Australasian Society of Infectious Diseases updated guidelines for the management of Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children in Australia and New Zealand

Internal Medicine Journal

Volumn 46, Issue 4, 2016, Pages 479-493

  Trubiano, J A ^a,b   Cheng, A C ^c,d,e   Korman, T M ^d   Roder, C ^f,g   Campbell, A ^h   May, M L A ⁱ   Blyth, C C ^h,j   Ferguson, J K ^k,l,m   Blackmore, T K ⁿ   Riley, T V ^j,o   Athan, E ^f,g  

^a AUSTIN HEALTH   (Australia)

^b PETER MACCALLUM CANCER CENTRE   (Australia)

^c Lab of Infectious Diseases   (Australia)

^d MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^e ALFRED HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^f DEAKIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^g BARWON HEALTH   (Australia)

^h PRINCESS MARGARET HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN   (Australia)

ⁱ LADY CILENTO CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^j UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^k Pathology North   (New Zealand)

^l JOHN HUNTER HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^m UNIVERSITY OF NEWCASTLE   (Australia)

ⁿ WELLINGTON HOSPITAL   (New Zealand)

^o PATHWEST LABORATORY MEDICINE   (Australia)

more..

Author keywords

Clostridium difficile; Faecal microbiota transplant (FMT); Fidaxomicin; Metronidazole; Treatment; Vancomycin

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; AURANOFIN; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; BETA LACTAMASE INHIBITOR; BEZLOTOXUMAB; CADAZOLID; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CLINDAMYCIN; FIDAXOMICIN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LINCOSAMIDE; METRONIDAZOLE; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; NITAZOXANIDE; PROBIOTIC AGENT; PROTON PUMP INHIBITOR; RAMOPLANIN; RIFAXIMIN; SUROTOMYCIN; THURICIN; TIGECYCLINE; VANCOMYCIN;

ACUTE DIARRHEA; ADULT; ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ARTICLE; AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND; CHILD; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; COLONOSCOPY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DISEASE SEVERITY; FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION; FECES MICROFLORA; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFECTION PREVENTION; MEDICAL SOCIETY; PEPTOCLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; PHYSICIAN; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT INFECTION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; AUSTRALIA; CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTIONS; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; NEW ZEALAND; STANDARDS; TRENDS;

ADULT; AUSTRALASIA; AUSTRALIA; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM INFECTIONS; COMMUNICABLE DISEASES; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; HUMANS; NEW ZEALAND; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; SOCIETIES, MEDICAL;

EID: 84962852766     PISSN: 14440903     EISSN: 14455994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/imj.13027     Document Type: Article

References (155)

1. Kelly CP, LaMont JT. Clostridium difficile - more difficult than ever. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1932-40.
2. Kelly CP. Can we identify patients at high risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection? Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18: 21-7.
3. Slimings C, Armstrong P, Beckingham WD, Bull AL, Hall L, Kennedy KJ et al. Increasing incidence of Clostridium difficile infection, Australia, 2011-2012. Med J Aust 2014; 200: 272-6.
4. Antibiotic Expert Groups. Therapeutic Guidelines: Antibiotic. Version 15. Melbourne: Therapeutic Guidelines Limited; 2014.
5. Cheng AC, Ferguson JK, Richards MJ, Robson JM, Gilbert GL, McGregor A et al. Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Med J Aust 2011; 194: 353-8.
6. Debast SB, Bauer MP, Kuijper EJ ; European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases: update of the treatment guidance document for Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 2014; 20: 1-26.
7. Sailhamer EA, Carson K, Chang Y, Zacharias N, Spaniolas K, Tabbara M et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of care and predictors of mortality. Arch Surg 2009; 144: 433-9; discussion 439-40.
8. Pai S, Aliyu SH, Enoch DA, Karas JA. Five years experience of Clostridium difficile infection in children at a UK tertiary hospital: proposed criteria for diagnosis and management. PLoS One 2012; 7: e51728.
9. Ferguson JK, Cheng AC, Gilbert GL, Gottlieb T, Korman T, McGregor A et al. Clostridium difficile laboratory testing in Australia and New Zealand: national survey results and Australasian Society for Infectious Diseases recommendations for best practice. Pathology 2011; 43: 482-7.
10. Wilcox MH. Preface: Clostridium difficile Infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2015; 29: xiii-xiv.
11. Rousseau C, Poilane I, De Pontual L, Maherault AC, Le Monnier A, Collignon A. Clostridium difficile carriage in healthy infants in the community: a potential reservoir for pathogenic strains. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 1209-15.
12. Libby JM, Donta ST, Wilkins TD. Clostridium difficile toxin A in infants. J Infect Dis 1983; 148: 606.
13. Rousseau C, Lemée L, Le Monnier A, Poilane I, Pons JL, Collignon A. Prevalence and diversity of Clostridium difficile strains in infants. J Med Microbiol 2011; 60: 1112-8.
14. Faust SN, Wilcox MH, Banaszkiewicz A, Bouza E, Raymond J, Gerding DN. Lack of evidence for an unmet need to treat Clostridium difficile infection in infants aged <2years: expert recommendations on how to address this issue. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 60: 912-8.
15. Sammons JS, Toltzis P. Pitfalls in diagnosis of pediatric Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2015; 29: 465-76.
16. Kim J, Shaklee JF, Smathers S, Prasad P, Asti L, Zoltanski J et al. Risk factors and outcomes associated with severe clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012; 31: 134-8.
17. Sandora TJ, Fung M, Flaherty K, Helsing L, Scanlon P, Potter-Bynoe G et al. Epidemiology and risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2011; 30: 580-4.
18. Pascarella F, Martinelli M, Miele E, Del Pezzo M, Roscetto E, Staiano A. Impact of Clostridium difficile infection on pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. J Pediatr 2009; 154: 854-8.
19. Rivlin J, Lerner A, Augarten A, Wilschanski M, Kerem E, Ephros MA. Severe Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in young patients with cystic fibrosis. J Pediatr 1998; 132: 177-9.
20. Thomas DF, Fernie DS, Bayston R, Spitz L, Nixon HH. Enterocolitis in Hirschsprung's disease: a controlled study of the etiologic role of Clostridium difficile. J Pediatr Surg 1986; 21: 22-5.
21. Furuichi M, Imajo E, Sato Y, Tanno S, Kawada M, Sato S. Characteristics of Clostridium difficile colonization in Japanese children. J Infect Chemother 2014; 20: 307-11.
22. Brown KE, Knoderer CA, Nichols KR, Crumby AS. Acid-suppressing agents and risk for Clostridium difficile infection in pediatric patients. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 2015; 54: 1102-6.
23. Grishin A, Papillon S, Bell B, Wang J, Ford HR. The role of the intestinal microbiota in the pathogenesis of necrotizing enterocolitis. Semin Pediatr Surg 2013; 22: 69-75.
24. Slimings C, Riley TV. Antibiotics and hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: update of systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 881-91.
25. Deshpande A, Pasupuleti V, Thota P, Pant C, Rolston DD, Sferra TJ et al. Community-associated Clostridium difficile infection and antibiotics: a meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68: 1951-61.
26. Brown KA, Fisman DN, Moineddin R, Daneman N. The magnitude and duration of Clostridium difficile infection risk associated with antibiotic therapy: a hospital cohort study. PLoS One 2014; 9: e105454.
27. Kato H, Kato H, Iwashima Y, Nakamura M, Nakamura A, Ueda R. Inappropriate use of loperamide worsens Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Hosp Infect 2008; 70: 194-5.
28. Abou Chakra CN, Pepin J, Sirard S, Valiquette L. Risk factors for recurrence, complications and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. PLoS One 2014; 9: e98400.
29. Wenisch JM, Schmid D, Kuo HW, Allerberger F, Michl V, Tesik P et al. Prospective observational study comparing three different treatment regimes in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56: 1974-8.
30. Berman AL. Efficacy of rifaximin and vancomycin combination therapy in a patient with refractory Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Clin Gastroenterol 2007; 41: 932-3.
31. Johnson S, Schriever C, Patel U, Patel T, Hecht DW, Gerding DN. Rifaximin Redux: treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infections with rifaximin immediately post-vancomycin treatment. Anaerobe 2009; 15: 290-1.
32. Rubin DT, Sohi S, Glathar M, Thomas T, Yadron N, Surma BL. Rifaximin is effective for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: results of an open-label pilot study. Gastroenterol Res Pract 2011; 2011: 106978.
33. Mattila E, Arkkila P, Mattila PS, Tarkka E, Tissari P, Anttila VJ. Rifaximin in the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013; 37: 122-8.
34. Garey KW, Ghantoji SS, Shah DN, Habib M, Arora V, Jiang ZD et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study to assess the ability of rifaximin to prevent recurrent diarrhoea in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66: 2850-5.
35. Dudley MN, McLaughlin JC, Carrington G, Frick J, Nightingale CH, Quintiliani R. Oral bacitracin vs vancomycin therapy for Clostridium difficile-induced diarrhoea. A randomized double-blind trial. Arch Intern Med 1986; 146: 1101-4.
36. Young GP, Ward PB, Bayley N, Gordon D, Higgins G, Trapani JA et al. Antibiotic-associated colitis due to Clostridium difficile: double-blind comparison of vancomycin with bacitracin. Gastroenterology 1985; 89: 1038-45.
37. Aldeyab MA, McElnay JC, Scott MG, Davies E, Edwards C, Darwish Elhajji FW et al. An evaluation of the impact of a single-dose intravenous immunoglobulin regimen in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2011; 32: 631-3.
38. de Lalla F, Nicolin R, Rinaldi E, Scarpellini P, Rigoli R, Manfrin V et al. Prospective study of oral teicoplanin versus oral vancomycin for therapy of pseudomembranous colitis and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1992; 36: 2192-6.
39. Bektas M, Toruner M, Cetinkaya H, Soykan I, Ozden A. Fucidic acid use in metronidazole nonresponders with Clostridium difficile infection. Digestion 2007; 75: 177-8.
40. Garey KW, Salazar M, Shah D, Rodrigue R, DuPont HL. Rifamycin antibiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Ann Pharmacother 2008; 42: 827-35.
41. Rodriguez-Pardo D, Almirante B, Bartolomé RM, Pomar V, Mirelis B, Navarro F et al. Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection and risk factors for unfavorable clinical outcomes: results of a hospital-based study in Barcelona, Spain. J Clin Microbiol 2013; 51: 1465-73.
42. DuPont HL, Haake R, Taylor DN, Ericsson CD, Jiang ZD, Okhuysen PC et al. Rifaximin treatment of pathogen-negative travelers' diarrhoea. J Travel Med 2007; 14: 16-9.
43. Morrison RH, Hall NS, Said M, Rice T, Groff H, Brodine SK et al. Risk factors associated with complications and mortality in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 1173-8.
44. Galdys AL, Nelson JS, Shutt KA, Schlackman JL, Pakstis DL, Pasculle AW et al. Prevalence and duration of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile carriage among healthy subjects in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. J Clin Microbiol 2014; 52: 2406-9.
45. Zacharioudakis IM, Zervou FN, Pliakos EE, Ziakas PD, Mylonakis E. Colonization with toxinogenic C. difficile upon hospital admission, and risk of infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2015; 110: 381-90.
46. Kong LY, Dendukuri N, Schiller I, Bourgault AM, Brassard P, Poirier L et al. Predictors of asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization on hospital admission. Am J Infect Control 2015; 43: 248-53.
47. Oughton MT, Loo VG, Dendukuri N, Fenn S, Libman MD. Hand hygiene with soap and water is superior to alcohol rub and antiseptic wipes for removal of Clostridium difficile. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009; 30: 939-44.
48. Wenisch JM, Equiluz-Bruck S, Fudel M, Reiter I, Schmid A, Singer E et al. Decreasing Clostridium difficile infections by an antimicrobial stewardship program that reduces moxifloxacin use. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58: 5079-83.
49. Aldeyab MA, Kearney MP, Scott MG, Aldiab MA, Alahmadi YM, Darwish Elhajji FW et al. An evaluation of the impact of antibiotic stewardship on reducing the use of high-risk antibiotics and its effect on the incidence of Clostridium difficile infection in hospital settings. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 2988-96.
50. Talpaert MJ, Gopal Rao G, Cooper BS, Wade P. Impact of guidelines and enhanced antibiotic stewardship on reducing broad-spectrum antibiotic usage and its effect on incidence of Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66: 2168-74.
51. Furuya-Kanamori L, Stone JC, Clark J, McKenzie SJ, Yakob L, Paterson DL et al. Comorbidities, exposure to medications, and the risk of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 36: 132-41.
52. Enache-Angoulvant A, Hennequin C. Invasive Saccharomyces infection: a comprehensive review. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1559-68.
53. Pillai A, Nelson R. Probiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 1: CD004611.
54. Santino I, Alari A, Bono S, Teti E, Marangi M, Bernardini A et al. Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia, a possible consequence of the treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis with a probioticum. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 2014; 27: 143-6.
55. Allen SJ, Wareham K, Wang D, Bradley C, Hutchings H, Harris W et al. Lactobacilli and bifidobacteria in the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea and Clostridium difficile diarrhoea in older inpatients (PLACIDE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial. Lancet 2013; 382: 1249-57.
56. Goldenberg JZ, Ma SS, Saxton JD, Martzen MR, Vandvik PO, Thorlund K et al. Probiotics for the prevention of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in adults and children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; CD006095.
57. Pozzoni P, Riva A, Bellatorre AG, Amigoni M, Redaelli E, Ronchetti A et al. Saccharomyces boulardii for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea in adult hospitalized patients: a single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 922-31.
58. Teasley DG, Gerding DN, Olson MM, Peterson LR, Gebhard RL, Schwartz MJ et al. Prospective randomised trial of metronidazole versus vancomycin for Clostridium-difficile-associated diarrhoea and colitis. Lancet 1983; 2: 1043-6.
59. Wenisch C, Parschalk B, Hasenhündl M, Hirschl AM, Graninger W. Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole, and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Clin Infect Dis 1996; 22: 813-8.
60. Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Kelly CP, Loo VG, McDonald LC et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010; 31: 431-55.
61. Surawicz CM, Brandt LJ, Binion DG, Ananthakrishnan AN, Curry SR, Gilligan PH et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 478-98.
62. Drekonja DM, Butler M, MacDonald R, Bliss D, Filice GA, Rector TS et al. Comparative effectiveness of Clostridium difficile treatments: a systematic review. Ann Intern Med 2011; 155: 839-47.
63. Nelson RL, Kelsey P, Leeman H, Meardon N, Patel H, Paul K et al. Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; CD004610.
64. Bagdasarian N, Rao K, Malani PN. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile in adults: a systematic review. JAMA 2015; 313: 398-408.
65. Zar FA, Bakkanagari SR, Moorthi KM, Davis MB. A comparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 45: 302-7.
66. Tschudin-Sutter S, Tamma PD, Naegeli AN, Speck KA, Milstone AM, Perl TM. Distinguishing community-associated from hospital-associated Clostridium difficile infections in children: implications for public health surveillance. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 57: 1665-72.
67. Tamma PD, Sandora TJ. Clostridium difficile infection in children: current state and unanswered questions. J Ped Infect Dis 2012; 1: 230-43.
68. Bass SN, Bauer SR, Neuner EA, Lam SW. Comparison of treatment outcomes with vancomycin alone versus combination therapy in severe Clostridium difficile infection. J Hosp Infect 2013; 85: 22-7.
69. Lam SW, Bass SN, Neuner EA, Bauer SR. Effect of vancomycin dose on treatment outcomes in severe Clostridium difficile infection. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2013; 42: 553-8.
70. Chihara S, Shimizu R, Furukata S, Hoshino K. Oral vancomycin may have significant absorption in patients with Clostridium difficile colitis. Scand J Infect Dis 2011; 43: 149-50.
71. Thompson CM Jr, Gilligan PH, Fisher MC, Long SS. Clostridium difficile cytotoxin in a pediatric population. Am J Dis Child 1983; 137: 271-4.
72. Pettit NN, DePestel DD, Fohl AL, Eyler R, Carver PL. Risk factors for systemic vancomycin exposure following administration of oral vancomycin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Pharmacotherapy 2015; 35: 119-26.
73. Tedesco F, Markham R, Gurwith M, Christie D, Bartlett JG. Oral vancomycin for antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis. Lancet 1978; 2: 226-8.
74. Apisarnthanarak A, Khoury H, Reinus WR, Crippin JS, Mundy LM. Severe Clostridium difficile colitis: the role of intracolonic vancomycin? Am J Med 2002; 112: 328-9.
75. Saffouri G, Khanna S, Estes L, Pardi D. Outcomes from rectal vancomycin therapy in patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2014; 109: 924-5.
76. Tannock GW, Munro K, Taylor C, Lawley B, Young W, Byrne B et al. A new macrocyclic antibiotic, fidaxomicin (OPT-80), causes less alteration to the bowel microbiota of Clostridium difficile-infected patients than does vancomycin. Microbiology 2010; 156: 3354-9.
77. Babakhani F, Bouillaut L, Gomez A, Sears P, Nguyen L, Sonenshein AL. Fidaxomicin inhibits spore production in Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: S162-9.
78. Louie TJ, Cannon K, Byrne B, Emery J, Ward L, Eyben M et al. Fidaxomicin preserves the intestinal microbiome during and after treatment of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and reduces both toxin reexpression and recurrence of CDI. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: S132-42.
79. Mullane K. Fidaxomicin in Clostridium difficile infection: latest evidence and clinical guidance. Ther Adv Chronic Dis 2014; 5: 69-84.
80. Mullane KM, Miller MA, Weiss K, Lentnek A, Golan Y, Sears PS et al. Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 440-47.
81. Louie TJ, Miller MA, Mullane KM, Weiss K, Lentnek A, Golan Y et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 422-31.
82. Cornely OA, Nathwani D, Ivanescu C, Odufowora-Sita O, Retsa P, Odeyemi IA. Clinical efficacy of fidaxomicin compared with vancomycin and metronidazole in Clostridium difficile infections: a meta-analysis and indirect treatment comparison. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 2892-900.
83. Smeltzer S, Hassoun A. Successful use of fidaxomicin in recurrent Clostridium difficile infection in a child. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68: 1688-9.
84. Sears P. Safety and Pharmacokinetic Study of Fidaxomicin in children with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea, in ID week. Philadelphia, PA; 2014.
85. ClinicalTrials.gov. A study to investigate the safety and efficacy of fidaxomicin (oral suspension or tablets) and vancomycin (oral liquid or capsules) in pediatric subjects with Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea (CDAD) [cited 2015 August 3]. Available from URL: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT
86. van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, Fuentes S, Zoetendal EG, de Vos WM et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2013; 368: 407-15.
87. Johnson S, Schriever C, Galang M, Kelly CP, Gerding DN. Interruption of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea episodes by serial therapy with vancomycin and rifaximin. Clin Infect Dis 2007; 44: 846-8.
88. Curry SR, Marsh JW, Shutt KA, Muto CA, O'Leary MM, Saul MI et al. High frequency of rifampin resistance identified in an epidemic Clostridium difficile clone from a large teaching hospital. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 425-9.
89. Lowy I, Molrine DC, Leav BA, Blair BM, Baxter R, Gerding DN et al. Treatment with monoclonal antibodies against Clostridium difficile toxins. N Engl J Med 2010; 362: 197-205.
90. Johnson S, Louie TJ, Gerding DN, Cornely OA, Chasan-Taber S, Fitts D et al. Vancomycin, metronidazole, or tolevamer for Clostridium difficile infection: results from two multinational, randomized, controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 59: 345-54.
91. Vardakas KZ, Polyzos KA, Patouni K, Rafailidis PI, Samonis G, Falagas ME. Treatment failure and recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection following treatment with vancomycin or metronidazole: a systematic review of the evidence. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 40: 1-8.
92. McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM. Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2002; 97: 1769-75.
93. Chang JY, Antonopoulos DA, Kalra A, Tonelli A, Khalife WT, Schmidt TM et al. Decreased diversity of the fecal microbiome in recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Infect Dis 2008; 197: 435-8.
94. Cammarota G, Masucci L, Ianiro G, Bibbò S, Dinoi G, Costamagna G et al. Randomised clinical trial: faecal microbiota transplantation by colonoscopy vs. vancomycin for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015; 41: 835-43.
95. Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR. Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 994-1002.
96. Guo B, Harstall C, Louie T, Veldhuyzen van Zanten S, Dieleman LA. Systematic review: faecal transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2012; 35: 865-75.
97. Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH. Fecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile infection: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 500-8.
98. Cammarota G, Ianiro G, Gasbarrini A. Fecal microbiota transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. J Clin Gastroenterol 2014; 48: 693-702.
99. Youngster I, Russell GH, Pindar C, Ziv-Baran T, Sauk J, Hohmann EL. Oral, capsulized, frozen fecal microbiota transplantation for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection. JAMA 2014; 312: 1772-8.
100. Youngster I, Sauk J, Pindar C, Wilson RG, Kaplan JL, Smith MB et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for relapsing Clostridium difficile infection using a frozen inoculum from unrelated donors: a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 1515-22.
101. Costello SP, Conlon MA, Vuaran MS, Roberts-Thomson IC, Andrews JM. Faecal microbiota transplant for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection using long-term frozen stool is effective: clinical efficacy and bacterial viability data. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015; 42: 1011-8.
102. Costello SP, Tucker EC, La Brooy J, Schoeman MN, Andrews JM. Establishing a fecal microbiota transplant service for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2015. doi:10.1093/cid/civ994
103. Baxter M, Ahmad T, Colville A, Sheridan R. Fatal aspiration pneumonia as a complication of fecal microbiota transplant. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61: 136-7.
104. Alang N, Kelly CR. Weight gain after fecal microbiota transplantation. Open Forum Infect Dis 2015; 2: ofv004.
105. Trubiano JA, George A, Barnett J, Siwan M, Heriot A, Prince HM et al. A different kind of 'allogeneic transplant': successful fecal microbiota transplant for recurrent and refractory Clostridium difficile infection in a patient with relapsed aggressive B-cell lymphoma. Leuk Lymphoma 2015; 56: 512-4.
106. Trubiano JA, Gardiner B, Kwong JC, Ward P, Testro AG, Charles PG. Faecal microbiota transplantation for severe Clostridium difficile infection in the intensive care unit. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013; 25: 255-7.
107. Hamilton MJ, Weingarden AR, Sadowsky MJ, Khoruts A. Standardized frozen preparation for transplantation of fecal microbiota for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 761-7.
108. Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, Kau AL et al. Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice. Science 2013; 341: 1241214.
109. Satokari R, Mattila E, Kainulainen V, Arkkila PE. Simple faecal preparation and efficacy of frozen inoculum in faecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection - an observational cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015; 41: 46-53.
110. Tauxe WM, Dhere T, Ward A, Racsa LD, Varkey JB, Kraft CS. Fecal microbiota transplant protocol for clostridium difficile infection. Lab Med 2015; 46: e19-23.
111. Kelly CR, Ihunnah C, Fischer M, Khoruts A, Surawicz C, Afzali A et al. Fecal microbiota transplant for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in immunocompromised patients. Am J Gastroenterol 2014; 109: 1065-71.
112. Neemann K, Eichele DD, Smith PW, Bociek R, Akhtari M, Freifeld A. Fecal microbiota transplantation for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection in an allogeneic stem cell transplant patient. Transpl Infect Dis 2012; 14: E161-5.
113. Hourigan SK, Chen LA, Grigoryan Z, Laroche G, Weidner M, Sears CL et al. Microbiome changes associated with sustained eradication of Clostridium difficile after single faecal microbiota transplantation in children with and without inflammatory bowel disease. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015; 42: 741-52.
114. Rossen NG, MacDonald JK, de Vries EM, D'Haens GR, de Vos WM, Zoetendal EW et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation as novel therapy in gastroenterology: a systematic review. World J Gastroenterol 2015; 21: 5359-71.
115. Walia R, Kunde S, Mahajan L. Fecal microbiota transplantation in the treatment of refractory Clostridium difficile infection in children: an update. Curr Opin Pediatr 2014; 26: 573-8.
116. Walia R, Garg S, Song Y, Girotra M, Cuffari C, Fricke WF et al. Efficacy of fecal microbiota transplantation in 2 children with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection and its impact on their growth and gut microbiome. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2014; 59: 565-70.
117. Pierog A, Mencin A, Reilly NR. Fecal microbiota transplantation in children with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2014; 33: 1198-200.
118. Cornely OA, Crook DW, Esposito R, Poirier A, Somero MS, Weiss K et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for infection with Clostridium difficile in Europe, Canada, and the USA: a double-blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis 2012; 12: 281-9.
119. Cornely OA, Miller MA, Louie TJ, Crook DW, Gorbach SL. Treatment of first recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection: fidaxomicin versus vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: S154-61.
120. Cornely OA, Miller MA, Fantin B, Mullane K, Kean Y, Gorbach S. Resolution of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea in patients with cancer treated with fidaxomicin or vancomycin. J Clin Oncol 2013; 31: 2493-9.
121. Crook DW, Walker AS, Kean Y, Weiss K, Cornely OA, Miller MA et al. Fidaxomicin versus vancomycin for Clostridium difficile infection: meta-analysis of pivotal randomized controlled trials. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: S93-103.
122. Johnson S, Gerding DN. Fidaxomicin "chaser" regimen following vancomycin for patients with multiple Clostridium difficile recurrences. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: 309-10.
123. Nathwani D, Cornely OA, Van Engen AK, Odufowora-Sita O, Retsa P, Odeyemi IA. Cost-effectiveness analysis of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin in Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 2901-12.
124. Freeman J, Baines SD, Todhunter SL, Huscroft GS, Wilcox MH. Nitazoxanide is active against Clostridium difficile strains with reduced susceptibility to metronidazole. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66: 1407-8.
125. Aslam S, Musher DM. Nitazoxanide: clinical studies of a broad-spectrum anti-infective agent. Future Microbiol 2007; 2: 583-90.
126. Musher DM, Logan N, Bressler AM, Johnson DP, Rossignol JF. Nitazoxanide versus vancomycin in Clostridium difficile infection: a randomized, double-blind study. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: e41-6.
127. Musher DM, Logan N, Hamill RJ, Dupont HL, Lentnek A, Gupta A et al. Nitazoxanide for the treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 421-7.
128. Musher DM, Logan N, Mehendiratta V, Melgarejo NA, Garud S, Hamill RJ. Clostridium difficile colitis that fails conventional metronidazole therapy: response to nitazoxanide. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 59: 705-10.
129. Louie TJ, Peppe J, Watt CK, Johnson D, Mohammed R, Dow G et al. Tolevamer, a novel nonantibiotic polymer, compared with vancomycin in the treatment of mild to moderately severe Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43: 411-20.
130. Wullt M, Odenholt I. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of fusidic acid and metronidazole for treatment of an initial episode of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54: 211-6.
131. Weingarden AR, Hamilton MJ, Sadowsky MJ, Khoruts A. Resolution of severe Clostridium difficile infection following sequential fecal microbiota transplantation. J Clin Gastroenterol 2013; 47: 735-7.
132. Nagy GG, Varvolgyi C, Paragh G. Successful treatment of life-threatening, treatment resistant Clostridium difficile infection associated pseudomembranous colitis with faecal transplantation. Orv Hetil 2012; 153: 2077-83.
133. Gallegos-Orozco JF, Paskvan-Gawryletz CD, Gurudu SR, Orenstein R. Successful colonoscopic fecal transplant for severe acute Clostridium difficile pseudomembranous colitis. Rev Gastroenterol Mex 2012; 77: 40-42.
134. Brandt LJ, Borody TJ, Campbell J. Endoscopic fecal microbiota transplantation: "first-line" treatment for severe clostridium difficile infection? J Clin Gastroenterol 2011; 45: 655-7.
135. Rokas KE, Johnson JW, Beardsley JR, Ohl CA, Luther VP, Williamson JC. The addition of intravenous metronidazole to oral vancomycin is associated with improved mortality in critically ill patients with Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2015; 61: 934-41.
136. Apisarnthanarak A, Razavi B, Mundy LM. Adjunctive intracolonic vancomycin for severe Clostridium difficile colitis: case series and review of the literature. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 690-6.
137. Metan G, Türe Z, Kaynar L, Berk E, Gürsoy Ş, Alp E et al. Tigecycline for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection refractory to metronidazole in haematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients. J Chemother 2014; 27: 354-7.
138. Thomas A, Khan F, Uddin N, Wallace MR. Tigecycline for severe Clostridium difficile infection. Int J Infect Dis 2014; 26: 171-2.
139. Cheong EY, Gottlieb T. Intravenous tigecycline in the treatment of severe recurrent Clostridium difficile colitis. Med J Aust 2011; 194: 374-5.
140. Larson KC, Belliveau PP, Spooner LM. Tigecycline for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile infection. Ann Pharmacother 2011; 45: 1005-10.
141. Neal MD, Alverdy JC, Hall DE, Simmons RL, Zuckerbraun BS. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: an alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg 2011; 254: 423-7; discussion 427-9.
142. Brown CJ, Boutros M, Morris A, Divino CM ; CAGS/ACS Evidence Based Reviews in Surgery Group. CAGS and ACS evidence based reviews in surgery. Is a diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage an alternative to colectomy for the treatment of severe Clostridium difficile-associated disease? Can J Surg 2014; 57: 214-6.
143. O'Horo J, Safdar N. The role of immunoglobulin for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. Int J Infect Dis 2009; 13: 663-7.
144. O'Horo JC, Jindai K, Kunzer B, Safdar N. Treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. Infection 2014; 42: 43-59.
145. Wilcox MH, Gerding D, Poxton I, Kelly C, Nathan R, Cornely O et al. Bezlotoxumab (BEZ) Alone and With Actoxumab (ACT) for Prevention of Recurrent C. difficile Infection (rCDI) in Patients on Standard of Care (SoC) Antibiotics: Integrated Results of 2 Phase 3 Studies (MODIFY I and MODIFY II). in ID Week. San Diego, CA; 2015.
146. Locher HH, Caspers P, Bruyére T, Schroeder S, Pfaff P, Knezevic A et al. Investigations of the mode of action and resistance development of cadazolid, a new antibiotic for treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58: 901-8.
147. Locher HH, Seiler P, Chen X, Schroeder S, Pfaff P, Enderlin M et al. In vitro and in vivo antibacterial evaluation of cadazolid, a new antibiotic for treatment of Clostridium difficile infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58: 892-900.
148. Baldoni D, Gutierrez M, Timmer W, Dingemanse J. Cadazolid, a novel antibiotic with potent activity against Clostridium difficile: safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics in healthy subjects following single and multiple oral doses. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 69: 706-14.
149. Rashid MU, Dalhoff A, Weintraub A, Nord CE. In vitro activity of MCB3681 against Clostridium difficile strains. Anaerobe 2014; 28: 216-9.
150. Freeman J, Baines SD, Jabes D, Wilcox MH. Comparison of the efficacy of ramoplanin and vancomycin in both in vitro and in vivo models of clindamycin-induced Clostridium difficile infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2005; 56: 717-25.
151. Mathur H, O'Connor PM, Hill C, Cotter PD, Ross RP. Analysis of anti-Clostridium difficile activity of thuricin CD, vancomycin, metronidazole, ramoplanin, and actagardine, both singly and in paired combinations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57: 2882-6.
152. Rea MC, Dobson A, O'Sullivan O, Crispie F, Fouhy F, Cotter PD et al. Effect of broad- and narrow-spectrum antimicrobials on Clostridium difficile and microbial diversity in a model of the distal colon. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108: 4639-44.
153. Rea MC, Sit CS, Clayton E, O'Connor PM, Whittal RM, Zheng J et al. Thuricin CD, a posttranslationally modified bacteriocin with a narrow spectrum of activity against Clostridium difficile. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107: 9352-7.
154. Walz DT, DiMartino MJ, Griswold DE, Intoccia AP, Flanagan TL. Biologic actions and pharmacokinetic studies of auranofin. Am J Med 1983; 75: 90-108.
155. Jackson-Rosario S, Cowart D, Myers A, Tarrien R, Levine RL, Scott RA et al. Auranofin disrupts selenium metabolism in Clostridium difficile by forming a stable Au-Se adduct. J Biol Inorg Chem 2009; 14: 507-19.