David, H. L., N. Rastogi, S. Clavel-Sérès, F. Clément. 1988. Alterations in the outer wall architecture caused by the inhibition of mycoside C biosynthesis in Mycobacterium avium. Curr. Microbiol. 17:61-68.
107. Davies, A., and B. S. Field. 1969. Action of biguanides, phenol and detergents on Escherichia coli and its spheroplasts. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 32:233-243.
108. Davies, J. 1994. Inactivation of antibiotics and the dissemination of resistance genes. Science 264:375-382.
109. Davies, J. G., J. R. Babb, C. R. Bradley, and G. A. J. Ayliffe. 1993. Preliminary study of test methods to assess the virucidal activity of skin disinfectants using poliovirus and bacteriophages. J. Hosp. Infect. 25:125-131.
110. Day, M. J., and A. D. Russell. Antibiotic-resistant cocci. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
111. Dekker, J. 1987. Development of resistance to modern fungicides and strategies for its avoidance, p. 39-52. In H. Lyr (ed.), Modern slective fungicides. Longman, Harlow, England.
112. Demple, B. 1991. Regulation of bacterial oxidative stress genes. Annu. Rev. Genet. 25:315-337.
113. Demple, B., and J. Halbrook. 1983. Inducible repair of oxidative damage in E. coli. Nature 304:466-468.
114. Demple, B., and L. Harrison. 1994. Repair of oxidative damage to DNA: enzymology and biology. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 63:915-948.
115. Dennis, W. H., V. P. Olivieri, and C. W. Kruse. 1979. The reaction of nucleotides with aqueous hypochlorous acid. Water Res. 13:357-362.
116. Dennis, W. H., V. P. Olivieri, and C. W. Kruse. 1979 Mechanism of disinfection: incorporation of Cl-36 into f2 virus. Water Res. 13:363-369.
117. De Nobel, J. G., C. Dijkers, E. Hooijberg, and F. M. Klis. 1989. Increased cell wall porosity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae after treatment with dithiothreitol or EDTA. J. Gen. Microhiol. 135:2077-2084.
118. De Nobel, J. G., F. M. Klis, T. Munnik, and H. Van Den Ende. 1990. An assay of relative cell porosity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces lactis and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Yeast 6:483-490.
119. De Nobel, J. G., F. M. Klis, J. Priem, T. Munnik, and H. Van Den Ende. 1990. The glucanase-soluble mannoproteins limit cell porosity in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Yeast 6:491-499.
120. Denyer, S. P. 1995. Mechanisms of action of antibacterial biocides. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 36:227-245.
121. Denyer, S. P., and W. B. Hugo. 1977. The mode of action of cethyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) on Staphylococcus aureus. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 29:66P.
122. Denyer, S. P., and W. B. Hugo. 1991. Biocide-induced damage to the cytoplasmic membrane. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:171-187.
123. Denyer, S. P., W. B. Hugo, and V. D. Harding. 1985. Synergy in preservative combinations. Int. J. Pharm. 25:245-253.
124. Denyer, S. P., W. B. Hugo, and V. D. Harding. 1986. The biochemical basis of synergy between the antibacterial agents chlorocresol and 2-phenylethanol. Int. J. Pharm. 29:29-36.
125. Denyer, S. P., S. P. Gorman, and M. Sussman. 1993. Microbial biofilms: formation and control. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 30.
126. Dodd, C. E. R., R. L. Sharman, S. F. Bloomfield, I. R. Booth, and G. S. A. B. Stewart. 1997. Inimical processes: bacterial self-destruction and sub-lethal injury. Trends. Food Sci. Technol. 8:238-241.
127. Dowds, B. C., P. Murphy, D. J. McConnell, and K. M. Devine. 1987. Relationship among oxidative stress, growth cycle, and sporulation in Bacillus subtilis. J. Bacteriol. 169:5771-5775.
128. Dukan, S., and D. Touati. 1996. Hypochlorous acid stress in Escherichia coli: resistance, DNA damage, and comparison with hydrogen peroxide stress. J. Bacteriol. 178:6145-6150.
129. Dussau, J. Y., J. C. Chapalain, Y. Rouby, M. E. Reverdy, and M. Bartoli. 1993. Evaluation par une microméthode de l'activité bactericide de cinq disinfectancts sur 108 souches hospitalières. Pathol. Biol. 41:349-357.
130. Dychdala, G. R. 1991. Chlorine and chlorine compounds, p. 131-151. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
131. Dye, M., and G. C. Mead. 1972. The effect of chlorine on the viability of clostridial spores. J. Food Technol. 7:173-181.
132. Edgar, R., and E. Bibi. 1997. MdfA, and Escherichia coli multidrug resistance protein with an extraordinarily broad spectrum of drug recognition. J. Bacteriol. 179:2274-2280.
133. Eklund, T., and I. F. Nes. 1991. Effects of biocides on DNA, RNA and protein synthesis. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:225-234.
134. El-Falaha, B. M. A., A. D. Russell, and J. R. Furr. 1983. Sensitivities of wild-type and envelope-defective strains of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa to antibacterial agents. Microbios 38:99-105.
135. El-Falaha, B. M. A., A. D. Russell, and J. R. Furr. 1985. Effect of chlorhexidine diacetate and benzalkonium chloride on the viability of wild-type and envelope mutants of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 1:21-24.
136. Elferink, J. G. R. 1974. The effect of ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid on yeast cell membranes. Protoplasma 80:261-268.
137. Elferink, J. G. R., and H. L. Booij. 1974. Interaction of chlorhexidine with yeast cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 23:1413-1419.
138. Ellar, D. J., Munoz, and M. R. T. Salton. 1971. The effect of low concentrations of glutaraldehyde on Micrococcus lysodeikticus membranes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 225:140-150.
139. EI-Moug, T., D. T. Rogers, J. R. Furr, B. M. A. El-Falaha, and A. D. Russell. 1985. Antiseptic-induced changes in the cell surface of a chlorhexidine-sensitive and a chlorhexidine-resistant strain of Providencia stuartii. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 16:685-689.
140. Elsmore, R. D. Legionella. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
141. Ernst, D. R., and R. E. Race. 1993. Comparative analysis of scrapie agent inactivation methods. J. Virol. Methods 41:193-201.
142. Evans, D. J., D. G. Allison, M. R. W. Brown, and P. Gilbert. 1990. Growth rate and the resistance of Gram-negative biofilms to cetrimide. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 26:473-478.
143. Favero, M. S., and W. W. Bond. 1991. Chemical disinfection of medical surgical material, p. 617-641. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
144. Feron, V. J., H. P. Til, F. de Vrijes, R. A. Wouterson, F. R. Cassee, and P. J. van Bladeren. 1991. Aldehydes: occurrence, carcinogenicity potential, mechanism of action and risk assessment. Mutat. Res. 259:363-385.
145. 14C-chlorhexidine diacetate to Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and its release by azolectin. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 60:327-332.
146. Fitzgerald, K. A., A. Davies, and A. D. Russell. 1992. Effect of chlorhexidine and phenoxyethanol on cell surface hydrophobicity of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 14:91-95.
147. Fitzgerald, K. A., A. Davies, and A. D. Russell. 1992. Mechanism of ation of chlorhexidine diacetate and phenoxyethanol singly and in combination against Gram-negative bacteria. Microbios 70:215-230.
148. Fitzgerald, K. A., A. Davies, and A. D. Russell. 1992. Sensitivity and resistance of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus to chlorhexidine. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 14:33-36.
149. Floyd, R. D., G. Sharp, and J. D. Johnson. 1979. Inactivation by chlorine of single poliovirus particles in water. Environ. Sci. Technol. 13:438-442.
150. Foegeding, P. M., and F. F. Busta. 1983. Proposed mechanism for sensitization by hypochlorite treatment of Clostridium botulinum spores. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 45:1374-1379.
151. Foster, S. J. 1994. The role and regulation of cell wall structural dynamics during differentiation of endoscope-forming bacteria. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 76:25S-39S.
152. Foster, T. J. 1983. Plasmid-determined resistance to antimicrobial drugs and toxic metal ions in bacteria. Microbiol. Rev. 47:361-409.
153. Fox, C. L., Jr. 1983. Topical therapy and the development of silver sulfadiazine. Surg. Gynecol. Obst. 157:82-88.
154. Fox, C. L., Jr., and S. M. Modak. 1974. Mechanism of silver sulfadiazine action on burn wound infections. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 5:582-588.
155. Fraenkel-Conrat, H. 1961. Chemical modification of viral ribonucleic acid (RNA). Alkylating agents. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 49:169-180.
156. Fraenkel-Conrat, H., M. Cooper, and H. S. Olcott. 1945. The reaction of formaldehyde with proteins. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 67:950-954.
157. Fraenkel-Conrat, H., and H. S. Olcott. 1946. Reaction of formaldehyde with proteins. II. Participation of the guanidyl groups and evidence of cross-linking. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 68:34-37.
158. Frederick, J. F., T. R. Corner, and P. Gerhardt. 1974. Antimicrobial actions of hexachlorophane: inhibition of respiration in Bacillus megaterium. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 6:712-721.
159. Fried, V. A., and A. Novick. 1973. Organic solvents as probes for the structure and function of the bacterial membrane: effects of ethanol on the wild type and on an ethanol-resistant mutant of Escherichia coli K-12. J. Bacteriol. 114:239-248.
160. Frier, M. 1971. Derivatives of 4-amino-quinaldinium and 8-hydroxyquinoline, p. 107-120. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
161. Fuhrmann, G. F., and A. Rothstein. 1968. The mechanism of the partial inhibition of fermentation in yeast by nickel ions. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 163:331-338.
162. Fuller, S. J. 1991. Biocide-induced enzyme inhibition. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:235-249.
163. Furr, J. R. Sensitivity of protozoa to disinfection B. Acanthamoeba and contact lens solutions. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
164. Furr, J. R., A. D. Russell, T. D. Turner, and A. Andrews. 1994. Antibacterial activity of Actisorb Plus, Actisorb and silver nitrate. J. Hosp. Infect. 27:201-208.
165. Gale, E. F. 1986. Nature and development of phenotypic resistance to amphotericin B in Candida albicans. Adv. Microb. Physiol. 27:277-320.
166. Gandhi, P. A., A. D. Sawant, L. A. Wilson, and D. G. Ahearn. 1993. Adaptation and growth of Serratia mascescens in contact lens disinfectant solutions containing chlorhexidine gluconate. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59: 183-188.
167. Gardner, J. F., and K. G. Gray. 1991. Chlorhexidine, p. 251-270. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
168. George, A. M. 1996. Multidrug resistance in enteric and other Gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 139:1-10.
169. Gilbert, P. 1988. Microbial resistance to preservative systems, p. 171-194. In S. F. Bloomfield, R. Baird, R. E. Leak, and R. Leech (ed.), Microbial quality assurance in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics and toiletries. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England.
170. Gilbert, P., J. Barber, and J. Ford. 1991. Interaction of biocides with model membranes and isolated membrane fragments. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:155-170.
171. Gilbert, P., and M. R. W. Brown. 1995. Some perspectives on preservation and disinfection in the present day. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 36:219-226.
172. Gilbert, P., P. J. Collier, and M. R. W. Brown. 1990. Influence of growth rate on susceptibility to antimicrobial agents: biofilms, cell cycle, dormancy and stringent response. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 34:1865-1868.
173. Gilbert, P., D. Pemberton, and D. E. Wilkinson. 1990. Barrier properties of the Gram-negative cell envelope towards high molecular weight polyhexamethylene biguanides. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 69:585-592.
174. Gilbert, P., D. Pemberton, and D. E. Wilkinson. 1990. Synergism within polyhexamethylene biguanide biocide formulations. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 69: 593-598.
175. 2+-deficient medium. J. Bacteriol. 117:302-311.
176. Gomez, R. F., and A. A. Herrero. 1983. Chemical preservation of foods, p. 77-116. In A. H. Rose (ed.), Food microbiology, vol. 8. Economic microbiology. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
177. Gordon, S., and P. W. Andrew. 1996. Mycobacterial virulence factors. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 81:10S-22S.
178. Gorman, S. P. 1991. Microbial adherence and biofilm production. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:271-295.
179. Gorman, S. P., and E. M. Scott. 1977. Uptake and media reactivity of glutaraldehyde solutions related to structure and biocidal activity. Microbios Lett. 5:163-169.
180. Gorman, S. P., E. M. Scott, and E. P. Hutchinson. 1984. Interaction of the Bacillus subtilis spore protoplast, cortex, ion-exchange and coatless forms with glutaraldehyde. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 56:95-102.
181. Gorman, S. P., E. M. Scott, and E. P. Hutchinson. 1984. Emergence and development of resistance to antimicrobial chemicals and heat in spores of Bacillus subtilis. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 57:153-163.
182. Gorman, S. P., E. M. Scott, and A. D. Russell. 1980. Antimicrobial activity, uses and mechanism of action of glutaraldehyde. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 48:161-190.
183. Gottardi, W. 1985. The influence of the chemical behavior of iodine on the germicidal action of disinfectant solutions containing iodine. J. Hosp. Infect. 6(Suppl. A):1-11.
184. Gottardi, W. 1991. Iodine and iodine compounds, p. 152-166. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation. 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
185. Grant, K. A., and S. F. Park. 1995. Molecular characterization of katA from Campylobacter jejuni and generation of a catalase-deficient mutant of Campylobacter coli by interspecific allelic exchange. Microbiology 141: 1369-1376.
186. Gray, T. B., R. T. M. Curson, J. F. Sherwan, and P. R. Rose. 1995. Acanthamoeba, bacterial and fungal contamination of contact lens storage cases. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 79:601-605.
187. Griffits, P. A., J. R. Babb, C. R. Bradley, and A. P. Fraise. 1997. Glutaraldehyde-resistant Mycobacterium chelonae from endoscope washer disinfectants. J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:519-526.
188. Grinius, L., G. Dreguniene, E. B. Goldberg, C.-H. Liao, and S. J. Projan. 1992. A staphylococcal multidrug resistance gene product is a member of a new protein family. Plasmid 27:119-129.
189. Grossgebauer, K. 1970. Virus disinfection, p. 103-148. In M. A. Benarde (ed.), Disinfection. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
190. Grossman, L., S. S. Levine, and W. S. Allison. 1961. The reaction of formaldehyde with nucleotides and T2 bacteriophage DNA. J. Mol. Biol. 3: 47-60.
191. Gump, W. S. 1977. The bis-phenols, p. 252-281. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
192. Haefeli, C., C. Franklin, and K. Hardy. 1984. Plasmid-determined silver resistance in Pseudomonas stutzeri isolated from a silver mine. J. Bacteriol. 158:389-392.
193. Hall, E., and R. G. Eagon. 1985. Evidence for plasmid-mediated resistance of Pseudomonas putida to hexahydro-1,3,5-triethyl-s-triazine. Curr. Microbiol. 12:17-22.
194. Hamilton, W. A. 1971. Membrane-active anti-bacterial compounds, p. 77-106. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
195. Hammond. S. A., J. R. Morgan, and A. D. Russell. 1987. Comparative susceptibility of hospital isolates of Gram-negative bacteria to antiseptics and disinfectants. J. Hosp. Infect. 9:255-264.
196. Hammond, S. M., P. A. Lambert, and A. N. Rycroft. 1984. The bacterial cell surface. Croom Helm, London, England.
197. Hancock, R. E. W. 1984. Alterations in membrane permeability. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 38:237-264.
198. Harakeh, S. 1987. Inactivation of enteroviruses, rotaviruses, bacteriophages by peracetic acid in a municipal sewage effluent. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 23: 27-30.
199. Harold, F. M., J. R. Baarda, C. Baron, and A. Abrams. 1969. Dio 9 and chlorhexidine. Inhibition of membrane bound ATPase and of cation transport in Streptococcus faecalis. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 183:129-136.
200. Hartford, O. M., and B. C. Dowds. 1994. Isolation and characterization of a hydrogen peroxide resistant mutant of Bacillus subtilis. Microbiology 140: 297-304.
201. Hector, R. F. 1993. Compounds active against cell walls of medically important fungi. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 6:1-21.
202. Heinzel, M. 1988. The phenomena of resistance to disinfectants and preservatives, p. 52-67. In K. R. Payne (ed.), Industrial biocides. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., Chichester, England.
203. Heir, E., G. Sundheim, and A. L. Holck. 1995. Resistance to quaternary ammonium compounds in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from the food industry and nucleotide sequence of the resistance plasmid pST827. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 79:149-156.
204. Hiom, S. J., J. R. Furr, A. D. Russell, and J. R. Dickinson. 1992. Effects of chlorhexidine diacetate on Candida albicans, C. glabrata and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 72:335-340.
205. Hiom, S. J., J. R. Furr, A. D. Russell, and J. R. Dickinson. 1993. Effects of chlorhexidine diacetate and cetylpyridinium chloride on whole cells and protoplasts of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbios 74:111-120.
206. 14C-chlorohexidine diacetate on by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida albicans and Candida glabrata. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 21:20-22.
207. Hiom, S. J., A. C. Hann, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1995. X-ray microanalysis chlorhexidine-treated cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 20:353-356.
208. Hiom, S. J., J. R. Furr, A. D. Russell, and A. C. Hann. 1996. The possible role of yeast cell walls in modifying cellular response to chlorhexidine diacetate. Cytobios 86:123-135.
209. Hiraishi, A., K. Furunata, A. Matsumoto, K. A. Koike, M. Fukuyama, and K. Tabuchi. 1995. Phenotypic and genetic diversity of chlorine-resistant Methylobacterium strains isolated from various environments. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2099-2107.
210. Hodges, N. A., and G. W. Hanlon. 1991. Detection and measurement of combined biocide action. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:297-310.
211. Holton, J., P. Nye, and V. McDonald. 1994. Efficacy of selected disinfectants vs. Mycobacteria and Cryptosporidium. J. Hosp. Infect. 27:105-115.
212. Hughes, R. C., and P. F. Thurman. 1970. Cross-linking of bacterial cell walls with glutaraldehyde. Biochem. J. 119:925-926.
213. Hugo, W. B. 1971. Diamidines, p. 121-136. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
214. Hugo, W. B. 1991. The degradation of preservatives by micro-organisms. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 27:185-194.
215. Hugo, W. B. Disinfection mechanisms. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
216. Hugo, W. B., and S. F. Bloomfield. 1971. Studies on the mode of action of the phenolic antibacterial agent Fentichlor against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. II. The effects of Fentichlor on the bacterial membrane and the cytoplasmic constituents of the cell. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 34:569-578.
217. Hugo, W. B., and S. F. Bloomfield. 1971. Studies on the mode of action of the phenolic antibacterial agent Fentichlor against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. III. The effect of Fentichlor on the metabolic activities of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 34:579-591.
218. Hugo, W. B., and J. R. Davidson. 1973. Effect of cell lipid depletion in Staphylococcus aureus upon its resistance to antimicrobial agents. II. A comparison of the response of normal and lipid depleted cells of S. aureus to antibacterial drugs. Microbios 8:63-72.
219. Hugo, W. B., and S. P. Denyer. 1987. The concentration exponent of disinfectant and preservatives (biocides). Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 22:281-291.
220. Hugo, W. B., and I. Franklin. 1968. Cellular lipid and the antistaphylococcal activity of phenols. J. Gen. Microbiol. 52:365-373.
221. Hugo, W. B., and M. Frier. 1969. Mode of action of the antibacterial compound dequalinium acetate. Appl. Microbiol. 17:118-127.
222. Hugo, W. B., and A. R. Longworth. 1964. Some aspects of the mode of action of chlorhexidine. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 16:655-662.
223. Hugo, W. B., and A. R. Longworth. 1965. Cytological aspects of the mode of action of chlorhexidine. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 17:28-32.
224. Hugo, W. B., and A. R. Longworth. 1966. The effect of chlorhexidine on the electrophoretic mobility, cytoplasmic content, dehydrogenase activity and cell walls of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 18:569-578.
225. Hugo, W. B., L. J. Pallent, D. J. W. Grant, S. P. Denyer, and A. Davies. 1986. Factors contributing to the survival of a strain of Pseudomonas cepacia in chlorhexidine solutions. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 2:37-42.
226. Hugo, W. B., and A. D. Russell. Types of antimicrobial agents. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
227. Ikeda, T., S. Tazuke, C. H. Bamford, and A. Ledwith. 1984. Interaction of a polymeric biguanide with phospholipid membranes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 769:57-66.
228. Inderlied, C. B., C. A. Kemper, and L. E. M. Bermudez. 1993. The Mycobacterium avium complex. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 6:266-310.
229. Irizarry, L., T. Merlin, J. Rupp, and J. Griffith. 1996. Reduced susceptibility of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus to cetylpyridinium chloride and chlorhexidine. Chemotherapy 42:248-252.
230. Ismaeel, N., T. El-Moug, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1986. Resistance of Providencia stuartii to chlorhexidine: a consideration of the role of the inner membrane. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 60:361-367.
231. Izatt, R. M., J. J. Christensen, and J. H. Rytting. 1971. Sites and thermodynamic quantities associated with proton and metal interaction with ribonucleic acid, deoxyribonucleic acid and their constituent bases, nucleosides and nucleotides. Chem. Rev. 71:439-471.
232. Jarlier, V., and H. Nikaido. 1990. Permeability barrier to hydrophilic solutes in Mycobacterium chelonei. J. Bacteriol. 172:1418-1423.
233. Jarroll, E. L. 1988. Effect of disinfectant on Giarda cysts. Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 18:1-28.
234. Jarroll, E. L. Sensitivity of protozoa to disinfection. A. Intestinal protozoa. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
235. Järvinen, H. J. Temovuo, and P. Huovinen. 1993. In vitro susceptibility of Streptococcus mutans to chlorhexidine and six other antimicrobial agents. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 37:1158-1159.
236. Jenkinson, H. F. 1981. Germination and resistance defects in spores of a Bacillus subtilis mutant lacking a coat polypeptide. J. Gen. Microbiol. 127: 81-91.
237. Jenkinson, H. F., D. Kay, and J. Mandelstam. 1980. Temporal dissociation of late events in Bacillus subtilis sporulation from expression of genes that determine them. J. Bacteriol. 141:793-805.
238. Joly, B. 1995. La résistance microbienne à l'action des antiseptiques et désinfectants, p. 52-65. In J. Fleurette, J. Freney, and M.-E. Reverdy (ed.), Antisepsie et désinfection. Editions ESKA, Paris, France.
239. Jones, I. G., and M. Midgley. 1985. Expression of a plasmid-borne ethidium resistance determinant from Staphylococcus aureus in Escherichia coli: evidence for an efflux system. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 28:355-358.
240. Jones, M. V., T. M. Herd, and H. J. Christie. 1989. Resistance of Pseudomonas aentginosa to amphoteric and quaternary ammonium biocides. Microbios 58:49-61.
241. Joswick, H. L., T. R. Corner, J. N. Silvernale, and P. Gerhardt. 1971. Antimicrobial actions of hexachlorophane: release of cytoplasmic materials. J. Bacteriol. 108:492-500.
242. Judis, J. 1962. Studies on the mode of action of phenolic disinfectants. I. Release of radioactivity from carbon-14-labelled Escherichia coli. J. Pharm. Sci. 51:261-265.
243. Kanazawa, A., T. Ikeda, and T. Endo. 1995. A novel approach to mode of action of cationic biocides: morphological effect on antibacterial activity. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 78:55-60.
244. Karabit, M. S., O. T. Juneskans, and P. Ludngren. 1985. Studies on the evaluation of preservative efficacy. I. The determination of antimicrobial characteristics of phenol. Acta Pharm. Suec. 22:281-290.
245. Karabit, M. S., O. T. Juneskans, and P. Ludngren. 1988. Studies on the evaluation of preservative efficacy. III. The determination of antimicrobial characteristics of benzalkonium chloride. Int. J. Pharm. 46:141-147.
246. Kaulfers, P.-M., H. Karch, and R. Laufs. 1987. Plasmid-mediated formaldehyde resistance in Serratia marcescens and Escherichia coli: alterations in the cell surface. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Parasitol. Infektionskr. Hyg. I Abt. Orig. Reihe A 226:239-248.
247. Kaulfers, P.-M., and A. Masquardt. 1991. Demonstration of formaldehyde dehydrogenase activity in formaldehyde-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 65:335-338.
248. Kemp, G. K. (Alcide Corporation). 1998. Personal communication.
249. Keswick, B. H., T. K. Satterwhite, P. C. Johnson, H. L. DuPont, S. L. Secor, J. A. Bitsura, G. W. Gary, and J. C. Hoff. 1985. Inactivation of Norwalk virus in drinking water by chlorine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 50:261-264.
250. Khor, S. Y., and M. Jegathesan. 1983. Heavy metal and disinfectant resistance in clinical isolates of Gram-negative rods. Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 14:199-203.
251. Khunkitti, W., S. V. Avery, D. Lloyd, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1997. Effects of biocides on Acanthamoeba castellanii as measured by flow cytometry and plaque assay. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 40:227-223.
252. Khunkitti, W., A. C. Hann, D. Lloyd, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. Biguanide-induced changes in Acanthamoeba castellanii: an electron microscopic study. J. Appl. Microbiol., in press.
253. Khunkitti, W., D. Lloyd, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1996. The lethal effects of biguanides on cysts and trophozoites of Acanthamoeba castellanii. J. Appl. Microbiol. 81:73-77.
254. Khunkitti, W., D. Lloyd, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1997. Aspects of the mechanisms of action of biguanides on cysts and trophozoites of Acanthamoeba castellanii. J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:107-114.
255. Khunkitti, W., D. Lloyd, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. Acanthamoeba castellanii: growth, encystment, excystment and biocide susceptibility. J. Infect., in press.
256. Kimbrough, R. D. 1973. Review of the toxicity of hexachlorophene, including its neurotoxicity. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 13:439-451.
257. Klein, D., and G. McDonnell. 1998. Unpublished results.
258. Klein, M., and A. Deforest. 1963. Antiviral action of germicides. Soap Chem. Spec. 39:70-72.
259. Klein, M., and A. Deforest. 1983. Principles of viral inactivation, p. 422-434. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization and preservation, 3rd ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
260. Kobayashi, H., M. Tsuzuki, K. Koshimizu, H. Toyama, N. Yoshihara, T. Shikata, K. Abe, K. Mizuno, N. Otomo, and T. Oda. 1984. Susceptibility of hepatitis B virus to disinfectants or heat. J. Clin. Microbiol. 20:214-216.
261. Knott, A. G., and A. D. Russell. 1995. Effects of chlorhexidine gluconate on the development of spores of Bacillus subtilis. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 21: 117-120.
262. Knott, A. G., A. D. Russell, and B. N. Dancer. 1995. Development of resistance to biocides during sporulation of Bacillus subtilis. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 79:492-498.
263. Kolawole, D. O. 1984. Resistance mechanisms of mucoid-grown Staphylococcus aureus to the antibacterial action of some disinfectants and antiseptics. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 25:205-209.
264. Korich, D. G., J. R. Mead, M. S. Madore, N. A. Sinclair, and C. R. Sterling. 1990. Effects of ozone, chlorine dioxide, chlorine and monochloramine on Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst viability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56: 1423-1428.
265. Kroll, R. G., and G. D. Anagnostopoulos. 1981. Potassium leakage as a lethality index of phenol and the effect of solute and water activity. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 50:139-147.
266. Kroll, R. G., and R. A. Patchett. 1991. Biocide-induced perturbations of cell homeostrasis: intracellular pH, membrane potential and solute transport. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:189-202.
267. Kruse, W. C. 1970. Halogen action on bacteria, viruses and protozoa, p. 113-137. In Proceedings of the National Special Conference on Disinfection. ASCE, Amherst, Mass.
268. Kulikovsky, A., H. S. Pankratz, and H. L. Sadoff. 1975. Ultrastructural and chemical changes in spores of Bacillus cereus after action of disinfectants. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 38:39-46.
269. Kummerle, N., H. H. Feucht, and P. M. Kaulfers. 1996. Plasmid-mediated formaldehyde resistance in Escherichia coli: characterization of resistance gene. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2276-2279.
270. Kushner, D. J., and S. R. Khan. 1968. Proflavine uptake and release in sensitive and resistant Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 96:1103-1114.
271. Kuykendall, J. R., and M. S. Bogdanffy. 1992. Efficiency of DNA-histone crosslinking induced by saturated and unsaturated aldehydes in vitro. Mutat. Res. 283:131-136.
272. Kuyyakanond, T., and L. B. Quesnel. 1992. The mechanism of action of chlorhexidine. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 100:211-216.
273. Lambert, P. A., and S. M. Hammond. 1973. Potassium fluxes. First indications of membrane damage in microorganisms. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 54:796-799.
274. Langsrud, S., and G. Sundheim. 1997. Factors contributing to the survival of poultry associated Pseudomonas spp. exposed to a quaternary ammonium compound. J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:705-712.
275. Lannigan, R., and L. E. Bryan. 1985. Decreased susceptibility of Serratia mascescens to chlorhexidine related to the inner membrane. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 15:559-565.
276. Lappin-Scott, H. M., and J. W. Costerton. 1995. Microbial biofilms. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England.
277. Larson, E. L. 1996. Antiseptics, p. 19-1-19-7, G1-G17. In R. N. Olmstad (ed.), APIC infection control & applied epidemiology: principles & practices. Mosby-Year Book, Inc., St. Louis, Mo.
278. Larson, E. L., and H. E. Morton. 1991. Alcohols, p. 191-203. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
279. LeChevalier, M. W., C. C. Cawthorns and R. G. Lee. 1988. Mechanisms of bacterial survival in chlorinated water supplies. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:2492-2499.
280. Leelaporn, A., N. Firth, I. T. Paulsen, and R. A. Skurray. 1996. 1S257-mediated cointegration in the evolution of a family of staphylococcal trimethoprim resistance plasmids. J. Bacteriol. 178:6070-6073.
281. Leelaporn, A., I. T. Paulsen, J. M. Tennent. T. G. Littlejohn, and R. A. Skurray. 1994. Multidrug resistance to antiseptics and disinfectants in coagulase-negative staphylococci. J. Med. Microbiol. 40:214-220.
282. Leive, L. 1974. The barrier function of the Gram-negative envelope. Ann. N. Y. Acad Sci. 235:109-129.
283. Lensing, H. H., and H. L. Oei. 1984. Study of the efficiency of disinfectants against antrax spores. Tijdschr. Dierjeneeskd. 109:557-563.
284. Levy, S. B. 1992. Active efflux mechanisms for antimicrobial resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 36:695-703.
285. Lewis, R. 1988. Antiseptic resistance in JK and other coryneforms. J. Hosp. Infect. 11:150-154.
286. Leyval, C., C. Arz, J. C. Block, and M. Rizet. 1984. Escherichia coli resistance to chlorine after successive chlorinations. Environ. Technol. Lett. 5: 359-364.
287. Liau, S. Y., D. C. Read, W. J. Pugh, J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1997. Interaction of silver nitrate with readily identifiable groups: relationship to the antibacterial action of silver ions. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 25:279-283.
288. Littlejohn, T. G., D. DiBeradino, L. J. Messerotti, S. J. Spiers, and R. A. Skurray. 1990. Structure and evolution of a family of genes encoding antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Gene 101: 59-66.
289. Littlejohn, T. G., I. T. Paulsen, M. T. Gillespie, J. M. Tennent, M. Midgley, I. G. Jones, A. S. Purewal, and R. A. Skurray. 1992. Substrate specificity and energetics of antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 95:259-266.
290. Longworth, A. R. 1971. Chlorhexidine, p. 95-106. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
291. Loveless, A. 1951. Quality aspects of the chemistry and biology of radiomimetic (mutagenic) substances. Nature (London) 167:338-342.
292. Lukens, R. J. 1983. Chemistry of fungicidal action. Mol. Biol. Biochem. Biophys. 10.
293. Luria, S. E. 1947. Reactivation of irradiated bacteriophage by transfer of self-reproducing units. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 33:253.
294. Lynam, P. A., J. R. Babb, and A. P. Fraise. 1995. Comparison of the mycobactericidal activity of 2% alkaline glutaraldehyde and 'Nu-Cidex' (0.35% peracetic acid). J. Hosp. Infect. 30:237-239.
295. Lyon, B. R., and R. A. Skurray. 1987. Antimicrobial resistance of Staphylococcus aureus: genetic basis. Microbiol. Rev. 51:88-134.
296. Lyr, H. 1987. Selectivity in modern fungicides and its basis, p. 31-58. In H. Lyr (ed.), Modern selective fungicides. Longman, Harlow, England.
297. Ma, T-H., and M. M. Harris. 1988. Review of the genotoxicity of formaldehyde. Mutat. Res. 196:37-59.
298. Maillard, J.-Y. 1998. Mechanisms of viricidal action. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
299. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1993. Effect of biocides on Pseudomonas aeruginosa phage F116. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 17:167-170.
300. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1994. Effect of biocides on MS2 and K coliphages. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2205-2206.
301. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1995. Effects of biocides on the transduction of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO by F116 bacteriophage. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 21:215-218.
302. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1995. Electronmicroscopic investigation of the effects of biocides on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO bacteriophage F116. J. Med. Microbiol. 42:415-420.
303. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1996. Damage to Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 bacteriophage F116 DNA by biocides. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 80:540-554.
304. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1996. The effect of biocides on proteins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO bacteriophage F116. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 80:291-295.
305. Maillard, J.-Y., T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1996. The use of an automated assay to assess phage survival after a biocidal treatment. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 80:605-610.
306. Maillard, J.-Y., A. C. Hann, T. S. Beggs, M. J. Day, R. A. Hudson, and A. D. Russell. 1995. Energy dispersive analysis of x-rays study of the distribution of chlorhexidine diacetate and cetylpyridinium chloride on the Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophage F116. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 20:357-360.
307. Maillard, J.-Y., and A. D. Russell. 1997. Viricidal activity and mechanisms of action of biocides. Sci. Progr. 80:287-315.
308. Malchesky, P. S. 1993. Peracetic acid and its application to medical instrument sterilization. Artif. Organs 17:147-152.
309. Manuelidis, L. 1997. Decontamination of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease and other transmissible agents. J. Neurovirol. 3:62-65.
310. Marrie, T. J., and J. W. Costerton. 1981. Prolonged survival of Serratia marcescens in chlorhexidine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 42:1093-1102.
311. Martin, T. D. M. 1969. Sensitivity of the genus Proteus to chlorhexidine. J. Med. Microbiol. 2:101-108.
312. Martindale Extra Pharmacopoeia. 1993. Silver nitrate, p. 1412; silver sulfadiazine, p. 201. Pharmaceutical Press, London, England.
313. Martindale Extra Pharmacopoeia. 1993. Silver nitrate, p. 1412; silver sulfadiazine, p. 201. Pharmaceutical Press, London, England.
314. Marzulli, F. N., and M. Bruch. 1981. Antimicrobial soaps: benefits versus risks, p. 125-134. In H. Maibach and R. Aly (ed.), Skin microbiology: relevance to clinical infection. Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y.
315. Mayworm, D. 1998. Low temperature sterilization revisited. Infect. Control Steril. Tech. 4:18-35.
316. Mbithi, J. N., V. S. Springthorpe, and S. A. Sattar. 1990. Chemical disinfection of hepatitis: a virus on environmental surfaces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:3601-3604.
317. Mbithi, J. N., V. S. Springthorpe, S. A. Sattar, and M. Pacquette. 1993. Bactericidal, virucidal, and mycobactericidal activities of reused alkaline gluteraldehyde in an endoscopy unit. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:2988-2995.
318. McClure, A. R., and J. Gordon. 1992. In vitro evaluation of povidone-iodine and chlorhexidine against methicillin-resistant Staphyhcoccus aureus. J. Hosp. Infect. 21:291-299.
319. McDonnell, G. 1998. Unpublished results.
320. McDonnell, G., K. Kornberger, and D. Pretzer. 1997. Antiseptic resistance: a survey of Staphylococcus and Enterococcus. In The healthcare continuum model: topical antimicrobial wash products in healthcare settings, the food industry and the home, June 1997. SDA/CTFA, Washington, D.C.
321. McGucken, P. V., and W. Woodside. 1973. Studies on the mode of action of glutaraldehyde on Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 36:419-426.
322. McKenna, S. M., and K. J. A. Davies. 1988. The inhibition of bacterial growth by hypochlorous acid. Biochem. J. 254:685-692.
323. McNeil, M. R., and P. J. Brennan. 1991. Structure, function and biogenesis of the cell envelope of mycobacteria in relation to bacterial physiology, pathogenesis and drug resistance: some thoughts and possibilities arising from recent structural information. Res. Microbiol. 142:451-463.
324. Michele, T. M., W. A. Cronin, N. M. H. Graham, D. M. Dwyer, D. S. Pope, S. Harrington, R. E. Chaisson, and W. R. Bishai. 1997. Transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis by a fiberoptic bronchoscope. JAMA 278:1093-1095.
325. Midgley, M. 1986. The phosphonium ion ion efflux system of Escherichia coli: a relationship to the ethidium efflux system and energetic studies. J. Gen. Microbiol. 132:3187-3193.
326. Midgley, M. 1987. An efflux system for cationic dyes and related compounds in Escherichia coli. Microbiol. Sc. 14:125-127.
327. Midgley, M. 1994. Characteristics of an ethidium efflux system in Enterococcus hirae. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 120:119-124.
328. Milhaud, P., and G. Balassa. 1973. Biochemical genetics of bacterial sporulation. IV. Sequential development of resistance to chemical and physical agents during sporulation of Bacillus subtilis. Mol. Gen. Genet. 125:241-250.
329. Miller, L. P. 1969. Mechanisms for reaching the site of actin, p. 1-58. In D. C. Torgeson (ed.), Fungicides: an advanced treatise, vol. 2. Academic Press, Inc., New York, N.Y.
330. Miller, L. P., and S. E. A. McCallan. 1957. Toxic action of metal ions to fungus spores. Agric. Food Chem. 5:116-122.
331. Miller, P. F., and M. C. Sulavik. 1996. Overlaps and parallels in the regulation of intrinsic multiple-antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli. Mol. Microbiol. 21:441-448.
332. Misra, T. K. 1992. Bacterial resistance to organic mercury salts and organomercurials. Plasmid 27:17-28.
333. Modak, S. M., and C. L. Fox, Jr. 1973. Binding of silver sulfadiazine to the cellular components of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Biochem. Pharmacol. 22: 2391-2404.
334. Moken, M. C., L. M. McMurry, and S. B. Levy. 1997. Selection of multiple-antibiotic-resistant (Mar) mutants of Escherichia coli by using the disinfectant pine oil: roles of the mar and acrAB loci. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 41:2770-2772.
335. Moore, F. C., and L. R. Perkinson. 1979. U.S. patent 4,169,123.
336. Morgan, R. W., M. F. Christman, F. S. Jacobson, G. Storz, and B. N. Ames. 1986. Hydrogen peroxide-inducible proteins in Salmonella typhimurium overlap with heat shock and other stress proteins. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:8059-8063.
337. Morris, J. G., Jr., M. B. Sztein, E. W. Rice, J. P. Nataro, G. A. Losonsky, P. Panigrahi, C. O. Tacket, and J. A. Johnson. 1996. Vibrio cholerae O1 can assume a chlorine-resistant rugose survival form that is virulent for humans. J. Infect. Dis. 174:1364-1368.
338. Morton, H. E. 1983. Alcohols, p. 225-239. In S. S. Bloch (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 3rd ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
339. Mukhopadhyay, S., and H. E. Schellhorn. 1997. Identification and characterization of hydrogen peroxide-sensitive mutants of Escherichia coli: genes that require OxyR for expression. J. Bacteriol. 179:330-338.
340. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1970. Aspects of the action of glutaraldehyde on Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 33:410-419.
341. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1970. Effect of glutaraldehyde on protoplasts of Bacillus megaterium. J. Gen. Microbiol. 63:367-370.
342. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1971. Interaction of glutaraldehyde with some micro-organisms. Experientia 27:109-110.
343. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1972. Effect of glutaraldehyde on the outer layers of Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 35:193-199.
344. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1973. Effect of glutaraldehyde on cell viability, triphenyltetrazolium reduction, oxygen uptake and β-galactosidase activity in Escherichia coli. Appl. Microbiol. 26:508-511.
345. Munton, T. J., and A. D. Russell. 1973. Interaction of glutaraldehyde with spheroplasts of Escherichia coli. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 36:211-217.
346. Musser, J. M. 1995. Antimicrobial agent resistance in mycobacteria: molecular genetic insights. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 8:496-514.
347. Mycock, G. 1985. Methicillin/antiseptic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet ii:949-950.
348. Myers, J. A., M. C. Allwood, M. J. Gidley, and J. K. M. Sanders. 1980. The relationship between structure and activity of taurolin. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 48:89-96.
349. Nagai, I., and H. Ogase. 1990. Absence of role for plasmids in resistance to multiple disinfectants in three strains of bacteria. J. Hosp. Infect. 15:149-155.
350. Nies, D. H., and S. Silver. 1995. Ion efflux systems involved in bacterial metal resistances. J. Ind. Microbiol. 14:186-199.
351. Nakajima, H., K. Kobayashi, M. Kobayashi, H. Asako, and R. Aono. 1995. Overexpression of the robA gene increases organic solvent tolerance and multiple antibiotic and heavy metal ion resistance in Escherichia coli. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:2302-2307.
352. Nakamura, H. 1966. Acriflavine-binding capacity of Escherichia coli in relation to acriflavine sensitivity and metabolic activity. J. Bacteriol. 92: 1447-1452.
353. Navarro, J. M., and P. Monsan. 1976. Étude du mécanisme d'interaction du glutaraldéhyde avec les microorganismes. Ann. Microbiol. (Inst. Pasteur) 127B:295-307.
354. Nicholson, G., R. A. Hudson, M. V. Chadwick, and H. Gaya. 1995. The efficacy of the disinfection of bronchoscopes contaminated in vitro with Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium intracellulose in sputum: a comparison of Sactimed-I-Sinald and glutaraldehyde. J. Hosp. Infect. 29:257-264.
355. Nicoletti, G., V. Boghossian, F. Gureviteh, R. Borland, and P. Morgenroth. 1993. The antimicrobial activity in vitro of chlorhexidine, a mixture of isothiazolinones ('Kathon' CG) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB). J. Hosp. Infect. 23:87-111.
356. Nikaido, H. 1994. Prevention of drug access to bacterial targets: permeability barriers and active efflux. Science 264:382-388.
357. Nikaido, H., S.-H. Kim, and E. Y. Rosenberg. 1993. Physical organization of lipids in the cell wall of Mycobacterium chelonae. Mol. Microbiol. 8:1025-1030.
358. O'Brien, R. T., and J. Newman. 1979. Structural and compositional changes associated with chlorine inactivation of polioviruses. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38:1034-1039.
359. Ogase, H., I. Nigai, K. Kameda, S. Kume, and S. Ono. 1992. Identification and quantitative analysis of degradation products of chlorhexidine with chlorhexidine-resistant bacteria with three-dimensional high performance liquid chromatography. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 73:71-78.
360. Olivieri, V. P., C. W. Kruse, Y. C. Hsu, A. C. Griffiths, and K. Kawata. 1975. The comparative mode of action of chlorine, bromine, and iodine of f2 bacterial virus, p. 145-162. In J. D. Johnson (ed.), Disinfection-water and wastewater. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, Mich.
361. Pallent, L. J., W. B. Hugo, D. J. W. Grant, and A. Davies. 1983. Pseudomonas cepacia and infections. J. Hosp. Infect. 4:9-13.
362. Park, J. B., and N. H. Park. 1989. Effect of chlorhexidine on the in vitro and in vivo herpes simplex virus infection. Oral Surg. 67:149-153.
363. Passagot, J., J. M. Crance, E. Biziagos, H. Laveran, F. Agbalika, and R. Deloince. 1987. Effect of glutaraldehyde on the antigenicity and infectivity of hepatitis A virus. J. Virol. Methods 16:21-28.
364. Paulsen, I. T., M. H. Brown, S. J. Dunstan, and R. A. Skurray. 1995. Molecular characterization of the staphylococcal multidrug resistance export protein QacC. J. Bacteriol. 177:2827-2833.
365. Paulsen, I. T., M. H. Brown, T. G. Littlejohn, B. A. Mitchell, and R. A. Skurray. 1996. Multidrug resistance proteins QacA and QacB from Staphylococcus aureus: membrane topology and identification of residues involved in substrate specificity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:3630-3635.
366. Paulsen, I. T., T. G. Littlejohn, P. Radstrom, L. Sundstrom, O. Skold, G. Swedberg, and R. A. Skurray. 1993. The 31 conserved segment of integrons contain a gene associated with multidrug resistance to antiseptics and disinfectants. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 34:761-768.
367. Paulsen, I. T., J. H. Park, P. S. Choi, and M. H. Saier. 1997. A family of gram-negative outer membrane factors that function in the export of proteins, carbohydrates, drugs and heavy metals from gram-negative bacteria. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 156:1-8.
368. Paulsen, I. T., R. A. Skurray, R. Tam, M. H. Saier, R. J. Turner, J. H. Weiner, E. B. Goldberg, and L. L. Grinius. 1996. The SMR family: a novel family of multidrug efflux proteins involved with the efflux of lipophilic drugs. Mol. Microbiol. 19:1167-1175.
369. Paulsen, I. T., and R. A. Skurray. 1993. Topology, structure and evolution of two families of proteins involved in antibiotic and antiseptic resistance in eukaryotes and prokaryotes - an analysis. Gene 124:1-11.
370. Permana, P. A., and R. M. Snapka. 1994. Aldehyde-induced protein-DNA crosslinks disrupt specific stages of SV40 DNA replication. Carcinogenesis 15:1031-1036.
371. Persino, R., and D. L. Lynch. 1982. Divalent cation dependent resistance in E. coli LMR-26 to the broad spectrum antimicrobial agent Irgasan. Microbios 34:41-58.
372. Phillips, C. R. 1952. Relative resistance of bacterial spores and vegetative bacteria to disinfectants. Bacteriol. Rev. 16:135-138.
373. Phillips-Jones, M. K., and M. E. Rhodes-Roberts. 1991. Studies of inhibitors of respiratory electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:203-224.
374. Pitt, T. L., M. Gaston, and P. N. Hoffman. 1983. In vitro susceptibility of hospital isolates in various bacterial genera to chlorhexidine. J. Hosp. Infect. 4:173-176.
375. Power, E. G. M. 1995. Aldehydes as biocides. Prog. Med. Chem. 34:149-201.
376. Power, E. G. M., B. N. Dancer, and A. D. Russell. 1988. Emergence of resistance to glutaraldehyde in spores of Bacillus subtilis 168. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 50:223-226.
377. Power, E. G. M., B. N. Dancer, and A. D. Russell. 1989. Possible mechanisms for the revival of glutaraldehyde-treated spores of Bacillus subtilis NCTC 8236. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 67:91-98.
378. Power, E. G. M., B. N. Dancer, and A. D. Russell. 1990. Effect of sodium hydroxide and two proteases on the revival of aldehyde-treated spores of Bacillus subtilis. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 10:9-13.
379. Power, E. G. M., and A. D. Russell. 1989. Glutaraldehyde: its uptake by sporing and non-sporing bacteria, rubber, plastic and an endoscope. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 67:329-342.
380. 14C)-alanine to glutaraldehyde-treated and untreated spores of Bacillus subtilis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 66:271-276.
381. Power, E. G. M., and A. D. Russell. 1990. Sporicidal action of alkaline glutaraldehyde: factors influencing activity and a comparison with other aldehydes. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 69:261-268.
382. Poxton, I. R. 1993. Prokaryote envelope diversity. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 70:1S-11S.
383. Prince, D. L., H. N. Prince, O. Thraenhart, E. Muchmore, E. Bonder, and J. Pugh. 1993. Methodological approaches to disinfection of human hepatitis B virus. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31:3296-3304.
384. Prince, H. N., W. S. Nonemaker, R. C. Norgard, and D. L. Prince. 1978. Drug resistance with topical antiseptics. J. Pharm. Sci. 67:1629-1631.
385. Prince, H. N., D. L. Prince, and R. N. Prince. 1991. Principles of viral control and transmission, p. 411-444. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
386. Prusiner, S. B. 1982. Novel proteinaceous infectious particles cause scrapie. Science 216:136-144.
387. Pulvertaft, R. J. V., and G. D. Lumb. 1948. Bacterial lysis and antiseptics. J. Hyg. 46:62-64.
388. +. Photochem. Photobiol. 18:29-38.
389. + on the sensitivity of phage and of transforming DNA to ultraviolet radiation. Photochem. Photobiol. 18:39-41.
390. Ranganthan, N. S. 1996. Chlorhexidine, p. 235-264. In J. M. Ascenzi (ed.), Handbook of disinfectants and antiseptics. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
391. Rastogi, N. S., C. Frehel, A. Ryter, H. Ohayon, M. Lesowd, and H. L. David. 1981. Multiple drug resistance in Mycobacterium avium: is the wall architecture responsible for the exclusion of antimicrobial agents? Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 20:666-677.
392. Rastogi, N. S., K. S. Goh, and H. L. David. 1990. Enhancement of drug susceptibility of Mycobacterium avium by inhibitors of cell envelope synthesis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 34:759-764.
393. Rayman, M. K., T. C. Y. Lo, and B. D. Sanwal. 1972. Transport of succinate in Escherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem. 247:6332-6339.
394. Regos, J., and H. R. Hitz. 1974. Investigations on the mode of action of triclosan, a broad spectrum antimicrobial agent. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. I Abt Orig. 226:390-401.
395. Resnick, L., K. Varen, S. Z. Salahuddin, S. Tondreau, and P. D. Markham. 1986. Stability and inactivation of HTLV-III/LAV under clinical and laboratory environments. JAMA 255:1887-1891.
396. Reverdy, M. E., M. Bes, Y. Brun, and J. Fleurette. 1993. Évolution de la résistance aux antibiotiques et aux a itiseptiques de souche hospitalières de Staphylococcus aureus isolées de 1980 à 1991. Pathol. Biol. 41:897-904.
397. Reverdy, M.-E., M. Bes, C. Nervi, A. Martra, and J. Fleurette. 1992. Activity of four antiseptics (acriflavine, benzalkonium chloride, chlorhexidine digluconate and hexamidine di-isethionate) and of ethidium bromide on 392 strains representing 26 Staphylococcus species. Med. Microbiol. Lett. 1:56-63.
398. Richards, R. M. E. 1981. Antimicrobial action of silver nitrate. Microbios 31:83-91.
399. Richards, R. M. E., H. A. Odelola, and B. Anderson. 1984. Effect of silver on whole cells and spheroplasts of a silver resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Microbios 39:151-158.
400. Richards, R. M. E., R. B. Taylor, and D. K. L. Xing. 1991. An evaluation of the antibacterial activities of sulfonamides, trimethoprim, dibromopropamidine, and silver nitrate compared with their uptakes by selected bacteria. J. Pharm. Sci. 80:861-867.
401. Richards, R. M. E., J. Z. Xing, D. W. Gregory, and D. Marshall. 1993. Investigation of cell envelope damage to Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Enterobacter cloacae by dibromopropamidine isethionate. J. Pharm. Sci. 82: 975-977.
402. Rogers, F. G., P. Hufton, E. Kurzawska, C. Molloy, and S. Morgan. 1985. Morphological response of human rotavirus to ultraviolet radiation, heat and disinfectants. J. Med. Microbiol. 20:123-130.
403. Rose, A. H. 1987. Responses to the chemical environment, p. 5-40. In A. H. Rose and J. S. Harrison (ed.), The yeasts, 2nd ed., vol. 2. Yeasts and the environment. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
404. Rosenberg, A., S. D. Alatary, and A. F. Peterson. 1976. Safety and efficacy of the antiseptic chlorhexidine gluconate. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 143:789-792.
405. Rosenkranz, H. S., and S. Rosenkranz. 1972. Silver sulfadiazine: interaction with isolated deoxyribonucleic acid. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2:373-383.
406. Rouche, D. A., D. S. Cram, D. Di Berardino, T. G. Littlejohn, and R. A. Skurray. 1990. Efflux-mediated antiseptic gene qacA from Staphylococcus aureus: common ancestry with tetracycline and sugar-transport proteins. Mol. Microbiol. 4:2051-2062.
407. Roussow, F. T., and R. J. Rowbury. 1984. Effects of the resistance plasmid R124 on the level of the OmpF outer membrane protein and on the response of Escherichia coli to environmental agents. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 56: 73-79.
408. Rubin, J. 1991. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disinfection and control, p. 472-481. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
409. Rudolf, A. S., and M. Levine. 1941. Iowa Engineering and Experimental Station bulletin 150. Iowa Engineering and Experimental Station, Iowa.
410. Russell, A. D. 1968. Use of protoplasts, spheroplasts. L-forms and pleuropneumonia-like organisms in disinfection studies. Lab. Pract. 17:804-808.
411. Russell, A. D. 1971. Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid, p. 209-224. In W. B. Hugo (ed.), Inhibition and destruction of the microbial cell. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
412. Russell, A. D. 1981. Modification of the bacterial cell envelope and enhancement of antibiotic susceptibility, p. 119-165. In C. H. Stuart-Harris and D. M. Harris (ed.), The control of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
413. Russell, A. D. 1982. The destruction of bacterial spores, p. 169-231. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
414. Russell, A. D. 1985. The role of plasmids in bacterial resistance to antiseptics, disinfectants and preservatives. J. Hosp. Infect. 6:9-19.
415. Russell, A. D. 1990. Bacterial spores and chemical sporicidal agents. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 3:99-119.
416. Russell, A. D. 1990. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to non-antibiotics: food additives and food and pharmaceutical preservatives. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 71:191-201.
417. Russell, A. D. 1991. Chemical sporicidal and sporostatic agents, p. 365-376. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
418. Russell, A. D. 1991. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to non-antibiotics: food additives and food and pharmaceutical preservatives. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 71:191-201.
419. Russell, A. D. 1992. Effect of liquid phase antibacterial agents, p. 169-231. In A. D. Russell, The destruction of bacterial spores. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.
420. Russell, A. D. 1996. Activity of biocides against mycobacteria. J. Appl. Bacteriol, Symp. Suppl. 81:87S-101S.
421. Russell, A. D. 1993. Microbial cell walls and resistance of bacteria to antibiotics and biocides. J. Infect. Dis. 168:1339-1340.
422. Russell, A. D. 1994. Glutaraldehyde: current status and uses. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 15:724-733.
423. Russell, A. D. 1995. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to biocides. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 36:247-265.
424. Russell, A. D. 1997. Plasmids and bacterial resistance to biocides. J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:155-165.
425. Russell, A. D. Assessment of sporicidal activity. Int Biodeterior. Biodegrad., in press.
426. Russell, A. D. Mechanisms of bacterial resistance to antibiotics and biocides. Progr. Med. Chem., in press.
427. Russell, A. D. Antifungal activity of biocides. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
428. Russell, A. D. Plasmids and bacterial resistance. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
429. Russell, A. D., and I. Chopra. 1996. Understanding antibacterial action and resistance, 2nd ed. Ellis Horwood, Chichester, England.
430. Russell, A. D., B. N. Dancer, and E. G. M. Power. 1991. Effects of chemical agents on bacterial sporulation, germination and outgrowth. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:23-44.
431. Russell, A. D., and M. J. Day. 1993. Antibacterial activity of chlorhexidine. J. Hosp. Infect. 25:229-238.
432. Russell, A. D., and M. J. Day. 1996. Antibiotic and biocide resistance in bacteria. Microbios 85:45-65.
433. Russell, A. D., and J. R. Furr. 1977. The antibacterial activity of a new chloroxylenol formulation containing ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 43:253-260.
434. Russell, A. D., and J. R. Furr. 1986. The effects of antiseptics, disinfectants and preservatives on smooth, rough and deep rough strains of Salmonella typhimurium. Int. J. Pharm. 34:115-123.
435. Russell, A. D., and J. R. Furr. 1986. Susceptibility of some porin-and lipopolysaccharide-deficient strains of Escherichia coli to some antiseptics and disinfectants. J. Hosp. Infect. 8:47-56.
436. Russell, A. D., and J. R. Furr. 1987. Comparative sensitivity of smooth, rough and deep rough strains of Escherichia coli to chlorhexidine, quaternary ammonium compounds and dibromopropamidine isethionate. Int. J. Pharm. 36:191-197.
437. Russell, A. D., and J. R. Furr. 1996. Biocides: mechanisms of antifungal action and fungal resistance. Sci. Prog. 79:27-48.
438. Russell, A. D., J. R. Furr, and J.-Y. Maillard. 1997. Microbial susceptibility and resistance to biocides. ASM News 63:481-487.
439. Russell, A. D., J. R. Furr, and W. J. Pugh. 1985. Susceptibility of porin-and lipopolysaccharide-deficient mutants of Escherichia coli to a homologous series of esters of p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Int. J. Pharm. 27:163-173.
440. Russell, A. D., J. R. Furr, and W. J. Pugh. 1987. Sequential loss of outer membrane lipopolysaccharide and sensitivity of Escherichia coli to antibacterial agents. Int. J. Pharm. 35:227-233.
441. Russell, A. D., and G. W. Gould. 1988. Resistance of Enterobacteriaceae to preservatives and disinfectants. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 65:167S-195S.
442. Russell, A. D., and H. Haque. 1975. Inhibition of EDTA-lysozyme lysis of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by glutaraldehyde. Microbios 13:151-153.
443. Russell, A. D., and D. Hopwood. 1976. The biological uses and importance of glutaraldehyde. Prog. Med. Chem. 13:271-301.
444. Russell, A. D., and W. B. Hugo. 1994. Antimicrobial activity and action of silver. Prog. Med. Chem. 31:351-371.
445. Russell, A. D., and W. B. Hugo. 1987. Chemical disinfectants, p. 12-42. In A. H. Linton, W. B. Hugo, and A. D. Russell (ed.), Disinfection in veterinary and farm animal practice. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, England.
446. Russell, A. D., and W. B. Hugo. 1988. Perturbation of homeostatic mechanisms in bacteria by pharmaceuticals, p. 206-219. In R. Whittenbury, G. W. Gould, J. G. Banks, and R. G. Board (ed.), Homeostatic mechanisms in microorganisms. Bath University Press, Bath, England.
447. Russell, A. D., W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.). 1992. Principle and practices of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 2nd ed. Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd., Oxford, England.
448. Russell, A. D., B. D. Jones, and P. Milburn. 1985. Reversal of the inhibition of bacterial spore germination and outgrowth by antibacterial agents. Int. J. Pharm. 25:105-112.
449. Russell, A. D., A. Morris, and M. C. Allwood. 1973. Methods for assessing damage to bacteria induced by chemical and physical agents. Methods Microbiol. 8:95-182.
450. Russell, A. D., and A. P. Mills. 1974. Comparative sensitivity and resistance of some strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Pseudomonas stutzeri to antibacterial agents. J. Clin. Pathol. 27:463-466.
451. Russell, A. D., and T. J. Munton. 1974. Bactericidal and bacteriostatic activity of glutaraldehyde and its interaction with lysine and proteins. Microbios 11:147-152.
452. Russell, A. D., and N. J. Russell. 1995. Biocides: activity, action and resistance. Symp. Soc. Gen. Microbiol. 53:327-365.
453. Russell, A. D., U. Tattawajaet, J.-Y. Maillard, and A. D. Russell. Possible linked bacterial resistance to antibiotics and biocides. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, in press.
454. Russell, A. D., and G. N. Vernon. 1975. Inhibition by glutaraldehyde of lysostaphin-induced lysis of Staphylococcus aureus. Microbios 13:147-149.
455. Rutala, W. A. 1995. APIC guidelines for selection and use of disinfectants. Am. J. Infect. Control 23:313-342.
456. Rutala, W. A., E. C. Cole, M. S. Wannamaker, and D. J. Weber. 1991. Inactivation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis by 14 hospital disinfectants. Am. J. Med. 91(Suppl. B):267S-271S.
457. Sabli, M. Z. H., P. Setlow, and W. M. Waites. 1996. The effect of hypochlorite on spores of Bacillus subtilis lacking small acid-soluble proteins. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 22:405-507.
458. Sagripanti, J.-L., and A. Bonifacino. 1996. Comparative sporicidal effects of liquid chemical agents. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:545-551.
459. Salk, J. E., and J. B. Gori. 1960. A review of theoretical, experimental and practical considerations in the use of formaldehyde for inactivation of poliovirus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 83:609-637.
460. Salt, W. G., and D. Wiseman. 1991. Biocide uptake by bacteria. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:65-86.
461. Salton, M. R. J. 1968. Lytic agents, cell permeability and monolayer penetrability. J. Gen. Physiol. 52:277S-252S.
462. Sareen, M., and G. K. Khuller. 1988. Phospholipids of ethambutol-susceptible and resistant strains of Mycobacterium smegmatis. J. Biosci. 13:243-248.
463. Sareen, M., and G. K. Khuller. 1990. Cell wall composition of ethambutolsusceptible and resistant strains of Mycobacterium smegmatis A7CC607. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 11:7-10.
464. Sasatsu, M., Y. Shibata, N. Noguchi, and M. Kono. 1992. High-level resistance to ethidium bromide and antiseptics in Staphylococcus aureus. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 93:109-114.
465. Sasatsu, M., Y. Shidata, N. Noguchi, and M. Kono. 1994. Substrates an inhibitors of antiseptic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 17:163-165.
466. Sasatsu, M., K. Shimuzu, N. Noguchi, and M. Kono. 1993. Triclosanresistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 341:756.
467. Sasatsu, M., Y. Shirai, M. Hase, N. Noguchi, M. Kono, H. Behr, J. Freney, and T. Arai. 1995. The origin of the antiseptic-resistance gene ebr in Staphylococcus aureus. Microbios 84:161-169.
468. Sattar, S. A., V. S. Springthorpe, B. Conway, and Y. Xu. 1994. Inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: an update. Rev. Med. Microbiol. 5: 139-150.
469. Sautter, R. L., L. H. Mattman, and R. C. Legaspi. 1984. Serratia marcescens meningitis associated with a contaminated benzalkonium chloride solution. Infect. Control 5:223-225.
470. Savage, C. A. 1971. A new bacteriostat for skin care products. Drug Cosmet. Ind. 109:36-39, 161-163.
471. Schreurs, W. J. A., and H. Rosenburgh. 1982. Effect of silver ions on transport and retention of phosphate by Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 152:7-13.
472. Setlow, B., and P. Setlow. 1993. Binding of small, acid-soluble spore proteins to DNA plays a significant role in the resistance of Bacillus siiblilis spores to hydrogen peroxide. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3418-3423.
473. Setlow, P. 1994. Mechanisms which contribute to the long-term survival of spores of Bacillus species. J. Appl. Bacteriol. Symp. Suppl. 76:49S-60S.
474. Shaker, L. A., B. N. Dancer, A. D. Russell, and J. R. Furr. 1988. Emergence and development of chlorhexidine resistance during sporulation of Bacillus subtilis 168. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 51:73-76.
475. Shaker, L. A., J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1988. Mechanism of resistance of Bacillus subtilis spores to chlorhexidine. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 64:531-539.
476. Shaker, L. A., A. D. Russell, and J. R. Furr. 1986. Aspects of the action of chlorhexidine on bacterial spores. Int. J. Pharm. 34:51-56.
477. Shields, M. S., M. J. Reagin, R. R. Gerger, R. Campbell, and C. Somerville. 1995. TOM a new aromatic degradative plasmid from Burkholderia (Pseudomonas) cepacia G4. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 61:1352-1356.
478. Shih, K. L., and J. Lederberg. 1976. Effects of chloramine on Bacillus subtilis deoxyribonucleic acid. J. Bacteriol. 125:934-945.
479. Silva, J., Jr. 1994. Clostridium difficile nosocomial infections-still lethal and persistent. Infect. Control Hosp. Epidemiol. 15:368-370.
480. Silver, S., and S. Misra. 1988. Plasmid-mediated heavy metal resistances. Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 42:711-743.
481. Silver, S., G. Nucifora, L. Chu, and T. K. Misra. 1989. Bacterial ATPases: primary pumps for exporting toxic cations and anions. Trends Biochem. Sci. 14:76-80.
482. Silvernale, J. N., H. L. Joswick, T. R. Corner, and P. Gerhardt. 1971. Antimicrobial actions of hexachlorophane: cytological manifestations. J. Bacteriol. 108:482-491.
483. Scott, E. M., and S. P. Gorman. 1991. Glutaraldehyde, p. 596-614. In S. S. Block (ed.), Disinfection, sterilization and preservation, 4th ed. Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia, Pa.
484. Spicher, G., and J. Peters. 1976. Microbial resistance to formaldehyde. I. Comparative quantitative studies in some selected species of vegetative bacteria, bacterial spores, fungi, bacteriophages and viruses. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt 1 Orig. Reihe B 163:486-508.
485. Spicher, G., and J. Peters. 1981. Heat activation of bacterial spores after inactivation by formaldehyde. Dependence on heat activation on temperature and duration of action. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infektionskr. Hyg. Abt 1 Orig. Reihe B 173:188-196.
486. Springthorpe, V. S., J. L. Grenier, N. Lloyd-Evans, and S. A. Sattar. 1986. Chemical disinfection of human rotaviruses: efficacy of commercially-available products in suspension tests. J. Hyg. 97:139-161.
487. Springthorpe, V. S., and S. A. Satter. 1990. Chemical disinfection of virus-contaminated surfaces. Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 20:169-229.
488. Srivastava, R. B., and R. E. M. Thompson. 1965. Influence of bacterial cell age on phenol action. Nature (London) 206:216.
489. Srivastava, R. B., and R. E. M. Thompson. 1966. Studies in the mechanism of action of phenol on Escherichia coli cells. Br. J. Exp. Pathol. 67:315-323.
490. Stewart, G. S. A. B., S. A. A. Jassim, and S. P. Denyer. 1991. Mechanisms of action and rapid biocide testing. Soc. Appl. Bacteriol. Tech. Ser. 27:319-329.
491. Stewart, G. S. A. B., K. Johnstone, E. Hagelberg, and D. J. Ellar. 1981. Commitment of bacterial spores to germinate. A measure of the trigger reaction. Biochem. J. 198:101-106.
492. Stewart, M. H., and B. H. Olson. 1992. Physiological studies of chloramine resistance developed by Klebsiella pneumoniae under low-nutrient growth conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:2918-2927.
493. Stickler, D. J., B. Thomas, J. C. Clayton, and J. A. Chawla. 1983. Studies on the genetic basis of chlorhexidine resistance. Br. J. Clin. Pract. Symp. Suppl. 25:23-28.
494. Stickler, D. J., J. Dolman, S. Rolfe, and J. Chawla. 1989. Activity of some antiseptics against urinary Escherichia coli growing as biofilms on silicone surfaces. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 8:974-978.
495. Stickler, D. J., J. Dolman, S. Rolfe, and J. Chawla. 1991. Activity of antiseptics against urinary tract pathogens growing as biofilms on silicone surfaces. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 10:410-415.
496. Stickler, D. J., and P. Hewett. 1991. Activity of antiseptics against biofilms of mixed bacterial species growing on silicone surfaces. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 10:416-421.
497. Stickler, D. J., and B. J. King. Intrinsic resistance. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
498. Storz, G., and S. Altuvia. 1994. OxyR regulon. Methods Enzymol. 234:217-223.
499. Sutton, L., and G. A. Jacoby. 1978. Plasmid-determined resistance to hexachlorophene in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 13:634-636.
500. Sykes, G. 1939. The influence of germicides on the dehydrogenases of Bact. coli. 1. The succinic acid dehydrogenase of Bart. coli. J. Hyg. 39:463-469.
501. Sykes, G. 1970. The sporicidal properties of chemical disinfectants. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 33:147-156.
502. Takayama, K., and J. O. Kilburn. 1989. Inhibition of synthesis of arabinogalactran by ethambutol in Mycobacterium smegmatis. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33:1493-1499.
503. Tattawasart, U., J.-Y. Maillard, J. R. Furr, A. C. Hann, and A. D. Russell. 1997. Basis of the resistance of Pseudomonas stutzeri to antibiotics and biocides. Poster presented at Society for Applied Microbiology, Autumn Meeting.
504. Taylor, D. M. Inactivation of unconventional agents of the transmissible degenerative encephalopathies. In A. D. Russell, W. B. Hugo, and G. A. J. Ayliffe (ed.), Principles and practice of disinfection, preservation and sterilization, 3rd ed., in press. Blackwell Science, Oxford, England.
505. Taylor, G. R., and M. Butler. 1982. A comparison of the virucidal properties of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine chloride and iodine. J. Hyg. 89:321-328.
506. Tennent, J. M., B. R. Lyon, M. T. Gillespie, J. W. May, and R. A. Skurray. 1985. Cloning and expression of Staphylococcus aureus plasmid-mediated quaternary ammonium resistance in Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 27:79-83.
507. Tennent, J. M., B. R. Lyon, M. Midgley, J. G. Jones, A. S. Purewal, and R. A. Skurray. 1989. Physical and chemical characterization of the qacA gene encoding antiseptic and disinfectant resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Gen. Microbiol. 135:1-10.
508. Thomas, S., and A. D. Russell. 1974. Studies on the mechanism of the sporicidal action of glutaraldehyde. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 37:83-92.
509. Thomas, S., and A. D. Russell. 1974. Temperature-induced changes in the sporicidal activity and chemical properties of glutaraldehyde. Appl. Microbiol. 28:331-335.
510. Thurmann, R. B., and C. P. Gerba. 1988. Molecules mechanisms of viral inactivation by water disinfectants. Adv. Appl. Microbiol. 33:75-105.
511. Thurmann, R. B., and C. P. Gerba. 1989. The molecules mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection of bacteria and viruses. Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 18:295-315.
512. Trevor, J. T. 1987. Silver resistance and accumulation in bacteria. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 9:331-333.
513. Trujillo, P., and T. J. David. 1972. Sporistatic and sporicidal properties of aqueous formaldehyde. Appl. Microbiol. 23:618-622.
514. Trujillo, R., and N. Laible. 1970. Reversible inhibition of spore germination by alcohols. Appl. Microbiol. 20:620-623.
515. Tyler, R., G. A. J. Ayliffe, and C. Bradley. 1990. Viricidal activity of disinfectants: studies with the poliovirus. J. Hosp. Infect. 15:339-345.
516. Uhl, S. 1993. Triclosan-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 342:248.
517. Vaara, M. 1992. Agents that increase the permeability of the outer membrane. Microbiol. Rev. 56:395-411.
518. Vaara, M., and J. Jakkola. 1989. Sodium hexametaphosphate sensitizes Pseudomonas aeruginosa, several other species of Pseudomonas, and Escherichia coli to hydrophobic drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 33:1741-1747.
519. Van Cuyck-Gandre, H., G. Molin, and Y. Cenatiempo. 1985. Étude de la résistance plasmidique aux antiseptiques. Mise au point de méthodes. Pathol. Biol. 33:623-627.
520. Van Klingeren, B., and W. Pullen. 1993. Glutaraldehyde-resistant mycobacteria from endoscope washers. J. Hosp. Infect. 25:147-149.
521. Viljanen, P. 1987. Polycations which disorganize the outer membrane inhibit conjugation in Escherichia coli. J. Antibiot. 40:882-886.
522. Vischer, W. A., and J. Regos. 1973. Antimicrobial spectrum of Triclosan, a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent for topical application. Zentbl. Bakteriol. Mikrobiol. Hyg. Abt Orig. A 226:376-389.
523. Waaler, S. M., G. Rolla, K. K. Skjorland, and B. Ogaard. 1993. Effects of oral rinsing with triclosan and sodium lauryl sulfate on dental plaque formation: pilot study. Scand. J. Dent. Res. 101:192-195.
524. Waites, W. M., and C. E. Bayliss. 1979. The effect of changes in spore coat on the destruction of Bacillus cereus spores by heat and chemical treatment. J. Appl. Biochem. 1:71-76.
525. Walker, J. F. 1964. Formaldehyde. ACS Monogr. Ser. 3. Reinhold Publishing, New York, N.Y.
526. Wallhäusser, K. 1984. Antimicrobial preservatives used by the cosmetics industry, p. 605-745. In J. J. Kabara (ed.), Cosmetic and drug preservation. Principles and practice. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y.
527. Walsh, S., J.-Y. Maillard, and A. D. Russell. 1997. Effects of testing method on activity of high level antibacterial disinfectants. Poster presented at Society for Applied Microbiology Autumn Meeting.
528. Walters, T. H., J. R. Furr, and A. D. Russell. 1983. Antifungal action of chlorhexidine. Microbios 38:195-204.
529. Wang, P., and H. E. Schellhorn. 1995. Induction of resistance to hydrogen peroxide and radiation in Deionococcus radiodurnans. Can. J. Microbiol. 41: 170-176.
530. Warth, A. D. 1988. Effect of benzoic acid on growth yield of years differing in their resistance to preservatives. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 54:2091-2095.
531. Wheeler, P. R., G. S. Besra, D. E. Minnikin, and C. Ratledge. 1993. Inhibition of mycolic acid biosynthesis in a cell-wall preparation from Mycobacterium smegmatis by methyl 4-(2-octadedylcyclopropen-1-yl)butanoate, a structural analogue of a key precursor. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 17:33-36.
532. White, D. C. 1997. Antifungal drug resistance in Candida albicans. ASM News 63:427-433.
533. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1992. The nature and site of biocide-induced sublethal injury in Bacillus subtilis spores. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 99:277-280.
534. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1992. Increased susceptibility of injured spores of Bacillus subtilis to cationic and other stressing agents. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 15:253-255.
535. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1993. Injury and repair in biocide-treated spores of Bacillus subtilis. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 106:183-186.
536. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1993. Revival of biocide-treated spores of Bacillus subtilis, J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75:69-75.
537. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1993. Revival of Bacillus subtilis spores from biocide-induced injury in germination processes. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 75:76-81.
538. Williams, N. D., and A. D. Russell. 1993. Conditions suitable for the recovery of biocide-treated spores of Bacillus subtilis. Microbios 74:121-129.
539. Wimpenny, J., W. Nichols, D. Stickler, and H. Lappin-Scott. 1994. Bacterial biofilms and their control in medicine and industry. BioLine, Cardiff, Wales.
540. Winquist, L., U. Rannug, A. Rannug, and C. Ramel. 1984. Protection from toxic and mutagenic effects of hydrogen peroxide by catalase induction in Salmonella typhimurium. Mutat. Res. 141:145-147.
541. Wood, P., M. Jones, M. Bhakoo, and P. Gilbert. 1996. A novel strategy for control of microbial biofilms through generation of biocide at the biofilm-surface interface. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:2598-2602.
542. Wright, A. M., E. V. Hoxey, C. J. Soper, and D. J. G. Davies. 1997. Biological indicators for low temperature steam and formaldehyde sterilization: effect of variations in recovery conditions on the response of spores of Bacillus stearothermophilus NCIMB 8224 to low temperature steam and formaldehyde. J. Appl. Microbiol. 82:552-556.
543. Wu, Z. C., and X. J. Jiang. 1990. The effects of chlorine disinfection on the resistance of bacteriophage f2 in water. Chung Hua Yu Fang I Hsueh Tsa Chin 24:196-198.
544. Yakabe, Y., T. Sano, H. Ushio, and T. Yasunaga. 1980. Kinetic studies of the interaction between silver ion and deoxyribonucleic acid. Chem. Lett. 4: 373-376.
545. Yamamoto, T., Y. Tamura, and T. Yokota. 1988. Antiseptic and antibiotic resistance plasmid in Staphylococcus aureus that possesses ability to confer chlorhexidine and acrinol resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 32: 932-935.
546. Yasuda-Yasuki, Y., S. Namiki-Kanie, and Y. Hachisaka. 1978. Inhibition of germination of Bacillus subtilis spores by alcohols, p. 113-116. In G. Chambliss and J. C. Vary (eds.), Spores VII. American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C.
547. Young, D. C., and D. C. Sharp. 1985. Virion conformational forms and the complex inactivation kinetics of echovirus by chlorine in water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 49:359-364.
548. Zavriev, S. K., L. E. Minchenkova, M. Vorličková, A. M. Kolchinsky, M. V. Volkenstein, and V. I. Ivanov. 1979. Circular dichroism anisotrope of DNA with different modifications at N7 of guanine. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 564: 212-224.