Omega-3 fatty acids and their role in central nervous system - A review

Current Medicinal Chemistry

Volumn 23, Issue 8, 2016, Pages 816-831

  Wysoczański, Tomasz ^a   Sokoła Wysoczańska, Ewa ^b   Pékala, Jolanta ^a,c   Lochyński, Stanisław ^c,d   Czyz, Katarzyna ^e   Bodkowski, Robert ^e   Herbinger, Grzegorz ^a   Patkowska Sokoła, Bozena ^e   Librowski, Tadeusz ^f  

^a FLC Pharma Ltd   (Poland)

^b Lumina Cordis Foundation   (Poland)

^c WROCLAW UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Poland)

^d Institute of Cosmetology Wroc aw College of Physiotherapy   (Poland)

^e WROC AW UNIVERSITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND LIFE SCIENCES   (Poland)

^f JAGIELLONIAN UNIVERSITY MEDICAL COLLEGE   (Poland)

Author keywords

ALA; Alpha linolenic acid; Blood brain barrier; Central nervous system; Essential fatty acids; Linoleic acid; Polyunsaturated fatty acids

Indexed keywords

LINOLENIC ACID; LIPID; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; OMEGA 6 FATTY ACID; POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID; SATURATED FATTY ACID;

AGING; ALZHEIMER DISEASE; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DEGENERATIVE DISEASE; DEPRESSION; DIET THERAPY; GENE EXPRESSION; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; INFLAMMATORY DISEASE; MEMBRANE FLUIDITY; NON INVASIVE PROCEDURE; NONHUMAN; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDER; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHEMISTRY; COGNITION DISORDERS; METABOLISM;

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DISEASES; COGNITION DISORDERS; FATTY ACIDS, OMEGA-3; HUMANS; MOLECULAR STRUCTURE;

EID: 84964455494     PISSN: 09298673     EISSN: 1875533X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/0929867323666160122114439     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Simopoulos, A.P. Evolutionary aspects of omega-3 fatty acids in the food supply. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 1999, 60(5-6), 421-429.
2. Zivkovic, A.M.; Telis, N.; German, J.B.; Hammock, B.D. Dietary omega-3 fatty acids aid in the modulation of inflammation and metabolic health. Calif. Agric. (Berkeley), 2011, 65(3), 106-111.
3. Holman, R.T.; Johnson, S.B.; Hatch, T.F. A case of human linolenic acid deficiency involving neurological abnormalities. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1982, 35(3), 617-623.
4. Tsubura, A.; Yuri, T.; Yoshizawa, K.; Uehara, N.; Takada, H. Role of fatty acids in malignancy and visual impairment: epidemiological evidence and experimental studies. Histol. Histopathol., 2009, 24(2), 223-234.
5. Crupi, R.; Marino, A.; Cuzzocrea, S. n-3 fatty acids: role in neurogenesis and neuroplasticity. Curr. Med. Chem., 2013, 20(24), 2953-2963.
6. Yehuda, S. Omega-6/omega-3 ratio and brain-related functions. World Rev. Nutr. Diet, 2003, 92, 37-56.
7. Aranceta, J.; Perez-Rodrigo, C. Recommended dietary reference intakes, nutritional goals and dietary guidelines for fat and fatty acids: a systematic review. Br. J. Nutr., 2012, 107(Suppl) 2S8-22.
8. Flock, M.R.; Harris, W.S.; Kris-Etherton, P.M. Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids: time to establish a dietary reference intake. Nutr. Rev., 2013, 71(10), 692-707.
9. Trumbo, P.; Schlicker, S.; Yates, A.A.; Poos, M. Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein and amino acids. J. Am. Diet Assoc., 2002, 102(11), 1621-1630.
10. Bjorntorp, P. Importance of fat as a support nutrient for energy: metabolism of athletes. J. Sports Sci., 1991, 9 Spec No71-76.
11. Connor, W.E. α-Linolenic acid in health and disease. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1999, 69(5), 827-828.
12. Siscovick, D.S.; Raghunathan, T.E.; King, I.; Weinmann, S.; Wicklund, K.G.; Albright, J.; Bovbjerg, V.; Arbogast, P.; Smith, H.; Kushi, L.H.; et al. Dietary intake and cell membrane levels of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the risk of primary cardiac arrest. JAMA, 1995, 274(17), 1363-1367.
13. Park, J.-M.; Jeong, M.; Kim, E.-H.; Han, Y.-M.; Kwon, S.H.; Hahm, K.-B. Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Intake to Regulate Helicobacter pylori-Associated Gastric Diseases as Nonantimicrobial Dietary Approach. BioMed. Res. Int., 2014, Article ID 7123631-11.
14. Simopoulos, A.P. The importance of the ratio of omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acids. Biomed. Pharmacother., 2002, 56(8), 365-379.
15. Omega-6/Omega-3 Essential Fatty Acid Ratio: The Scientific Evidence. World Rev Nutr Diet, ed. Simopoulos AP and Cleland, L. Vol. vol 92. 2003, Basel: Karger.
16. Connor, W.E.; Neuringer, M.; Reisbick, S. Essential fatty acids: the importance of n-3 fatty acids in the retina and brain. Nutr. Rev., 1992, 50(4 ( Pt 2)), 21-29.
17. Melnik, B.C.; Plewig, G. Is the origin of atopy linked to deficient conversion of omega-6-fatty acids to prostaglandin E1? J. Am. Acad. Dermatol., 1989, 21(3 Pt 1), 557-563.
18. Karlstad, M.D.; DeMichele, S.J.; Leathem, W.D.; Peterson, M.B. Effect of intravenous lipid emulsions enriched with gamma-linolenic acid on plasma n-6 fatty acids and prostaglandin biosynthesis after burn and endotoxin injury in rats. Crit. Care Med., 1993, 21(11), 1740-1749.
19. Neuringer, M.; Connor, W.E.; Lin, D.S.; Barstad, L.; Luck, S. Biochemical and functional effects of prenatal and postnatal omega 3 fatty acid deficiency on retina and brain in rhesus monkeys. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A, 1986, 83(11), 4021-4025.
20. Fedorova, I.; Hussein, N.; Baumann, M.H.; Di Martino, C.; Salem, N., Jr. An n-3 fatty acid deficiency impairs rat spatial learning in the Barnes maze. Behav. Neurosci., 2009, 123(1), 196-205.
21. Ozias, M.K.; Carlson, S.E.; Levant, B. Maternal parity and diet (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acid concentration influence accretion of brain phospholipid docosahexaenoic acid in developing rats. J. Nutr., 2007, 137(1), 125-129.
22. Ollis, T.E.; Meyer, B.J.; Howe, P.R. Australian food sources and intakes of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Ann. Nutr. Metab., 1999, 43(6), 346-355.
23. Meyer, B.J.; Mann, N.J.; Lewis, J.L.; Milligan, G.C.; Sinclair, A.J.; Howe, P.R. Dietary intakes and food sources of omega-6 and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids, 2003, 38(4), 391-398.
24. Dobryniewski, J.; Szajda, S.D.; Waszkiewicz, N.; Zwierz, K. Biology of essential fatty acids (EFA). Przegl. Lek., 2007, 64(2), 91-99.
25. Trappe, T.A.; Fluckey, J.D.; White, F.; Lambert, C.P.; Evans, W.J. Skeletal muscle PGF(2)(alpha) and PGE(2) in response to eccentric resistance exercise: influence of ibuprofen acetaminophen. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., 2001, 86(10), 5067-5070.
26. Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K.; Glaser, R.; Christian, L.M. Omega-3 fatty acids and stress-induced immune dysregulation: implications for wound healing. Mil. Med., 2014, 179(11 Suppl), 129-133.
27. Patterson, E.; Wall, R.; Fitzgerald, G.F.; Ross, R.P.; Stanton, C. Health implications of high dietary omega-6 polyunsaturated Fatty acids. J Nutr Metab, 2012, 2012539426.
28. Calder, P.C. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory processes: nutrition or pharmacology? Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol., 2013, 75(3), 645-662.
29. Kannan, V.; S., S.; M., V.D., Textbook of Biochemistry for Medical Students. Vol. 7. 2013, New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers. 791.
30. de Lorgeril, M.; Renaud, S.; Mamelle, N.; Salen, P.; Martin, J.L.; Monjaud, I.; Guidollet, J.; Touboul, P.; Delaye, J. Mediterranean alpha-linolenic acid-rich diet in secondary prevention of coronary heart disease. Lancet, 1994, 343(8911), 1454-1459.
31. Chapman, D.J.; De-Felice, J.; Barber, J. Growth temperature effects on thylakoid membrane lipid and protein content of pea chloroplasts. Plant Physiol., 1983, 72(1), 225-228.
32. Nettleton, J.A. Omega-3 fatty acids: comparison of plant and seafood sources in human nutrition. J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 1991, 91(3), 331-337.
33. Chang, C.Y.; Ke, D.S.; Chen, J.Y. Essential fatty acids and human brain. Acta Neurol. Taiwan, 2009, 18(4), 231-241.
34. Singh, M. Essential fatty acids, DHA and human brain. Indian J. Pediatr., 2005, 72(3), 239-242.
35. Uauy, R.; Dangour, A.D. Nutrition in brain development and aging: role of essential fatty acids. Nutr. Rev., 2006, 64(5 Pt 2), S24-S33; discussion S72-S91.
36. Wainwright, P.E. Dietary essential fatty acids and brain function: a developmental perspective on mechanisms. Proc. Nutr. Soc., 2002, 61(1), 61-69.
37. Richardson, A. Can we improve our brain health? J. Fam. Health Care, 2014, 24(6), 28-30.
38. Rapoport, S.I. In vivo fatty acid incorporation into brain phosholipids in relation to plasma availability, signal transduction and membrane remodeling. J. Mol. Neurosci., 2001, 16(2-3), 243-261; discussion 279-284.
39. Bourre, J.M.; Francois, M.; Youyou, A.; Dumont, O.; Piciotti, M.; Pascal, G.; Durand, G. The effects of dietary alpha-linolenic acid on the composition of nerve membranes, enzymatic activity, amplitude of electrophysiological parameters, resistance to poisons and performance of learning tasks in rats. J. Nutr., 1989, 119(12), 1880-1892.
40. Sun, G.Y. Effects of a fatty acid deficiency on lipids of whole brain, microsomes, and myelin in the rat. J. Lipid Res., 1972, 13(1), 56-62.
41. Tahin, Q.S.; Blum, M.; Carafoli, E. The fatty acid composition of subcellular membranes of rat liver, heart, and brain: diet-induced modifications. Eur. J. Biochem., 1981, 121(1), 5-13.
42. Bourre, J.M.; Pascal, G.; Durand, G.; Masson, M.; Dumont, O.; Piciotti, M. Alterations in the fatty acid composition of rat brain cells (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes) and of subcellular fractions (myelin and synaptosomes) induced by a diet devoid of n-3 fatty acids. J. Neurochem., 1984, 43(2), 342-348.
43. Carrie, I.; Clement, M.; de Javel, D.; Frances, H.; Bourre, J.M. Specific phospholipid fatty acid composition of brain regions in mice. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency and phospholipid supplementation. J. Lipid Res., 2000, 41(3), 465-472.
44. Pasenkiewicz-Gierula, M.; Rog, T.; Grochowski, J.; Serda, P.; Czarnecki, R.; Librowski, T.; Lochynski, S. Effects of a carane derivative local anesthetic on a phospholipid bilayer studied by molecular dynamics simulation. Biophys. J., 2003, 85(2), 1248-1258.
45. Siemieniuk, A.; Szalkowska-Pagowska, H.; Lochynski, S.; Piatkowski, K.; Filipek, B.; Krupinska, J.; Czarnecki, R.; Librowski, T.; Bialas, S. Propranolol analogs containing natural monoterpene structures: synthesis and pharmacological properties. Pol. J. Pharmacol. Pharm., 1992, 44(6), 575-593.
46. Siemieniuk, A.; Szalkowska-Pagowska, H.; Lochynski, S.; Piatkowski, K.; Filipek, B.; Krupinska, J.; Czarnecki, R.; Librowski, T.; Szymanska, I. Synthesis and some pharmacological properties of 1,2-amino ethers with natural monoterpene structures. Pol. J. Pharmacol. Pharm., 1992, 44(2), 187-200.
47. Librowski, T.; Czarnecki, R.; Lochynski, S.; Frackowiak, B.; Pasenkiewicz-Gierula, M.; Grochowski, J.; Serda, P. Comparative investigations of hydroxyamine carane derivative and its R,S-diastereoisomers with strong local anesthetic activity. Pol. J. Pharmacol., 2001, 53(5), 535-539.
48. Evers, A.S.; Elliott, W.J.; Lefkowith, J.B.; Needleman, P. Manipulation of rat brain fatty acid composition alters volatile anesthetic potency. J. Clin. Invest., 1986, 77(3), 1028-1033.
49. Haycock, J.C.; Evers, A.S. Altered phosphoinositide fatty acid composition, mass and metabolism in brain essential fatty acid deficiency. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1988, 960(1), 54-60.
50. Bourre, J.M. Effects of nutrients (in food) on the structure and function of the nervous system: update on dietary requirements for brain. Part 2: macronutrients. J. Nutr. Health Aging, 2006, 10(5), 386-399.
51. Horrocks, L.A.; Farooqui, A.A. Docosahexaenoic acid in the diet: its importance in maintenance and restoration of neural membrane function. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 2004, 70(4), 361-372.
52. de Vries, H.E.; Kuiper, J.; de Boer, A.G.; Van Berkel, T.J.; Breimer, D.D. The blood-brain barrier in neuroinflammatory diseases. Pharmacol. Rev., 1997, 49(2), 143-155.
53. Weiss, N.; Miller, F.; Cazaubon, S.; Couraud, P.O. The blood-brain barrier in brain homeostasis and neurological diseases. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2009, 1788(4), 842-857.
54. Strosznajder, J.; Chalimoniuk, M.; Strosznajder, R.P.; Albanese, V.; Alberghina, M. Arachidonate transport through the blood-retina and blood-brain barrier of the rat during aging. Neurosci. Lett., 1996, 209(3), 145-148.
55. Alberghina, M.; Lupo, G.; Anfuso, C.D.; Infarinato, S. Differential transport of docosahexaenoate and palmitate through the blood-retina and blood-brain barrier of the rat. Neurosci. Lett., 1994, 171(1-2), 133-136.
56. Avellini, L.; Terracina, L.; Gaiti, A. Linoleic acid passage through the blood-brain barrier and a possible effect of age. Neurochem. Res., 1994, 19(2), 129-133.
57. Terracina, L.; Brunetti, M.; Avellini, L.; De Medio, G.E.; Trovarelli, G.; Gaiti, A. Linoleic acid metabolism in brain cortex of aged rats. Ital. J. Biochem., 1992, 41(4), 225-235.
58. Innis, S.M. Essential fatty acids in infant nutrition: lessons and limitations from animal studies in relation to studies on infant fatty acid requirements. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2000, 71(1 Suppl), 238S-244S.
59. Essential Fatty Acids and Infant Nutrition, ed. Ghisolfi, J. and Putet, G. 1992, Paris: John Libbey Eurotext. 181.
60. Pallebage-Gamarallage, M.; Lam, V.; Takechi, R.; Galloway, S.; Clark, K.; Mamo, J. Restoration of dietary-fat induced blood-brain barrier dysfunction by antiinflammatory lipid-modulating agents. Lipids Health Dis, 2012, 11117.
61. Takechi, R.; Pallebage-Gamarallage, M.M.; Lam, V.; Giles, C.; Mamo, J.C. Nutraceutical agents with anti-inflammatory properties prevent dietary saturated-fat induced disturbances in blood-brain barrier function in wild-type mice. J. Neuroinflammation, 2013, 1073.
62. Stolp, H.B.; Johansson, P.A.; Habgood, M.D.; Dziegielewska, K.M.; Saunders, N.R.; Ek, C.J. Effects of Neonatal Systemic Inflammation on Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability and Behaviour in Juvenile and Adult Rats. Cardiovas. Psychiat. Neurol., 2011, 2011469046.
63. Pallebage-Gamarallage, M.M.; V., L.; Takechi, R.; S., G.; L., M.J.C. A Diet Enriched in Docosahexanoic Acid Exacerbates Brain Parenchymal Extravasation of Apo B Lipoproteins Induced by Chronic Ingestion of Saturated Fats. Int. J.Vas. Med., 2012, ID 6476891-6476898.
64. Kalmijn, S.; Launer, L.J.; Ott, A.; Witteman, J.C.; Hofman, A.; Breteler, M.M. Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study. Ann. Neurol., 1997, 42(5), 776-782.
65. Laitinen, M.H.; Ngandu, T.; Rovio, S.; Helkala, E.L.; Uusitalo, U.; Viitanen, M.; Nissinen, A.; Tuomilehto, J.; Soininen, H.; Kivipelto, M. Fat intake at midlife and risk of dementia and Alzheimer's disease: a population-based study. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord, 2006, 22(1), 99-107.
66. Crichton, G.E.; Elias, M.F.; Dore, G.A.; Robbins, M.A. Relation between dairy food intake and cognitive function: The Maine-Syracuse Longitudinal Study. Int. Dairy J., 2012, 22(1), 15-23.
67. Peters, R. Ageing and the brain. Postgr. Med. J., 2006, 82(964), 84-88.
68. Lopez-Leon, M.; Reggiani, P.C.; Herenu, C.B.; Goya, R.G. Regenerative Medicine for the Aging Brain. Enliven. J. Stem Cell Res. Regen. Med., 2014, 1(1), 1-9.
69. Yehuda, S. The significance of omega-3/ omega-6 ratio to aging brain functions. Anti-Aging: Healthy Nutrition & Cosmetic, 2013 31-34.
70. Bradbury, J. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA): an ancient nutrient for the modern human brain. Nutrients, 2011, 3(5), 529-554.
71. Terracina, L.; Brunetti, M.; Avellini, L.; De Medio, G.E.; Trovarelli, G.; Gaiti, A. Arachidonic and palmitic acid utilization in aged rat brain areas. Mol. Cell Biochem., 1992, 115(1), 35-42.
72. Kumar, V.B.; Vyas, K.; Buddhiraju, M.; Alshaher, M.; Flood, J.F.; Morley, J.E. Changes in membrane fatty acids and delta-9 desaturase in senescence accelerated (SAMP8) mouse hippocampus with aging. Life Sci., 1999, 65(16), 1657-1662.
73. Ilincheta de Boschero, M.G.; Roque, M.E.; Salvador, G.A.; Giusto, N.M. Alternative pathways for phospholipid synthesis in different brain areas during aging. Exp. Gerontol., 2000, 35(5), 653-668.
74. Denis, I.; Potier, B.; Heberden, C.; Vancassel, S. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and brain aging. Curr. Opin.Clin. Nutr. Metab. Care, 2015, 18(2), 139-146.
75. Yehuda, S.; Rabinovitz, S.; Mostofsky, D.I. Essential fatty acids are mediators of brain biochemistry and cognitive functions. J. Neurosci. Res., 1999, 56(6), 565-570.
76. Schengrund, C.L.; Ali-Rahmani, F.; Ramer, J.C. Cholesterol, GM1, and autism. Neurochem. Res., 2012, 37(6), 1201-1207.
77. Sawazaki, S.; Hamazaki, T.; Yazawa, K.; Kobayashi, M. The effect of docosahexaenoic acid on plasma catecholamine concentrations and glucose tolerance during long-lasting psychological stress: a double-blind placebocontrolled study. J. Nutr. Sci. Vitaminol.(Tokyo), 1999, 45(5), 655-665.
78. Yehuda, S.; Rabinovitz, S.; Carasso, R.L.; Mostofsky, D.I. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in restoring the aging neuronal membrane. Neurobiol. Aging, 2002, 23(5), 843-853.
79. Angelie, E.; Bonmartin, A.; Boudraa, A.; Gonnaud, P.M.; Mallet, J.J.; Sappey-Marinier, D. Regional differences and metabolic changes in normal aging of the human brain: proton MR spectroscopic imaging study. AJNR Am. J. Neuroradiol., 2001, 22(1), 119-127.
80. McGahon, B.M.; Murray, C.A.; Horrobin, D.F.; Lynch. Age-related changes in oxidative mechanisms and LTP are reversed by dietary manipulation. Neurobiol. Aging, 1999, 20(6), 643-653.
81. Kitajka, K.; Sinclair, A.J.; Weisinger, R.S.; Weisinger, H.S.; Mathai, M.; Jayasooriya, A.P.; Halver, J.E.; Puskas, L.G. Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on brain gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A, 2004, 101(30), 10931-10936.
82. Puskas, L.G.; Bereczki, E.; Santha, M.; Vigh, L.; Csanadi, G.; Spener, F.; Ferdinandy, P.; Onochy, A.; Kitajka, K. Cholesterol and cholesterol plus DHA diet-induced gene expression and fatty acid changes in mouse eye and brain. Biochimie, 2004, 86(11), 817-824.
83. Gamoh, S.; Hashimoto, M.; Sugioka, K.; Shahdat Hossain, M.; Hata, N.; Misawa, Y.; Masumura, S. Chronic administration of docosahexaenoic acid improves reference memory-related learning ability in young rats. Neuroscience, 1999, 93(1), 237-241.
84. Carrie, I.; Clement, M.; de Javel, D.; Frances, H.; Bourre, J.M. Phospholipid supplementation reverses behavioral and biochemical alterations induced by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency in mice. J. Lipid Res., 2000, 41(3), 473-480.
85. Gominak, S.C.; Stumpf, W.E. The world epidemic of sleep disorders is linked to vitamin D deficiency. Med. Hypotheses, 2012, 79(2), 132-135.
86. McCarty, D.E.; Reddy, A.; Keigley, Q.; Kim, P.Y.; Marino, A.A. Vitamin D, race, and excessive daytime sleepiness. J. Clin. Sleep Med., 2012, 8(6), 693-697.
87. Wrzosek, M.; Lukaszkiewicz, J.; Wrzosek, M.; Jakubczyk, A.; Matsumoto, H.; Piatkiewicz, P.; Radziwon-Zaleska, M.; Wojnar, M.; Nowicka, G. Vitamin D and the central nervous system. Pharmacol. Rep., 2013, 65(2), 271-278.
88. Chagas, C.E.; Borges, M.C.; Martini, L.A.; Rogero, M.M. Focus on vitamin D, inflammation and type 2 diabetes. Nutrients, 2012, 4(1), 52-67.
89. Hansen, A.L.; Dahl, L.; Olson, G.; Thornton, D.; Graff, I.E.; Froyland, L.; Thayer, J.F.; Pallesen, S. Fish consumption, sleep, daily functioning, and heart rate variability. J. Clin. Sleep Med., 2014, 10(5), 567-575.
90. Hansen, A.L.; Dahl, L.; Froyland, L.; Thayer, J.F. Fish consumption and heart rate variability: Preliminary results. J.Psychophysiol., 2010, 24(1), 41-47.
91. Montgomery, P.; Burton, J.R.; Sewell, R.P.; Spreckelsen, T.F.; Richardson, A.J. Fatty acids and sleep in UK children: subjective and pilot objective sleep results from the DOLAB study - a randomized controlled trial. J. Sleep Res., 2014, 23(4), 364-388.
92. Burgess, J.R.; Stevens, L.; Zhang, W.; Peck, L. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2000, 71(1 Suppl), 327S-330S.
93. Stevens, L.J.; Zentall, S.S.; Deck, J.L.; Abate, M.L.; Watkins, B.A.; Lipp, S.R.; Burgess, J.R. Essential fatty acid metabolism in boys with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 1995, 62(4), 761-768.
94. Colter, A.L.; Cutler, C.; Meckling, K.A. Fatty acid status and behavioural symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adolescents: a case-control study. Nutr. J., 2008, 78.
95. Richardson, A.J.; Puri, B.K. A randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of supplementation with highly unsaturated fatty acids on ADHD-related symptoms in children with specific learning difficulties. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiat., 2002, 26(2), 233-239.
96. Gillies, D.; Sinn, J.; Lad, S.S.; Leach, M.J.; Ross, M.J. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2012, 7CD007986.
97. Storebo, O.J.; Skoog, M.; Damm, D.; Thomsen, P.H.; Simonsen, E.; Gluud, C. Social skills training for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in children aged 5 to 18 years. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2011(12), CD008223.
98. Richardson, A.J.; Ross, M.A. Fatty acid metabolism in neurodevelopmental disorder: a new perspective on associations between attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, dyslexia, dyspraxia and the autistic spectrum. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 2000, 63(1-2), 1-9.
99. Richardson, A.J.; Puri, B.K. The potential role of fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 2000, 63(1-2), 79-87.
100. Joshi, K.; Lad, S.; Kale, M.; Patwardhan, B.; Mahadik, S.P.; Patni, B.; Chaudhary, A.; Bhave, S.; Pandit, A. Supplementation with flax oil and vitamin C improves the outcome of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Prostaglandins Leukot Essent. Fatty Acids, 2006, 74(1), 17-21.
101. Dubnov-Raz, G.; Khoury, Z.; Wright, I.; Raz, R.; Berger, I. The effect of alpha-linolenic acid supplementation on ADHD symptoms in children: a randomized controlled double-blind study. Front. Hum. Neurosci., 2014, 8780.
102. Richardson, A.J. Omega-3 fatty acids in ADHD and related neurodevelopmental disorders. Int. Rev. Psychiat., 2006, 18(2), 155-172.
103. Bloch, M.H.; Qawasmi, A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiat., 2011, 50(10), 991-1000.
104. Murray, C.J.; Vos, T.; Lozano, R.; Naghavi, M.; Flaxman, A.D.; Michaud, C.; Memish, Z.A. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet, 2012, 380(9859), 2197-2223.
105. Murakami, K.; Sasaki, S. Dietary intake and depressive symptoms: a systematic review of observational studies. Mol. Nutr. Food Res., 2010, 54(4), 471-488.
106. Muller, C.P.; Reichel, M.; Muhle, C.; Rhein, C.; Gulbins, E.; Kornhuber, J. Brain membrane lipids in major depression and anxiety disorders. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 2014.
107. Lin, P.Y.; Su, K.P. A meta-analytic review of double-blind, placebo-controlled trials of antidepressant efficacy of omega-3 fatty acids. J. Clin. Psychiat., 2007, 68(7), 1056-1061.
108. Lin, P.Y.; Huang, S.Y.; Su, K.P. A meta-analytic review of polyunsaturated fatty acid compositions in patients with depression. Biol. Psychiat., 2010, 68(2), 140-147.
109. Peet, M.; Murphy, B.; Shay, J.; Horrobin, D. Depletion of omega-3 fatty acid levels in red blood cell membranes of depressive patients. Biol. Psychiat., 1998, 43(5), 315-319.
110. Maes, M.; Smith, R.; Christophe, A.; Cosyns, P.; Desnyder, R.; Meltzer, H. Fatty acid composition in major depression: decreased omega 3 fractions in cholesteryl esters and increased C20: 4 omega 6/C20:5 omega 3 ratio in cholesteryl esters and phospholipids. J. Affect. Disord., 1996, 38(1), 35-46.
111. Simopoulos, A.P. Evolutionary aspects of diet: the omega-6/omega-3 ratio and the brain. Mol. Neurobiol., 2011, 44(2), 203-215.
112. Conklin, S.M.; Runyan, C.A.; Leonard, S.; Reddy, R.D.; Muldoon, M.F.; Yao, J.K. Age-related changes of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids in the anterior cingulate cortex of individuals with major depressive disorder. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent. Fatty Acids, 2010, 82(2-3), 111-119.
113. Kurotani, K.; Sato, M.; Ejima, Y.; Kashima, K.; Nanri, A.; Pham, N.M.; Kuwahara, K.; Mizoue, T. Serum alphalinolenic and linoleic acids are inversely associated with depressive symptoms in adults. e-SPEN J., 2014, 9(1), e7-e12.
114. Giltay, E.J.; Geleijnse, J.M.; Kromhout, D. Effects of n-3 fatty acids on depressive symptoms and dispositional optimism after myocardial infarction. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 2011, 94(6), 1442-1450.
115. Erickson, M.A.; Banks, W.A. Blood-brain barrier dysfunction as a cause and consequence of Alzheimer's disease. J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab., 2013, 33(10), 1500-1513.
116. Farooqui, A.A.; Ong, W.Y.; Horrocks, L.A. Plasmalogens, docosahexaenoic acid and neurological disorders. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol., 2003, 544335-354.
117. Yehuda, S.; Rabinovtz, S.; Carasso, R.L.; Mostofsky, D.I. Essential fatty acids preparation (SR-3) improves Alzheimer's patients quality of life. Int. J. Neurosci., 1996, 87(3-4), 141-149.
118. Hashimoto, M.; Hossain, S.; Shimada, T.; Sugioka, K.; Yamasaki, H.; Fujii, Y.; Ishibashi, Y.; Oka, J.; Shido, O. Docosahexaenoic acid provides protection from impairment of learning ability in Alzheimer's disease model rats. J. Neurochem., 2002, 81(5), 1084-1091.
119. Barberger-Gateau, P.; Samieri, C.; Feart, C.; Plourde, M. Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and Alzheimer's disease: interaction with apolipoprotein E genotype. Curr. Alzheimer Res., 2011, 8(5), 479-491.
120. Blondeau, N.; Nguemeni, C.; Debruyne, D.N.; Piens, M.; Wu, X.; Pan, H.; Hu, X.; Gandin, C.; Lipsky, R.H.; Plumier, J.C.; Marini, A.M.; Heurteaux, C. Subchronic alpha-linolenic acid treatment enhances brain plasticity and exerts an antidepressant effect: a versatile potential therapy for stroke. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2009, 34(12), 2548-2559.
121. Aben, A.; Danckaerts, M. [Omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids in the treatment of children and adolescents with ADHD]. Tijdschr. Psychiatr., 2010, 52(2), 89-97.