U.S. selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2016

MMWR Recommendations and Reports

Volumn 65, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 1-66

  Curtis, Kathryn M ^a   Jatlaoui, Tara C ^a   Tepper, Naomi K ^a   Zapata, Lauren B ^a   Horton, Leah G ^a   Jamieson, Denise J ^a   Whiteman, Maura K ^a  

^a NATIONAL CENTER FOR CHRONIC DISEASE PREVENTION AND HEALTH PROMOTION   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT;

ADVERSE EFFECTS; CONTRACEPTION; CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PREGNANCY; PROCEDURES; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; UNITED STATES; UTILIZATION;

CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION (U.S.); CONTRACEPTION; CONTRACEPTIVE AGENTS; CONTRACEPTIVE DEVICES; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; PREGNANCY; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84983514841     PISSN: 10575987     EISSN: 15458601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.15585/mmwr.rr6504a1     Document Type: Article

References (353)

1. Finer LB, Zolna MR. Declines in unintended pregnancy in the United States, 2008-2011. N Engl J Med 2016;374:843-52. http://dx.doi. org/10.1056/NEJMsa1506575
2. Gipson JD, Koenig MA, Hindin MJ. The effects of unintended pregnancy on infant, child, and parental health: a review of the literature. Stud Fam Plann 2008;39:18-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00148.x
3. Sonfield A, Kost K. Public costs from unintended pregnancies and the role of public insurance programs in paying for pregnancy-related care: national and state estimates for 2010. New York, NY: The Guttmacher Institute; 2015.
4. Finer LB, Henshaw SK. Disparities in rates of unintended pregnancy in the United States, 1994 and 2001. Perspect Sex Reprod Health 2006;38:90-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1363/3809006
5. CDC. U.S. medical eligibility criteria for contraceptive use, 2016. MMWR Recomm Rep (No. RR-3);2016.
6. CDC. U.S. selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2013: adapted from the World Health Organization selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use, 2nd edition. MMWR Recomm Rep 2013;62(No. RR-5).
7. Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Flanagan RG, Rinehart W, Gaffield ML, Peterson HB. Keeping up with evidence: a new system for WHO's evidence-based family planning guidance. Am J Prev Med 2005;28:483-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2005.02.008
8. Liberati A, Altman DG, TetzlaffJ, et al. The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. J Clin Epidemiol 2009;62:e1-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2009.06.006
9. Moher D, Liberati A, TetzlaffJ, Altman DG; PRISMA Group. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. BMJ 2009;339:b2535.
10. Harris RP, Helfand M, Woolf SH, et al; Methods Work Group, Third US Preventive Services Task Force. Current methods of the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force: a review of the process. Am J Prev Med 2001;20(Suppl):21-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(01)00261-6
11. Horton LG, Folger SG, Berry-Bibee E, Jatlaoui TC, Tepper NK, Curtis KM. Research gaps from evidence-based contraceptives guidance: the U.S. Medical Eligibility Criteria for Contraceptive Use, 2016, and the U.S. Selected Practice Recommendations for Contraceptive Use, 2016. Contraception. In press 2016.
12. Gavin L, Moskosky S, Carter M, et al. Providing quality family planning services: Recommendations of CDC and the U.S. Office of Population Affairs. MMWR Recomm Rep 2014;63(No. RR-4).
13. World Health Organization. Selected practice recommendations for contraceptive use. 2nd ed. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO Press; 2004.
14. Trussell J. Contraceptive failure in the United States. Contraception 2011;83:397-404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2011.01.021
15. Workowski KA, Bolan GA. Sexually transmitted diseases treatment guidelines, 2015. MMWR Recomm Rep 2015;64(No. RR-3).
16. Stanback J, Nakintu N, Qureshi Z, Nasution M. Does assessment of signs and symptoms add to the predictive value of an algorithm to rule out pregnancy? J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2006;32:27-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1783/147118906775275370
17. Stanback J, Nanda K, Ramirez Y, Rountree W, Cameron SB. Validation of a job aid to rule out pregnancy among family planning clients in Nicaragua. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2008;23:116-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1590/S1020-49892008000200007
18. Stanback J, Qureshi Z, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Gonzalez B, Nutley T. Checklist for ruling out pregnancy among family-planning clients in primary care. Lancet 1999;354:566. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(99)01578-0
19. Torpey K, Mwenda L, Kabaso M, et al. Excluding pregnancy among women initiating antiretroviral therapy: efficacy of a family planning job aid. BMC Public Health 2010;10:249. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-10-249
20. Cole LA, Ladner DG, Byrn FW. The normal variabilities of the menstrual cycle. Fertil Steril 2009;91:522-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. fertnstert.2007.11.073
21. Wilcox AJ, Dunson D, Baird DD. The timing of the "fertile window" in the menstrual cycle: day specific estimates from a prospective study. BMJ 2000;321:1259-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.321.7271.1259
22. Donnet ML, Howie PW, Marnie M, Cooper W, Lewis M. Return of ovarian function following spontaneous abortion. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1990;33:13-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1990. tb00460.x
23. Lähteenmäki P. Postabortal contraception. Ann Med 1993;25:185-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/07853899309164166
24. Stoddard A, Eisenberg DL. Controversies in family planning: timing of ovulation after abortion and the conundrum of postabortion intrauterine device insertion. Contraception 2011;84:119-21. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2010.12.010
25. Jackson E, Glasier A. Return of ovulation and menses in postpartum nonlactating women: a systematic review. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:657-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e31820ce18c
26. Kennedy KI, Rivera R, McNeilly AS. Consensus statement on the use of breastfeeding as a family planning method. Contraception 1989;39:477-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(89)90103-0
27. Labbok MH, Perez A, Valdes V, et al. The lactational amenorrhea method (LAM): a postpartum introductory family planning method with policy and program implications. Adv Contracept 1994;10:93-109. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01978103
28. US Food and Drug Administration. 510(k) premarket notification. Silver Spring, MD; 2015. https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfpmn/pmn.cfm
29. Cervinski MA, Gronowski AM. Reproductive-endocrine point-of-care testing: current status and limitations. Clin Chem Lab Med 2010;48:935-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/CCLM.2010.183
30. Cole LA. Human chorionic gonadotropin tests. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2009;9:721-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1586/erm.09.51
31. Eichner SF, Timpe EM. Urinary-based ovulation and pregnancy: pointof- care testing. Ann Pharmacother 2004;38:325-31. http://dx.doi. org/10.1345/aph.1D210
32. Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Dunson D, McChesney R, Weinberg CR. Natural limits of pregnancy testing in relation to the expected menstrual period. JAMA 2001;286:1759-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.286.14.1759
33. Korhonen J, Alfthan H, Ylöstalo P, Veldhuis J, Stenman UH. Disappearance of human chorionic gonadotropin and its alpha- and beta-subunits after term pregnancy. Clin Chem 1997;43:2155-63.
34. Reyes FI, Winter JS, Faiman C. Postpartum disappearance of chorionic gonadotropin from the maternal and neonatal circulations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1985;153:486-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0002-9378(85)90458-2
35. Steier JA, Bergsjø P, Myking OL. Human chorionic gonadotropin in maternal plasma after induced abortion, spontaneous abortion, and removed ectopic pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 1984;64:391-4.
36. Bracken MB. Oral contraception and congenital malformations in offspring: a review and meta-analysis of the prospective studies. Obstet Gynecol 1990;76:552-7.
37. Gray RH, Pardthaisong T. In utero exposure to steroid contraceptives and survival during infancy. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:804-11.
38. Pardthaisong T, Gray RH. In utero exposure to steroid contraceptives and outcome of pregnancy. Am J Epidemiol 1991;134:795-803.
39. Jaffe B, Harlap S, Baras M, et al. Long-term effects of MPA on human progeny: intellectual development. Contraception 1988;37:607-19. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(88)90007-8
40. Pardthaisong T, Yenchit C, Gray R. The long-term growth and development of children exposed to Depo-Provera during pregnancy or lactation. Contraception 1992;45:313-24. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(92)90053-V
41. Brahmi D, Steenland MW, Renner RM, Gaffield ME, Curtis KM. Pregnancy outcomes with an IUD in situ: a systematic review. Contraception 2012;85:131-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2011.06.010
42. Tepper NK, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Use of a checklist to rule out pregnancy: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:661-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.007
43. Whiteman MK, Tyler CP, Folger SG, Gaffield ME, Curtis KM. When can a woman have an intrauterine device inserted? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:666-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.08.015
44. Teva Women's Health Inc. ParaGard T 380a intrauterine copper contraceptive [Prescribing information]. Sellersville, PA; 2013. http://paragard.com/Pdf/ParaGard-PI.pdf
45. Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc. Mirena (levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system) [Prescribing information]. Whippany, NJ; 2014. http://labeling.bayerhealthcare.com/html/products/pi/Mirena_PI. pdf
46. Jatlaoui TC, Simmons KB, Curtis KM. The safety of intrauterine contraception initiation among women with current asymptomatic cervical infections or at increased risk of sexually transmitted infections. Contraception 2016. Epub June 1, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2016.05.013
47. Avonts D, Sercu M, Heyerick P, Vandermeeren I, Meheus A, Piot P. Incidence of uncomplicated genital infections in women using oral contraception or an intrauterine device: a prospective study. Sex Transm Dis 1990;17:23-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00007435-199017010-00006
48. Birgisson NE, Zhao Q, Secura GM, Madden T, Peipert JF. Positive testing for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Chlamydia trachomatis and the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease in IUD users. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2015;24:354-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2015.5190
49. Campbell SJ, Cropsey KL, Matthews CA. Intrauterine device use in a high-risk population: experience from an urban university clinic. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197: 193.e1-6; discussion 193.e6-7.
50. Cropsey KL, Matthews C, Campbel S, Ivey S, Adawadkar S. Long-term, reversible contraception use among high-risk women treated in a university-based gynecology clinic: comparison between IUD and Depo- Provera. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2010;19:349-53. http://dx.doi. org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1518
51. Farley TMM, Rosenberg MJ, Rowe PJ, Chen JH, Meirik O. Intrauterine devices and pelvic inflammatory disease: an international perspective. Lancet 1992;339:785-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(92)91904-M
52. Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Antibiotic prophylaxis for intrauterine contraceptive device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(2):CD001327.
53. LeFevre ML; US Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for chlamydia and gonorrhea: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 2014;161:902-10. http://dx.doi. org/10.7326/M14-1981
54. Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Peterson HB. Does insertion and use of an intrauterine device increase the risk of pelvic inflammatory disease among women with sexually transmitted infection? A systematic review. Contraception 2006;73:145-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2005.08.007
55. Morrison CS, Turner AN, Jones LB. Highly effective contraception and acquisition of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol 2009;23:263-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. bpobgyn.2008.11.004
56. Sufrin CB, Postlethwaite D, Armstrong MA, Merchant M, Wendt JM, Steinauer JE. Neisseria gonorrhea and Chlamydia trachomatis screening at intrauterine device insertion and pelvic inflammatory disease. Obstet Gynecol 2012;120:1314-21.
57. Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Laboratory screening prior to initiating contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:645-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.08.009
58. Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Hemoglobin measurement prior to initiating copper intrauterine devices: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:639-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.08.008
59. Rivera R, Almonte H, Arreola M, et al. The effects of three different regimens of oral contraceptives and three different intrauterine devices on the levels of hemoglobin, serum iron and iron binding capacity in anemic women. Contraception 1983;27:311-27. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(83)90009-4
60. Ursin G, Ross RK, Sullivan-Halley J, Hanisch R, Henderson B, Bernstein L. Use of oral contraceptives and risk of breast cancer in young women. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1998;50:175-84. http://dx.doi. org/10.1023/A:1006037823178
61. Hassan EO, El-Husseini M, El-Nahal N. The effect of 1-year use of the CuT 380A and oral contraceptive pills on hemoglobin and ferritin levels. Contraception 1999;60:101-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00065-7
62. Calzolari E, Guglielmo R, Viola F, Migliore L. Hematological parameters and iron therapy in women with IUDs. Experimental study [Italian]. Minerva Ginecol 1981;33:355-62.
63. Andersson K, Odlind V, Rybo G. Levonorgestrel-releasing and copperreleasing (Nova T) IUDs during five years of use: a randomized comparative trial. Contraception 1994;49:56-72. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(94)90109-0
64. Andrade AT, Pizarro E, Shaw STJ Jr, Souza JP, Belsey EM, Rowe PJ; World Health Organization. Consequences of uterine blood loss caused by various intrauterine contraceptive devices in South American women. Contraception 1988;38:1-18. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(88)90091-1
65. Blum M, Ariel J, Zacharowitch D. Ferritin, a faithful reflection of iron deficiency in IUD wearers with mild vaginal spotting. Adv Contracept 1991;7:39-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01850717
66. El-sheikha Z, Hamza A, Mahmoud M. Menstrual blood loss of TCu-380 A and TCu-200 B IUDs. Popul Sci 1990;July:55-62.
67. Gallegost AJ, Aznar R, Merino G, Guizer E. Intrauterine devices and menstrual blood loss. A comparative study of eight devices during the first six months of use. Contraception 1978;17:153-61. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(78)90071-9
68. Gao J, Zeng S, Sun BL, et al. Menstrual blood loss, haemoglobin and ferritin concentration of Beijing women wearing steel ring, VCu 200, and TCu 220c IUDs. Contraception 1986;34:559-71. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0010-7824(86)80012-9
69. Goh TH, Hariharan M. Effect of laparoscopic sterilization and insertion of Multiload Cu 250 and Progestasert IUDs on serum ferritin levels. Contraception 1983;28:329-36. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(83)90034-3
70. Goh TH, Hariharan M, Tan CH. A longitudinal study of serum iron indices and haemoglobin concentration following copper- IUD insertion. Contraception 1980;22:389-95. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(80)90024-4
71. Guillebaud J, Bonnar J, Morehead J, Matthews A. Menstrual blood-loss with intrauterine devices. Lancet 1976;1:387-90. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0140-6736(76)90216-6
72. Haugan T, Skjeldestad FE, Halvorsen LE, Kahn H. A randomized trial on the clinical performance of Nova T380 and Gyne T380 Slimline copper IUDs. Contraception 2007;75:171-6. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.09.005
73. Kivijärvi A, Timonen H, Rajamäki A, Grönroos M. Iron deficiency in women using modern copper intrauterine devices. Obstet Gynecol 1986;67:95-8.
74. Larsson B, Hamberger L, Rybo G. Influence of copper intrauterine contraceptive devices (Cu-7-IUD) on the menstrual blood-loss. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1975;54:315-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.3109/00016347509156760
75. Larsson G, Milsom I, Jonasson K, Lindstedt G, Rybo G. The long-term effects of copper surface area on menstrual blood loss and iron status in women fitted with an IUD. Contraception 1993;48:471-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(93)90136-U
76. Malmqvist R, Petersohn L, Bengtsson LP. Menstrual bleeding with copper-covered intrauterine contraceptive devices. Contraception 1974;9:627-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(74)90048-1
77. Milsom I, Rybo G, Lindstedt G. The influence of copper surface area on menstrual blood loss and iron status in women fitted with an IUD. Contraception 1990;41:271-81. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(90)90068-7
78. Piedras J, Córdova MS, Pérez-Toral MC, Lince E, Garza-Flores J. Predictive value of serum ferritin in anemia development after insertion of T Cu 220 intrauterine device. Contraception 1983;27:289-97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(83)90007-0
79. Sivin I, Alvarez F, Diaz J, et al. Intrauterine contraception with copper and with levonorgestrel: a randomized study of the TCu 380Ag and levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day devices. Contraception 1984;30:443-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(84)90036-2
80. Sivin I, Stern J, Diaz J, et al. Two years of intrauterine contraception with levonorgestrel and with copper: a randomized comparison of the TCu 380Ag and levonorgestrel 20 mcg/day devices. Contraception 1987;35:245-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(87)90026-6
81. Tchai BS, Kim SW, Han JH, Im MW. Menstrual blood loss, iron nutriture, and the effects of Alza-T IPCS 52, T-Cu 220C and Lippes Loop D in Korean women. Seoul J Med 1987;28:51-9.
82. Wright EA, Kapu MM, Isichei UP. Zinc depletion and menorrhagia in Nigerians using copper T-200 intrauterine device. Trace Elem Med 1989;6:147-9.
83. Milsom I, Andersson K, Jonasson K, Lindstedt G, Rybo G. The influence of the Gyne-T 380S IUD on menstrual blood loss and iron status. Contraception 1995;52:175-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(95)00163-5
84. CDC. Safe motherhood at a glance: Hyattsville, MD: CDC; 2015. http://www.cdc.gov/chronicdisease/resources/publications/aag/pdf/2015/safe-motherhood-aag-2015.pdf
85. Cox S, Dietz P, Bowman B, Posner S. Prevalence of chronic conditions among women of reproductive age. Third National Summit on Preconception Health and Health Care: Tampa, FL; 2011.
86. Berenson AB, Rahman M, Wilkinson G. Effect of injectable and oral contraceptives on serum lipids. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:786-94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181b76bea
87. Dilbaz B, Ozdegirmenci O, Caliskan E, Dilbaz S, Haberal A. Effect of etonogestrel implant on serum lipids, liver function tests and hemoglobin levels. Contraception 2010;81:510-4. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2010.01.014
88. Nelson AL, Cwiak C. Combined oral contraceptives. In: Hatcher RA, Trussel J, Nelson A, Cates W Jr, Kowal D, Policar M, editors. Contraceptive technology. 20th ed. New York, NY: Ardent Media; 2011:249-342.
89. Dragoman M, Curtis KM, Gaffield ME. Combined hormonal contraceptive use among women with known dyslipidemias: a systematic review of critical safety outcomes. Contraception 2015;S0010-7824(15)00509-0.
90. US Department of Health and Human Services. Summary health statistics for U.S. adults: National Health Interview Survey, 2012. Report No. 0083-1972. Hyattsville, MD: US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.
91. CDC. Surveillance for viral hepatitis-United States, 2013. Atlanta, GA: CDC; 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/hepatitis/statistics/2013surveillance/index.htm
92. Kohler BA, Sherman RL, Howlader N, et al. Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2011, featuring incidence of breast cancer subtypes by race/ethnicity, poverty, and state. J Natl Cancer Inst 2015;107:djv048. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jnci/djv048
93. Kapp N, Tilley IB, Curtis KM. The effects of hormonal contraceptive use among women with viral hepatitis or cirrhosis of the liver: a systematic review. Contraception 2009;80:381-6. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2009.04.007
94. Kapp N, Curtis KM. Hormonal contraceptive use among women with liver tumors: a systematic review. Contraception 2009;80:387-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2009.01.021
95. Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA. Physical examination prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:650-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.08.010
96. National Cancer Institute. SEER Fast Stats. Washington DC: Surveillance Research Program, National Cancer Institute; 2015. http://seer.cancer.gov/faststats
97. Watson M, Saraiya M, Benard V, et al. Burden of cervical cancer in the United States, 1998-2003. Cancer 2008;113(Suppl):2855-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/cncr.23756
98. National Center for Health Statistics, CDC. Health, United States, 2014: with special feature on adults. Hyattsville, MD: CDC; 2015.
99. European Study Group on Heterosexual Transmission of HIV. Comparison of female to male and male to female transmission of HIV in 563 stable couples. BMJ 1992;304:809-13. http://dx.doi. org/10.1136/bmj.304.6830.809
100. Coleman JS, Mwachari C, Balkus J, et al. Effect of the levonorgestrel intrauterine device on genital HIV-1 RNA shedding among HIV-1-infected women not taking antiretroviral therapy in Nairobi, Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2013;63:245-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/QAI.0b013e31828decf8
101. Haddad LB, Cwiak C, Jamieson DJ, et al. Contraceptive adherence among HIV-infected women in Malawi: a randomized controlled trial of the copper intrauterine device and depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 2013;88:737-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2013.08.006
102. Heikinheimo O, Lehtovirta P, Aho I, Ristola M, Paavonen J. The levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system in human immunodeficiency virus-infected women: a 5-year follow-up study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2011;204:126 e1-4.
103. Heikinheimo O, Lehtovirta P, Suni J, Paavonen J. The levonorgestrelreleasing intrauterine system (LNG-IUS) in HIV-infected women- effects on bleeding patterns, ovarian function and genital shedding of HIV. Hum Reprod 2006;21:2857-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/del264
104. Kakaire O, Byamugisha JK, Tumwesigye NM, Gemzell-Danielsson K. Clinical versus laboratory screening for sexually transmitted infections prior to insertion of intrauterine contraception among women living with HIV/AIDS: a randomized controlled trial. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1573-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev109
105. Kovacs A, Wasserman SS, Burns D, et al; DATRI Study Group; WIHS Study Group. Determinants of HIV-1 shedding in the genital tract of women. Lancet 2001;358:1593-601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06653-3
106. Landolt NK, Phanuphak N, Teeratakulpisarn N, et al. Uptake and continuous use of copper intrauterine device in a cohort of HIV-positive women. AIDS Care 2013;25:710-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0954 0121.2012.752786
107. Lehtovirta P, Paavonen J, Heikinheimo O. Experience with the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system among HIV-infected women. Contraception 2007;75:37-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2006.09.006
108. Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Sinei SK, Weiner DH, Kwok C, Kokonya D. Is the intrauterine device appropriate contraception for HIV-1-infected women? BJOG 2001;108:784-90. http://dx.doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2001.00204.x
109. Mostad SB, Overbaugh J, DeVange DM, et al. Hormonal contraception, vitamin A deficiency, and other risk factors for shedding of HIV-1 infected cells from the cervix and vagina. Lancet 1997;350:922-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)04240-2
110. Richardson BA, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, et al. Effect of intrauterine device use on cervical shedding of HIV-1 DNA. AIDS 1999;13:2091-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00002030-199910220-00012
111. Sinei SK, Morrison CS, Sekadde-Kigondu C, Allen M, Kokonya D. Complications of use of intrauterine devices among HIV-1-infected women. Lancet 1998;351:1238-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)10319-1
112. Stringer EM, Kaseba C, Levy J, Sinkala M, Goldenberg RL, Chi BH, et al. A randomized trial of the intrauterine contraceptive device vs hormonal contraception in women who are infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007;197:144 e1-8.
113. Stringer EM, Levy J, Sinkala M, et al. HIV disease progression by hormonal contraceptive method: secondary analysis of a randomized trial. AIDS 2009;23:1377-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32832cbca8
114. Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Nanda K, Jamieson DJ. Safety of intrauterine devices among women with HIV: a systematic review. Contraception 2016. Epub June 22, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.06.011
115. Lopez LM, Bernholc A, Zeng Y, et al. Interventions for pain with intrauterine device insertion. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;7:CD007373.
116. Zapata LB, Jatlaoui TC, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Medications to ease intrauterine device insertion: a systematic review. Contraception 2016. Epub June 29, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2016.06.014
117. Bahamondes MV, Espejo-Arce X, Bahamondes L. Effect of vaginal administration of misoprostol before intrauterine contraceptive insertion following previous insertion failure: a double blind RCT. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1861-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev137
118. Cirik D, Taskin E, Tuglu A, Ortac A, Dai O. Paracervical block with 1% lidocaine for pain control during intrauterine device insertion: a prospective, single-blinded, controlled study. Int J Reprod Contracept Obstet Gynecol 2013;2:263-7.
119. Mody SK, Kiley J, Rademaker A, Gawron L, Stika C, Hammond C. Pain control for intrauterine device insertion: a randomized trial of 1% lidocaine paracervical block. Contraception 2012;86:704-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.06.004
120. Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Prophylactic antibiotics for intrauterine device insertion: a metaanalysis of the randomized controlled trials. Contraception 1999;60:57-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00071-2
121. Wilson W, Taubert KA, Gewitz M, et al; American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology; American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia; Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Prevention of infective endocarditis: guidelines from the American Heart Association: a guideline from the American Heart Association Rheumatic Fever, Endocarditis, and Kawasaki Disease Committee, Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, and the Council on Clinical Cardiology, Council on Cardiovascular Surgery and Anesthesia, and the Quality of Care and Outcomes Research Interdisciplinary Working Group. Circulation 2007;116:1736-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.183095
122. Steenland MW, Zapata LB, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. The effect of follow-up visits or contacts after contraceptive initiation on method continuation and correct use. Contraception 2013;87:625-30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.09.018
123. Steenland MW, Zapata LB, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Appropriate follow up to detect potential adverse events after initiation of select contraceptive methods: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:611-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.09.017
124. Canto De Cetina TE, Canto P, Ordoñez Luna M. Effect of counseling to improve compliance in Mexican women receiving depotmedroxyprogesterone acetate. Contraception 2001;63:143-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(01)00181-0
125. Lei ZW, Wu SC, Garceau RJ, et al. Effect of pretreatment counseling on discontinuation rates in Chinese women given depomedroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. Contraception 1996;53:357-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(96)00085-6
126. Godfrey EM, Folger SG, Jeng G, Jamieson DJ, Curtis KM. Treatment of bleeding irregularities in women with copper-containing IUDs: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:549-66. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.09.006
127. Toppozada M, Anwar M, Abdel Rahman H, Gaweesh S. Control of IUD-induced bleeding by three non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Contracept Deliv Syst 1982;3:117-25.
128. Toppozada M, El-Attar A, El-Ayyat MA, Khamis Y. Management of uterine bleeding by PGs or their synthesis inhibitors. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Res 1980;8:1459-63.
129. Wu S, Wang C, Cheng W, et al. Randomized multi-center study of baofuxin for treatment of bleeding side-effect induced by IUD. Reprod Contracept 2000;11:152-7.
130. Mercorio F, De Simone R, Di Carlo C, et al. Effectiveness and mechanism of action of desmopressin in the treatment of copper intrauterine device-related menorrhagia: a pilot study. Hum Reprod 2003;18:2319-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deg449
131. Pedron N, Lozano M, Aznar R. Treatment of hypermenorrhea with mefenamic acid in women using IUDs. Contracept Deliv Syst 1982;3:135-9.
132. Pizarro E, Mehech G, Hidalgo M, Muñoz G, Romero C. Effect of meclofenamic acid on menstruation in hypermenorrheic women using intrauterine devices [Spanish]. Rev Chil Obstet Ginecol 1988;53:43-56.
133. Chinese National IUD Research Working Group. Prevention and treatment of IUD-induced menorrhagia with antifibrinolytic and antiprostaglandin drugs [Chinese]. Zhonghua Fu Chan Ke Za Zhi 1987;22:291-4, 312.
134. Di Lieto A, Catalano D, Miranda L, Paladini A. Action of a prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor on IUD associated uterine bleeding. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 1987;14:41-4.
135. Ylikorkala O, Viinikka L. Comparison between antifibrinolytic and antiprostaglandin treatment in the reduction of increased menstrual blood loss in women with intrauterine contraceptive devices. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1983;90:78-83. http://dx.doi. org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1983.tb06751.x
136. US Food and Drug Administration. Cyklokapron: tranexamic acid injection [Prescribing information]. New York, NY; 2011.
137. US Food and Drug Administration. Lysteda: tranexamic acid tablets [Prescribing information]. Parsippany; NJ. 2011.
138. Pedrón N, Lozano M, Gallegos AJ. The effect of acetylsalicylic acid on menstrual blood loss in women with IUDs. Contraception 1987;36:295-303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(87)90099-0
139. Hidalgo M, Bahamondes L, Perrotti M, Diaz J, Dantas-Monteiro C, Petta C. Bleeding patterns and clinical performance of the levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system (Mirena) up to two years. Contraception 2002;65:129-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(01)00302-X
140. Tepper NK, Steenland MW, Gaffield ME, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Retention of intrauterine devices in women who acquire pelvic inflammatory disease: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:655-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.011
141. Larsson B, Wennergren M. Investigation of a copper-intrauterine device (Cu-IUD) for possible effect on frequency and healing of pelvic inflammatory disease. Contraception 1977;15:143-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(77)90012-9
142. Söderberg G, Lindgren S. Influence of an intrauterine device on the course of an acute salpingitis. Contraception 1981;24:137-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(81)90086-X
143. Teisala K. Removal of an intrauterine device and the treatment of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Ann Med 1989;21:63-5. http://dx.doi. org/10.3109/07853898909149184
144. Altunyurt S, Demir N, Posaci C. A randomized controlled trial of coil removal prior to treatment of pelvic inflammatory disease. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2003;107:81-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-2115(02)00342-1
145. Stewart FH, Harper CC, Ellertson CE, Grimes DA, Sawaya GF, Trussell J. Clinical breast and pelvic examination requirements for hormonal contraception: current practice vs evidence. JAMA 2001;285:2232-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.285.17.2232
146. Mansour D, Korver T, Marintcheva-Petrova M, Fraser IS. The effects of Implanon on menstrual bleeding patterns. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2008;13(Suppl 1):13-28. http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/13625180801959931
147. Abdel-Aleem H, d'Arcangues C, Vogelsong K, Gülmezoglu AM. Treatment of vaginal bleeding irregularities induced by progestin only contraceptives. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007;(2):CD003449.
148. Archer DF, Philput CB, Levine AS, et al. Effects of ethinyl estradiol and ibuprofen compared to placebo on endometrial bleeding, cervical mucus and the postcoital test in levonorgestrel subcutaneous implant users. Contraception 2008;78:106-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2008.04.003
149. Buasang K, Taneepanichskul S. Efficacy of celecoxib on controlling irregular uterine bleeding secondary to Jadelle use. J Med Assoc Thai 2009;92:301-7.
150. Phaliwong P, Taneepanichskul S. The effect of mefenamic acid on controlling irregular uterine bleeding second to Implanon use. J Med Assoc Thai 2004;87(Suppl 3):S64-8.
151. Weisberg E, Hickey M, Palmer D, et al. A randomized controlled trial of treatment options for troublesome uterine bleeding in Implanon users. Hum Reprod 2009;24:1852-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dep081
152. Weisberg E, Hickey M, Palmer D, et al. A pilot study to assess the effect of three short-term treatments on frequent and/or prolonged bleeding compared to placebo in women using Implanon. Hum Reprod 2006;21:295-302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dei273
153. Cheng L, Zhu H, Wang A, Ren F, Chen J, Glasier A. Once a month administration of mifepristone improves bleeding patterns in women using subdermal contraceptive implants releasing levonorgestrel. Hum Reprod 2000;15:1969-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/15.9.1969
154. Alvarez-Sanchez F, Brache V, Thevenin F, Cochon L, Faundes A. Hormonal treatment for bleeding irregularities in Norplant implant users. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:919-22. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0002-9378(96)70326-5
155. Díaz S, Croxatto HB, Pavez M, Belhadj H, Stern J, Sivin I. Clinical assessment of treatments for prolonged bleeding in users of Norplant implants. Contraception 1990;42:97-109. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(90)90094-C
156. Witjaksono J, Lau TM, Affandi B, Rogers PA. Oestrogen treatment for increased bleeding in Norplant users: preliminary results. Hum Reprod 1996;11(Suppl 2):109-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/11.suppl_2.109
157. Abdel-Aleem H, Shaaban OM, Amin AF, Abdel-Aleem AM. Tamoxifen treatment of bleeding irregularities associated with Norplant use. Contraception 2005;72:432-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2005.05.015
158. Phupong V, Sophonsritsuk A, Taneepanichskul S. The effect of tranexamic acid for treatment of irregular uterine bleeding secondary to Norplant use. Contraception 2006;73:253-6. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2005.09.012
159. d'Arcangues C, Piaggio G, Brache V, et al; Study Group on Progestogeninduced Vaginal Bleeding Disturbances. Effectiveness and acceptability of vitamin E and low-dose aspirin, alone or in combination, on Norplant-induced prolonged bleeding. Contraception 2004;70:451-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.05.012
160. Subakir SB, Setiadi E, Affandi B, Pringgoutomo S, Freisleben HJ. Benefits of vitamin E supplementation to Norplant users-in vitro and in vivo studies. Toxicology 2000;148:173-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0300-483X(00)00208-0
161. Kapp N, Gaffield ME. Initiation of progestogen-only injectables on different days of the menstrual cycle and its effect on contraceptive effectiveness and compliance: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:576-82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.017
162. Petta CA, Faúndes A, Dunson TR, et al. Timing of onset of contraceptive effectiveness in Depo-Provera users. II. Effects on ovarian function. Fertil Steril 1998;70:817-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(98)00309-4
163. Petta CA, Faundes A, Dunson TR, et al. Timing of onset of contraceptive effectiveness in Depo-Provera users: Part I. Changes in cervical mucus. Fertil Steril 1998;69:252-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(97)00477-9
164. Siriwongse T, Snidvongs W, Tantayaporn P, Leepipatpaiboon S. Effect of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate on serum progesterone levels when administered on various cycle days. Contraception 1982;26:487-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(82)90147-0
165. Balkus J, Miller L. Same-day administration of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate injection: a retrospective chart review. Contraception 2005;71:395-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.10.014
166. Morroni C, Grams M, Tiezzi L, WesthoffC. Immediate monthly combination contraception to facilitate initiation of the depot medroxyprogesterone acetate contraceptive injection. Contraception 2004;70:19-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.02.007
167. Nelson AL, Katz T. Initiation and continuation rates seen in 2-year experience with Same Day injections of DMPA. Contraception 2007;75:84-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.09.007
168. Rickert VI, Tiezzi L, Lipshutz J, León J, Vaughan RD, WesthoffC. Depo Now: preventing unintended pregnancies among adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health 2007;40:22-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2006.10.018
169. Sneed R, WesthoffC, Morroni C, Tiezzi L. A prospective study of immediate initiation of depo medroxyprogesterone acetate contraceptive injection. Contraception 2005;71:99-103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2004.08.014
170. Tepper NK, Curtis KM, Steenland MW, Marchbanks PA. Blood pressure measurement prior to initiating hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:631-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.025
171. Diab KM, Zaki MM. Contraception in diabetic women: comparative metabolic study of Norplant, depot medroxyprogesterone acetate, low dose oral contraceptive pill and CuT380A. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2000;26:17-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1447-0756.2000.tb01195.x
172. Garg SK, Chase HP, Marshall G, Hoops SL, Holmes DL, Jackson WE. Oral contraceptives and renal and retinal complications in young women with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. JAMA 1994;271:1099-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1994.03510380055037
173. Grigoryan OR, Grodnitskaya EE, Andreeva EN, Chebotnikova TV, Melnichenko GA. Use of the NuvaRing hormone-releasing system in late reproductive-age women with type 1 diabetes mellitus. Gynecol Endocrinol 2008;24:99-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09513590701708795
174. Kahn HS, Curtis KM, Marchbanks PA. Effects of injectable or implantable progestin-only contraceptives on insulin-glucose metabolism and diabetes risk. Diabetes Care 2003;26:216-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.2337/diacare.26.1.216
175. Lopez LM, Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Steroidal contraceptives: effect on carbohydrate metabolism in women without diabetes mellitus. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (4):CD006133.
176. Rogovskaya S, Rivera R, Grimes DA, et al. Effect of a levonorgestrel intrauterine system on women with type 1 diabetes: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2005;105:811-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01. AOG.0000156301.11939.56
177. Troisi RJ, Cowie CC, Harris MI. Oral contraceptive use and glucose metabolism in a national sample of women in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2000;183:389-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mob.2000.105909
178. Bonny AE, Secic M, Cromer B. Early weight gain related to later weight gain in adolescents on depot medroxyprogesterone acetate. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:793-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e31820f387c
179. Le YC, Rahman M, Berenson AB. Early weight gain predicting later weight gain among depot medroxyprogesterone acetate users. Obstet Gynecol 2009;114:279-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181af68b2
180. Risser WL, Gefter LR, Barratt MS, Risser JM. Weight change in adolescents who used hormonal contraception. J Adolesc Health 1999;24:433-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1054-139X(98)00151-7
181. Paulen ME, Curtis KM. When can a woman have repeat progestogenonly injectables-depot medroxyprogesterone acetate or norethisterone enantate? Contraception 2009;80:391-408. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2009.03.023
182. Pardthaisong T. Return of fertility after use of the injectable contraceptive Depo Provera: up-dated data analysis. J Biosoc Sci 1984;16:23-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0021932000014760
183. Schwallie PC, Assenzo JR. The effect of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate on pituitary and ovarian function, and the return of fertility following its discontinuation: a review. Contraception 1974;10:181-202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(74)90073-0
184. Steiner MJ, Kwok C, Stanback J, et al. Injectable contraception: what should the longest interval be for reinjections? Contraception 2008;77:410-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2008.01.017
185. Bassol S, Garza-Flores J, Cravioto MC, et al. Ovarian function following a single administration of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) at different doses. Fertil Steril 1984;42:216-22.
186. Fotherby K, Koetsawang S, Mathrubutham M. Pharmacokinetic study of different doses of Depo Provera. Contraception 1980;22:527-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(80)90105-5
187. Fotherby K, Saxena BN, Shrimanker K, et al. A preliminary pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic evaluation of depotmedroxyprogesterone acetate and norethisterone oenanthate. Fertil Steril 1980;34:131-9.
188. Garza-Flores J, Cardenas S, Rodríguez V, Cravioto MC, Diaz-Sanchez V, Perez-Palacios G. Return to ovulation following the use of long-acting injectable contraceptives: a comparative study. Contraception 1985;31:361-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(85)90004-6
189. Jain J, Dutton C, Nicosia A, Wajszczuk C, Bode FR, Mishell DR Jr. Pharmacokinetics, ovulation suppression and return to ovulation following a lower dose subcutaneous formulation of Depo-Provera. Contraception 2004;70:11-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2004.01.011
190. Lan PT, Aedo AR, Landgren BM, Johannisson E, Diczfalusy E. Return of ovulation following a single injection of depo-medroxyprogesterone acetate: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. Contraception 1984;29:1-18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(84)90054-4
191. Ortiz A, Hirol M, Stanczyk FZ, Goebelsmann U, Mishell DR Jr. Serum medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA) concentrations and ovarian function following intramuscular injection of depo-MPA. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1977;44:32-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1210/jcem-44-1-32
192. Saxena BN, Dusitsin N, Tankeyoon M, Chaudhury RR. Return of ovulation after the cessation of depot-medroxy progesterone acetate treatment in Thai women. J Med Assoc Thai 1980;63:66-9.
193. Toh YC, Jain J, Rahnny MH, Bode FR, Ross D. Suppression of ovulation by a new subcutaneous depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (104 mg/0. 65 mL) contraceptive formulation in Asian women. Clin Ther 2004;26:1845-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. clinthera.2004.11.013
194. Arias RD, Jain JK, Brucker C, Ross D, Ray A. Changes in bleeding patterns with depot medroxyprogesterone acetate subcutaneous injection 104 mg. Contraception 2006;74:234-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.03.008
195. Dempsey A, Roca C, WesthoffC. Vaginal estrogen supplementation during Depo-Provera initiation: a randomized controlled trial. Contraception 2010;82:250-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2010.04.003
196. Abdel-Aleem H, d'Arcangues C, Vogelsong KM, Gülmezoglu AM. Treatment of vaginal bleeding irregularities induced by progestin only contraceptives. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; (4):CD003449.
197. Harel Z, Biro F, Kollar L, Riggs S, Flanagan P, Vaz R. Supplementation with vitamin C and/or vitamin B(6) in the prevention of Depo-Provera side effects in adolescents. J Pediatr Adolesc Gynecol 2002;15:153-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1083-3188(02)00148-1
198. Nathirojanakun P, Taneepanichskul S, Sappakitkumjorn N. Efficacy of a selective COX-2 inhibitor for controlling irregular uterine bleeding in DMPA users. Contraception 2006;73:584-7. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2005.09.013
199. Tantiwattanakul P, Taneepanichskul S. Effect of mefenamic acid on controlling irregular uterine bleeding in DMPA users. Contraception 2004;70:277-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.04.003
200. Said S, Sadek W, Rocca M, et al. Clinical evaluation of the therapeutic effectiveness of ethinyl oestradiol and oestrone sulphate on prolonged bleeding in women using depot medroxyprogesterone acetate for contraception. World Health Organization, Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Task Force on Long-acting Systemic Agents for Fertility Regulation. Hum Reprod 1996;11(Suppl 2):1-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/11.suppl_2.1
201. Sadeghi-Bazargani H, Ehdaeivand F, Arshi S, Eftekhar H, Sezavar H, Amanati L. Low-dose oral contraceptive to re-induce menstrual bleeding in amenorrheic women on DMPA treatment: a randomized clinical trial. Med Sci Monit 2006;12:CR420-5.
202. Brahmi D, Curtis KM. When can a woman start combined hormonal contraceptives (CHCs)? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:524-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.09.010
203. Edwards SM, Zieman M, Jones K, Diaz A, Robilotto C, WesthoffC. Initiation of oral contraceptives-start now! J Adolesc Health 2008;43:432-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.06.008
204. WesthoffC, Heartwell S, Edwards S, et al. Initiation of oral contraceptives using a quick start compared with a conventional start: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2007;109:1270-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000264550.41242.f2
205. WesthoffC, Morroni C, Kerns J, Murphy PA. Bleeding patterns after immediate vs. conventional oral contraceptive initiation: a randomized, controlled trial. Fertil Steril 2003;79:322-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(02)04680-0
206. Baerwald AR, Olatunbosun OA, Pierson RA. Ovarian follicular development is initiated during the hormone-free interval of oral contraceptive use. Contraception 2004;70:371-7. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.05.006
207. Baerwald AR, Pierson RA. Ovarian follicular development during the use of oral contraception: a review. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2004;26:19-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1701-2163(16)30692-2
208. Duijkers IJM, Klipping C, Verhoeven CHJ, Dieben TOM. Ovarian function with the contraceptive vaginal ring or an oral contraceptive: a randomized study. Hum Reprod 2004;19:2668-73. http://dx.doi. org/10.1093/humrep/deh493
209. Killick S, Eyong E, Elstein M. Ovarian follicular development in oral contraceptive cycles. Fertil Steril 1987;48:409-13.
210. Molloy BG, Coulson KA, Lee JM, Watters JK. "Missed pill" conception: fact or fiction? Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;290:1474-5. http://dx.doi. org/10.1136/bmj.290.6480.1474-a
211. Mulders TM, Dieben TO, Bennink HJ. Ovarian function with a novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring. Hum Reprod 2002;17:2594-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/17.10.2594
212. Schwartz JL, Creinin MD, Pymar HC, Reid L. Predicting risk of ovulation in new start oral contraceptive users. Obstet Gynecol 2002;99:177-82.
213. Sitavarin S, Jaisamrarn U, Taneepanichskul S. A randomized trial on the impact of starting day on ovarian follicular activity in very low dose oral contraceptive pills users. J Med Assoc Thai 2003;86:442-8.
214. Taylor DR, Anthony FW, Dennis KJ. Suppression of ovarian function by Microgynon 30 in day 1 and day 5 "starters." Contraception 1986;33:463-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(86)80005-1
215. Smith SK, Kirkman RJ, Arce BB, McNeilly AS, Loudon NB, Baird DT. The effect of deliberate omission of Trinordiol or Microgynon on the hypothalamo-pituitary-ovarian axis. Contraception 1986;34:513-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(86)90060-0
216. Lara-Torre E, Schroeder B. Adolescent compliance and side effects with Quick Start initiation of oral contraceptive pills. Contraception 2002;66:81-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00326-8
217. Murthy AS, Creinin MD, Harwood B, Schreiber CA. Same-day initiation of the transdermal hormonal delivery system (contraceptive patch) versus traditional initiation methods. Contraception 2005;72:333-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2005.05.009
218. WesthoffC, Osborne LM, Schafer JE, Morroni C. Bleeding patterns after immediate initiation of an oral compared with a vaginal hormonal contraceptive. Obstet Gynecol 2005;106:89-96. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000164483.13326.59
219. Yeshaya A, Orvieto R, Kaplan B, et al. Flexible starting schedule for oral contraception: effect on the incidence of breakthrough bleeding and compliance. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1998;3:121-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13625189809051414
220. Yeshaya A, Orvieto R, Kauschansky A, et al. A delayed starting schedule of oral contraception: the effect on the incidence of breakthrough bleeding and compliance in women. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 1996;1:263-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/13625189609150668
221. WesthoffC, Kerns J, Morroni C, Cushman LF, Tiezzi L, Murphy PA. Quick start: novel oral contraceptive initiation method. Contraception 2002;66:141-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00351-7
222. WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Acute myocardial infarction and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international multicentre case-control study. Lancet 1997;349:1202-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)02358-1
223. Dunn N, Thorogood M, Faragher B, et al. Oral contraceptives and myocardial infarction: results of the MICA case-control study. BMJ 1999;318:1579-83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.318.7198.1579
224. Lewis MA, Heinemann LA, Spitzer WO, MacRae KD, Bruppacher R. The use of oral contraceptives and the occurrence of acute myocardial infarction in young women. Results from the Transnational Study on Oral Contraceptives and the Health of Young Women. Contraception 1997;56:129-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(97)00118-2
225. WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Ischaemic stroke and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international, multicentre, case-control study. Lancet 1996;348:498-505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)12393-8
226. Heinemann LA, Lewis MA, Spitzer WO, Thorogood M, Guggenmoos-Holzmann I, Bruppacher R; Transnational Research Group on Oral Contraceptives and the Health of Young Women. Thromboembolic stroke in young women. A European case-control study on oral contraceptives. Contraception 1998;57:29-37. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0010-7824(97)00204-7
227. WHO Collaborative Study of Cardiovascular Disease and Steroid Hormone Contraception. Haemorrhagic stroke, overall stroke risk, and combined oral contraceptives: results of an international, multicentre, case-control study. Lancet 1996;348:505-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(95)12394-6
228. Mohllajee AP, Curtis KM, Martins SL, Peterson HB. Does use of hormonal contraceptives among women with thrombogenic mutations increase their risk of venous thromboembolism? A systematic review. Contraception 2006;73:166-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2005.08.011
229. Wu O, Robertson L, Twaddle S, et al. Screening for thrombophilia in high-risk situations: systematic review and cost-effectiveness analysis. The Thrombosis: Risk and Economic Assessment of Thrombophilia Screening (TREATS) study. Health Technol Assess 2006;10:1-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.3310/hta10110
230. Wu O, Greer IA. Is screening for thrombophilia cost-effective? Curr Opin Hematol 2007;14:500-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/MOH.0b013e32825f5318
231. Blickstein D, Blickstein I. Oral contraception and thrombophilia. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2007;19:370-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/GCO.0b013e32821642e6
232. Steenland MW, Rodriguez MI, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. How does the number of oral contraceptive pill packs dispensed or prescribed affect continuation and other measures of consistent and correct use? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:605-10. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.004
233. White KO, WesthoffC. The effect of pack supply on oral contraceptive pill continuation: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2011;118:615-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182289eab
234. Foster DG, Parvataneni R, de Bocanegra HT, Lewis C, Bradsberry M, Darney P. Number of oral contraceptive pill packages dispensed, method continuation, and costs. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:1107-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000239122.98508.39
235. Foster DG, Hulett D, Bradsberry M, Darney P, Policar M. Number of oral contraceptive pill packages dispensed and subsequent unintended pregnancies. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:566-72. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182056309
236. Chin-Quee DS, Cuthbertson C, Janowitz B. Over-the-counter pill provision: evidence from Jamaica. Stud Fam Plann 2006;37:99-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1728-4465.2006.00089.x
237. Zapata LB, Steenland MW, Brahmi D, Marchbanks PA, Curtis KM. Effect of missed combined hormonal contraceptives on contraceptive effectiveness: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:685-700. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.035
238. Anttila L, Kunz M, Marr J. Bleeding pattern with drospirenone 3 mg+ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg 24/4 combined oral contraceptive compared with desogestrel 150 mcg+ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg 21/7 combined oral contraceptive. Contraception 2009;80:445-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2009.03.013
239. Chowdhury V, Joshi UM, Gopalkrishna K, Betrabet S, Mehta S, Saxena BN. 'Escape' ovulation in women due to the missing of low dose combination oral contraceptive pills. Contraception 1980;22:241-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(80)80003-5
240. Christin-Maitre S, Serfaty D, Chabbert-Buffet N, Ochsenbein E, Chassard D, Thomas JL. Comparison of a 24-day and a 21-day pill regimen for the novel combined oral contraceptive, nomegestrol acetate and 17b-estradiol (NOMAC/E2): a double-blind, randomized study. Hum Reprod 2011;26:1338-47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/der058
241. Creinin MD, Lippman JS, Eder SE, Godwin AJ, Olson W. The effect of extending the pill-free interval on follicular activity: triphasic norgestimate/35 μg ethinyl estradiol versus monophasic levonorgestrel/20 μg ethinyl estradiol. Contraception 2002;66:147-52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00344-X
242. Dinger J, Minh TD, Buttmann N, Bardenheuer K. Effectiveness of oral contraceptive pills in a large U.S. cohort comparing progestogen and regimen. Obstet Gynecol 2011;117:33-40. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e31820095a2
243. Elomaa K, Lähteenmäki P. Ovulatory potential of preovulatory sized follicles during oral contraceptive treatment. Contraception 1999;60:275-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00094-3
244. Elomaa K, Rolland R, Brosens I, et al. Omitting the first oral contraceptive pills of the cycle does not automatically lead to ovulation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:41-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(98)70249-2
245. Endrikat J, Wessel J, Rosenbaum P, Düsterberg B. Plasma concentrations of endogenous hormones during one regular treatment cycle with a low-dose oral contraceptive and during two cycles with deliberate omission of two tablets. Gynecol Endocrinol 2004;18:318-26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0951359042000199869
246. Hamilton CJ, Hoogland HJ. Longitudinal ultrasonographic study of the ovarian suppressive activity of a low-dose triphasic oral contraceptive during correct and incorrect pill intake. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:1159-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(89)90655-8
247. Hedon B, Cristol P, Plauchut A, et al. Ovarian consequences of the transient interruption of combined oral contraceptives. Int J Fertil 1992;37:270-6.
248. Killick SR. Ovarian follicles during oral contraceptive cycles: their potential for ovulation. Fertil Steril 1989;52:580-2.
249. Killick SR, Bancroft K, Oelbaum S, Morris J, Elstein M. Extending the duration of the pill-free interval during combined oral contraception. Adv Contracept 1990;6:33-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01849485
250. Klipping C, Duijkers I, Trummer D, Marr J. Suppression of ovarian activity with a drospirenone-containing oral contraceptive in a 24/4 regimen. Contraception 2008;78:16-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2008.02.019
251. Klipping C, Marr J. Effects of two combined oral contraceptives containing ethinyl estradiol 20 microg combined with either drospirenone or desogestrel on lipids, hemostatic parameters and carbohydrate metabolism. Contraception 2005;71:409-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2004.12.005
252. Landgren BM, Csemiczky G. The effect of follicular growth and luteal function of "missing the pill." A comparison between a monophasic and a triphasic combined oral contraceptive. Contraception 1991;43:149-59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(91)90042-E
253. Landgren BM, Diczfalusy E. Hormonal consequences of missing the pill during the first two days of three consecutive artificial cycles. Contraception 1984;29:437-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(84)90017-9
254. Letterie GS. A regimen of oral contraceptives restricted to the periovulatory period may permit folliculogenesis but inhibit ovulation. Contraception 1998;57:39-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(97)00205-9
255. Letterie GS, Chow GE. Effect of "missed" pills on oral contraceptive effectiveness. Obstet Gynecol 1992;79:979-82.
256. Morris SE, Groom GV, Cameron ED, Buckingham MS, Everitt JM, Elstein M. Studies on low dose oral contraceptives: plasma hormone changes in relation to deliberate pill ('Microgynon 30') omission. Contraception 1979;20:61-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(79)90045-3
257. Nakajima ST, Archer DF, Ellman H. Efficacy and safety of a new 24-day oral contraceptive regimen of norethindrone acetate 1 mg/ethinyl estradiol 20 μg (Loestrin 24 Fe). Contraception 2007;75:16-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.08.004
258. Nuttall ID, Elstein M, McCafferty E, Seth J, Cameron ED. The effect of ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg and levonorgestrel 250 mcg on the pituitary-ovarian function during normal tablet-taking and when tablets are missed. Contraception 1982;26:121-35. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(82)90081-6
259. Pierson RA, Archer DF, Moreau M, Shangold GA, Fisher AC, Creasy GW. Ortho Evra/Evra versus oral contraceptives: follicular development and ovulation in normal cycles and after an intentional dosing error. Fertil Steril 2003;80:34-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(03)00556-9
260. Rible RD, Taylor D, Wilson ML, Stanczyk FZ, Mishell DR Jr. Follicular development in a 7-day versus 4-day hormone-free interval with an oral contraceptive containing 20 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 1 mg norethindrone acetate. Contraception 2009;79:182-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2008.10.005
261. SchlaffWD, Lynch AM, Hughes HD, Cedars MI, Smith DL. Manipulation of the pill-free interval in oral contraceptive pill users: the effect on follicular suppression. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2004;190:943-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2004.02.012
262. Spona J, Elstein M, Feichtinger W, et al. Shorter pill-free interval in combined oral contraceptives decreases follicular development. Contraception 1996;54:71-7. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/0010-7824(96)00137-0
263. Sullivan H, Furniss H, Spona J, Elstein M. Effect of 21-day and 24-day oral contraceptive regimens containing gestodene (60 μg) and ethinyl estradiol (15 μg) on ovarian activity. Fertil Steril 1999;72:115-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(99)00205-8
264. Wang E, Shi S, Cekan SZ, Landgren BM, Diczfalusy E. Hormonal consequences of "missing the pill." Contraception 1982;26:545-66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(82)90131-7
265. Willis SA, Kuehl TJ, Spiekerman AM, Sulak PJ. Greater inhibition of the pituitary-ovarian axis in oral contraceptive regimens with a shortened hormone-free interval. Contraception 2006;74:100-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.02.006
266. Abrams LS, Skee DM, Natarajan J, et al. Pharmacokinetics of norelgestromin and ethinyl estradiol delivered by a contraceptive patch (Ortho Evra/Evra) under conditions of heat, humidity, and exercise. J Clin Pharmacol 2001;41:1301-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1177/00912700122012887
267. Ahrendt HJ, Nisand I, Bastianelli C, et al. Efficacy, acceptability and tolerability of the combined contraceptive ring, NuvaRing, compared with an oral contraceptive containing 30 microg of ethinyl estradiol and 3 mg of drospirenone. Contraception 2006;74:451-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2006.07.004
268. Bjarnadóttir RI, Tuppurainen M, Killick SR. Comparison of cycle control with a combined contraceptive vaginal ring and oral levonorgestrel/ethinyl estradiol. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002;186:389-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mob.2002.121103
269. Brucker C, Karck U, Merkle E. Cycle control, tolerability, efficacy and acceptability of the vaginal contraceptive ring, NuvaRing: results of clinical experience in Germany. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2008;13:31-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13625180701577122
270. Dieben TO, Roumen FJ, Apter D. Efficacy, cycle control, and user acceptability of a novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring. Obstet Gynecol 2002;100:585-93.
271. Mulders TM, Dieben TO. Use of the novel combined contraceptive vaginal ring NuvaRing for ovulation inhibition. Fertil Steril 2001;75:865-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(01)01689-2
272. Guilbert E, Boroditsky R, Black A, et al; Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada. Canadian Consensus Guideline on Continuous and Extended Hormonal Contraception, 2007. J Obstet Gynaecol Can 2007;29(Suppl 2):S1-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1701-2163(16)32526-9
273. Wiegratz I, Stahlberg S, Manthey T, et al. Effect of extended-cycle regimen with an oral contraceptive containing 30 mcg ethinylestradiol and 2 mg dienogest on bleeding patterns, safety, acceptance and contraceptive efficacy. Contraception 2011;84:133-43. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2011.01.002
274. Hubacher D, Fortney J. Follow-up visits after IUD insertion. Are more better? J Reprod Med 1999;44:801-6.
275. Godfrey EM, Whiteman MK, Curtis KM. Treatment of unscheduled bleeding in women using extended- or continuoususe combined hormonal contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:567-75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.08.005
276. Sulak PJ, Kuehl TJ, Coffee A, Willis S. Prospective analysis of occurrence and management of breakthrough bleeding during an extended oral contraceptive regimen. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;195:935-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2006.02.048
277. Sulak PJ, Smith V, Coffee A, Witt I, Kuehl AL, Kuehl TJ. Frequency and management of breakthrough bleeding with continuous use of the transvaginal contraceptive ring: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2008;112:563-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181842071
278. Kaneshiro B, Edelman A, Carlson N, Morgan K, Nichols M, Jensen J. Treatment of unscheduled bleeding in continuous oral contraceptive users with doxycycline: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:1141-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181e0119c
279. McCann MF, Potter LS. Progestin-only oral contraception: a comprehensive review. Contraception 1994;50(Suppl 1):S1-195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-7824(94)90124-4
280. Arévalo M, Jennings V, Sinai I. Efficacy of a new method of family planning: the Standard Days Method. Contraception 2002;65:333-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00288-3
281. Arévalo M, Sinai I, Jennings V. A fixed formula to define the fertile window of the menstrual cycle as the basis of a simple method of natural family planning. Contraception 1999;60:357-60. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00106-7
282. Wilcox AJ, Dunson DB, Weinberg CR, Trussell J, Baird DD. Likelihood of conception with a single act of intercourse: providing benchmark rates for assessment of post-coital contraceptives. Contraception 2001;63:211-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(01)00191-3
283. Cleland K, Zhu H, Goldstuck N, Cheng L, Trussell J. The efficacy of intrauterine devices for emergency contraception: a systematic review of 35 years of experience. Hum Reprod 2012;27:1994-2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/des140
284. Glasier AF, Cameron ST, Fine PM, et al. Ulipristal acetate versus levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a randomised noninferiority trial and meta-analysis. Lancet 2010;375:555-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60101-8
285. Raymond E, Taylor D, Trussell J, Steiner MJ. Minimum effectiveness of the levonorgestrel regimen of emergency contraception. Contraception 2004;69:79-81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2003.09.013
286. Jatlaoui TC, Curtis KM. Safety and effectiveness data for emergency contraceptive pills among women with obesity: a systematic review. Contraception 2016. Epub May 24, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2016.05.002
287. Fine P, Mathé H, Ginde S, Cullins V, Morfesis J, Gainer E. Ulipristal acetate taken 48-120 hours after intercourse for emergency contraception. Obstet Gynecol 2010;115:257-63. http://dx.doi. org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181c8e2aa
288. Dada OA, Godfrey EM, Piaggio G, von Hertzen H; Nigerian Network for Reproductive Health Research and Training. A randomized, doubleblind, noninferiority study to compare two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigeria. Contraception 2010;82:373-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2010.06.004
289. Ellertson C, Evans M, Ferden S, et al. Extending the time limit for starting the Yuzpe regimen of emergency contraception to 120 hours. Obstet Gynecol 2003;101:1168-71.
290. Ngai SW, Fan S, Li S, et al. A randomized trial to compare 24 h versus 12 h double dose regimen of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception. Hum Reprod 2005;20:307-11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/deh583
291. Rodrigues I, Grou F, Joly J. Effectiveness of emergency contraceptive pills between 72 and 120 hours after unprotected sexual intercourse. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2001;184:531-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mob.2001.111102
292. von Hertzen H, Piaggio G, Ding J, et al; WHO Research Group on Post-ovulatory Methods of Fertility Regulation. Low dose mifepristone and two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a WHO multicentre randomised trial. Lancet 2002;360:1803-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11767-3
293. Piaggio G, Kapp N, von Hertzen H. Effect on pregnancy rates of the delay in the administration of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception: a combined analysis of four WHO trials. Contraception 2011;84:35-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2010.11.010
294. Rodriguez MI, Curtis KM, Gaffield ML, Jackson E, Kapp N. Advance supply of emergency contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:590-601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. contraception.2012.09.011
295. Brache V, Cochon L, Duijkers IJ, et al. A prospective, randomized, pharmacodynamic study of quick-starting a desogestrel progestin-only pill following ulipristal acetate for emergency contraception. Hum Reprod 2015;30:2785-93.
296. Cameron ST, Berger C, Michie L, Klipping C, Gemzell-Danielsson K. The effects on ovarian activity of ulipristal acetate when 'quickstarting' a combined oral contraceptive pill: a prospective, randomized, doubleblind parallel-arm, placebo-controlled study. Hum Reprod 2015;30:1566-72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dev115
297. Salcedo J, Rodriguez MI, Curtis KM, Kapp N. When can a woman resume or initiate contraception after taking emergency contraceptive pills? A systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:602-4. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.013
298. Rodriguez MI, Godfrey EM, Warden M, Curtis KM. Prevention and management of nausea and vomiting with emergency contraception: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:583-9. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.09.031
299. Creinin MD, SchlaffW, Archer DF, et al. Progesterone receptor modulator for emergency contraception: a randomized controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 2006;108:1089-97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01. AOG.0000239440.02284.45
300. Farajkhoda T, Khoshbin A, Enjezab B, Bokaei M, Karimi Zarchi M. Assessment of two emergency contraceptive regimens in Iran: levonorgestrel versus the Yuzpe. Niger J Clin Pract 2009;12:450-2.
301. Ho PC, Kwan MSW. A prospective randomized comparison of levonorgestrel with the Yuzpe regimen in post-coital contraception. Hum Reprod 1993;8:389-92.
302. Arowojolu AO, Okewole IA, Adekunle AO. Comparative evaluation of the effectiveness and safety of two regimens of levonorgestrel for emergency contraception in Nigerians. Contraception 2002;66:269-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-7824(02)00337-2
303. Ragan RE, Rock RW, Buck HW. Metoclopramide pretreatment attenuates emergency contraceptive-associated nausea. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003;188:330-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1067/mob.2003.90
304. Raymond EG, Creinin MD, Barnhart KT, Lovvorn AE, Rountree RW, Trussell J. Meclizine for prevention of nausea associated with use of emergency contraceptive pills: a randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2000;95:271-7.
305. Peterson HB. Sterilization. Obstet Gynecol 2008;111:189-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000298621.98372.62
306. Peterson HB, Xia Z, Hughes JM, Wilcox LS, Tylor LR, Trussell J. The risk of pregnancy after tubal sterilization: findings from the U.S. Collaborative Review of Sterilization. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1996;174:1161-8, discussion 1168-70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9378(96)70658-0
307. Lawrie TA, Nardin JM, Kulier R, Boulvain M. Techniques for the interruption of tubal patency for female sterilisation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; (2):CD003034.
308. Cleary TP, Tepper NK, Cwiak C, et al. Pregnancies after hysteroscopic sterilization: a systematic review. Contraception 2013;87:539-48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.006
309. Legendre G, Levaillant JM, Faivre E, Deffieux X, Gervaise A, Fernandez H. 3D ultrasound to assess the position of tubal sterilization microinserts. Hum Reprod 2011;26:2683-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humrep/der242
310. Levy B, Levie MD, Childers ME. A summary of reported pregnancies after hysteroscopic sterilization. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2007;14:271-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmig.2006.11.007
311. Veersema S, Vleugels MP, Moolenaar LM, Janssen CA, Brölmann HA. Unintended pregnancies after Essure sterilization in the Netherlands. Fertil Steril 2010;93:35-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.005
312. Arjona JE, Miño M, Cordón J, Povedano B, Pelegrin B, Castelo-Branco C. Satisfaction and tolerance with office hysteroscopic tubal sterilization. Fertil Steril 2008;90:1182-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2007.08.007
313. Duffy S, Marsh F, Rogerson L, et al. Female sterilisation: a cohort controlled comparative study of ESSURE versus laparoscopic sterilisation. BJOG 2005;112:1522-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0528.2005.00726.x
314. Grosdemouge I, Engrand JB, Dhainault C, et al. Essure implants for tubal sterilisation in France [French]. Gynecol Obstet Fertil 2009;37:389-95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gyobfe.2009.03.024
315. Levie MD, ChudnoffSG. Prospective analysis of office-based hysteroscopic sterilization. J Minim Invasive Gynecol 2006;13:98-101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmig.2005.11.010
316. Shavell VI, Abdallah ME, Diamond MP, Berman JM. Placement of a permanent birth control device at a university medical center. J Reprod Med 2009;54:218-22.
317. Teisala K. Removal of an intrauterine device and the treatment of acute pelvic inflammatory disease. Ann Med 1989;21:63-5. http://dx.doi. org/10.3109/07853898909149184
318. Bedford JM, Zelikovsky G. Viability of spermatozoa in the human ejaculate after vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1979;32:460-3.
319. Edwards IS. Earlier testing after vasectomy, based on the absence of motile sperm. Fertil Steril 1993;59:431-6.
320. Jouannet P, David G. Evolution of the properties of semen immediately following vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1978;29:435-41.
321. Labrecque M, Hays M, Chen-Mok M, Barone MA, Sokal D. Frequency and patterns of early recanalization after vasectomy. BMC Urol 2006;6:25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2490-6-25
322. Alderman PM. The lurking sperm. A review of failures in 8879 vasectomies performed by one physician. JAMA 1988;259:3142-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/jama.1988.03720210032024
323. Black T, Francome C. The evolution of the Marie Stopes electrocautery no-scalpel vasectomy procedure. J Fam Plann Reprod Health Care 2002;28:137-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1783/147118902101196270
324. Davies AH, Sharp RJ, Cranston D, Mitchell RG. The long-term outcome following "special clearance" after vasectomy. Br J Urol 1990;66:211-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.1990.tb14907.x
325. Philp T, Guillebaud J, Budd D. Late failure of vasectomy after two documented analyses showing azoospermic semen. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1984;289:77-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.289.6437.77
326. Philp T, Guillebaud J, Budd D. Complications of vasectomy: review of 16,000 patients. Br J Urol 1984;56:745-8. http://dx.doi. org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.1984.tb06161.x
327. Belker AM, Sexter MS, Sweitzer SJ, RaffMJ. The high rate of noncompliance for post-vasectomy semen examination: medical and legal considerations. J Urol 1990;144:284-6.
328. Chawla A, Bowles B, Zini A. Vasectomy follow-up: clinical significance of rare nonmotile sperm in postoperative semen analysis. Urology 2004;64:1212-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.urology.2004.07.007
329. Labrecque M, Bédard L, Laperrière L. Efficacy and complications associated with vasectomies in two clinics in the Quebec region [French]. Can Fam Physician 1998;44:1860-6.
330. Labrecque M, Nazerali H, Mondor M, Fortin V, Nasution M. Effectiveness and complications associated with 2 vasectomy occlusion techniques. J Urol 2002;168:2495-8, discussion 2498. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/S0022-5347(05)64176-6
331. Maatman TJ, Aldrin L, Carothers GG. Patient noncompliance after vasectomy. Fertil Steril 1997;68:552-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(97)00251-3
332. Dhar NB, Jones JS, Bhatt A, Babineau D. A prospective evaluation of the impact of scheduled follow-up appointments with compliance rates after vasectomy. BJU Int 2007;99:1094-7. http://dx.doi. org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.2006.06725.x
333. Hillard PJ, Berek JS, Barss VA, et al. Guidelines for women's health care: A resource manual. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists; 2007.
334. Shifren J, Gass M; NAMS Recommendations for Clinical Care of Midlife Women Working Group. The North American Menopause Society recommendation for clinical care of midlife women. Menopause 2014;21;1038-62.
335. te Velde ER, Pearson PL. The variability of female reproductive ageing. Hum Reprod Update 2002;8:141-54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/humupd/8.2.141
336. Broekmans FJ, Soules MR, Fauser BC. Ovarian aging: mechanisms and clinical consequences. Endocr Rev 2009;30:465-93. http://dx.doi. org/10.1210/er.2009-0006
337. Wood JW. Fecundity and natural fertility in humans. Oxf Rev Reprod Biol 1989;11:61-109.
338. Balasch J, Gratacós E. Delayed childbearing: effects on fertility and the outcome of pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 2012;24:187-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/GCO.0b013e3283517908
339. Bateman BT, Simpson LL. Higher rate of stillbirth at the extremes of reproductive age: a large nationwide sample of deliveries in the United States. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2006;194:840-5. http://dx.doi. org/10.1016/j.ajog.2005.08.038
340. Berg CJ, Callaghan WM, Syverson C, Henderson Z. Pregnancyrelated mortality in the United States, 1998 to 2005. Obstet Gynecol 2010;116:1302-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0b013e3181fdfb11
341. Lidegaard Ø, Løkkegaard E, Svendsen AL, Agger C. Hormonal contraception and risk of venous thromboembolism: national follow-up study. BMJ 2009;339:b2890.
342. Lidegaard Ø, Nielsen LH, Skovlund CW, Skjeldestad FE, Løkkegaard E. Risk of venous thromboembolism from use of oral contraceptives containing different progestogens and oestrogen doses: Danish cohort study, 2001-9. BMJ 2011;343:d6423.
343. Nightingale AL, Lawrenson RA, Simpson EL, Williams TJ, MacRae KD, Farmer RD. The effects of age, body mass index, smoking and general health on the risk of venous thromboembolism in users of combined oral contraceptives. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care 2000;5:265-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13625180008500402
344. Slone D, Shapiro S, Kaufman DW, Rosenberg L, Miettinen OS, Stolley PD. Risk of myocardial infarction in relation to current and discontinued use of oral contraceptives. N Engl J Med 1981;305:420-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198108203050802
345. Tanis BC, van den Bosch MA, Kemmeren JM, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 2001;345:1787-93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa003216
346. Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. Breast cancer and hormonal contraceptives: collaborative reanalysis of individual data on 53 297 women with breast cancer and 100 239 women without breast cancer from 54 epidemiological studies. Lancet 1996;347:1713-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)90806-5
347. Gill JK, Press MF, Patel AV, Bernstein L. Oral contraceptive use and risk of breast carcinoma in situ (United States). Cancer Causes Control 2006;17:1155-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10552-006-0056-0
348. Kumle M, Weiderpass E, Braaten T, Persson I, Adami HO, Lund E. Use of oral contraceptives and breast cancer risk: The Norwegian- Swedish Women's Lifestyle and Health Cohort Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:1375-81.
349. Marchbanks PA, McDonald JA, Wilson HG, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2002;346:2025-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa013202
350. Newcomb PA, Longnecker MP, Storer BE, et al. Recent oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 1996;7:525-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF00051885
351. Rosenberg L, Palmer JR, Rao RS, et al. Case-control study of oral contraceptive use and risk of breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 1996;143:25-37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a008654
352. Rosenberg L, Zhang Y, Coogan PF, Strom BL, Palmer JR. A case-control study of oral contraceptive use and incident breast cancer. Am J Epidemiol 2009;169:473-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwn360
353. Shapiro S, Rosenberg L, Hoffman M, et al. Risk of breast cancer in relation to the use of injectable progestogen contraceptives and combined estrogen/progestogen contraceptives. Am J Epidemiol 2000;151:396-403. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a010219