Depression and disturbed bone metabolism: A narrative review of the epidemiological findings and postulated mechanisms

Current Molecular Medicine

Volumn 16, Issue 2, 2016, Pages 165-178

  Rosenblat, J D ^a,b   Gregory, J M ^c   Carvalho, A F ^d   McIntyre, R S ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY HEALTH NETWORK   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

^d FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF CEARÁ   (Brazil)

Author keywords

Antidepressants; Bone mineral density (BMD); Cytokines; Fractures; Major depressive disorder (MDD); Osteoporosis; Serotonin; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

ACETYLCYSTEINE; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; CORTICOTROPIN; CORTICOTROPIN RELEASING FACTOR; CYCLIC AMP; CYCLIC AMP DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE; CYCLIC AMP RESPONSIVE ELEMENT BINDING PROTEIN; CYTOKINE; ESTROGEN; GLUCOCORTICOID RECEPTOR; GONADORELIN; GROWTH HORMONE; GROWTH HORMONE RELEASING FACTOR; HYDROCORTISONE; INSULIN; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTOR RELATED PROTEIN 5; MINOCYCLINE; OSTEOCLAST DIFFERENTIATION FACTOR; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TESTOSTERONE; VITAMIN D;

ALCOHOL CONSUMPTION; ARTICLE; BONE CELL; BONE DENSITY; BONE MASS; BONE METABOLISM; CALCIUM ABSORPTION; COMORBIDITY; DEPRESSION; DIET; FRACTURE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LIFESTYLE; MASS SCREENING; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLIC BONE DISEASE; MOOD; NITROSATIVE STRESS; OSTEOBLAST; OSTEOCLAST; OSTEOLYSIS; OSTEOPENIA; OSTEOPOROSIS; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; POSTMENOPAUSE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SMOKING; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); TOBACCO USE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VITAMIN SUPPLEMENTATION; BONE DISEASES, METABOLIC; COMPLICATION; META ANALYSIS; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

BONE DENSITY; BONE DISEASES, METABOLIC; DEPRESSION; HUMANS; OSTEOPOROSIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84958971737     PISSN: 15665240     EISSN: 18755666     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1566524016666160126144303     Document Type: Article

References (138)

1. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention Diagnosis, and Therapy. Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 2001; 285(6): 785- 95.
2. Assessment of fracture risk and its application to screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis. Report of a WHO Study Group. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser 1994; 843: 1-129.
3. Marshall D, Johnell O, Wedel H. Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures. BMJ 1996; 312(7041): 1254-9.
4. National Osteoprosis Foundation. The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF) Clinician's Guide to prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. 2013.
5. Johnell O, Kanis JA. An estimate of the worldwide prevalence and disability associated with osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 2006; 17(12): 1726-33.
6. Johnell O, Kanis J. Epidemiology of osteoporotic fractures. Osteoporos Int 2005; 16 Suppl 2: S3-7.
7. Lips P, van Schoor NM. Quality of life in patients with osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 2005; 16(5): 447-55.
8. Papaioannou A, Kennedy CC, Ioannidis G, et al. The impact of incident fractures on health-related quality of life: 5 years of data from the Canadian Multicentre Osteoporosis Study. Osteoporos Int 2009; 20(5): 703-14.
9. Sanchez-Riera L, Carnahan E, Vos T, et al. The global burden attributable to low bone mineral density. Ann Rheum Dis 2014; 73(9): 1635-45.
10. Dempster DW. Osteoporosis and the burden of osteoporosisrelated fractures. Am J Manag Care 2011; 17 Suppl 6: S164- 9.
11. WHO. The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992.
12. APA. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, D.C. 2013.
13. Coryell W. Merk Manual of Mood Disorders: Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp; 2013 [updated December 2013; cited 2015 January 10, 2015]. Available from: http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/psychiatric_disor ders/mood_disorders/depressive_disorders.html.
14. Ferrari AJ, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, et al. Burden of depressive disorders by country, sex, age, and year: findings from the global burden of disease study 2010. PLoS Med 2013; 10(11): e1001547.
15. Ferrari AJ, Charlson FJ, Norman RE, et al. The epidemiological modelling of major depressive disorder: application for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. PLoS One 2013; 8(7): e69637.
16. Andrade L, Caraveo-Anduaga JJ, Berglund P, et al. The epidemiology of major depressive episodes: results from the International Consortium of Psychiatric Epidemiology (ICPE) Surveys. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res 2003; 12(1): 3-21.
17. Cizza G, Primma S, Coyle M, Gourgiotis L, Csako G. Depression and osteoporosis: a research synthesis with meta-analysis. Horm Metab Res 2010; 42(7): 467-82.
18. Wu Q, Magnus JH, Liu J, Bencaz AF, Hentz JG. Depression and low bone mineral density: a meta-analysis of epidemiologic studies. Osteoporos Int 2009; 20(8): 1309-20.
19. Cizza G, Primma S, Csako G. Depression as a risk factor for osteoporosis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2009; 20(8): 367-73.
20. Ramasubbu R, Beaulieu S, Taylor VH, et al. The CANMAT task force recommendations for the management of patients with mood disorders and comorbid medical conditions: diagnostic, assessment, and treatment principles. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2012; 24(1): 82-90.
21. Ramasubbu R, Taylor VH, Samaan Z, et al. The Canadian Network for Mood and Anxiety Treatments (CANMAT) task force recommendations for the management of patients with mood disorders and select comorbid medical conditions. Ann Clin Psychiatry 2012; 24(1): 91-109.
22. Schweiger U, Deuschle M, Korner A, et al. Low lumbar bone mineral density in patients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1994; 151(11): 1691-3.
23. Cizza G, Ravn P, Chrousos GP, Gold PW. Depression: a major, unrecognized risk factor for osteoporosis? Trends Endocrinol Metab 2001; 12(5): 198-203.
24. Cohen J. Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. New York: Academic Press; 1977.
25. Lee CW, Liao CH, Lin CL, Liang JA, Sung FC, Kao CH. Increased risk of osteoporosis in patients with depression: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Mayo Clin Proc 2015; 90(1): 63-70.
26. Mezuk B, Eaton WW, Golden SH. Depression and osteoporosis: epidemiology and potential mediating pathways. Osteoporos Int 2008; 19(1): 1-12.
27. Mezuk B. Affective Disorders, Bone Metabolism, and Osteoporosis. Clin Rev Bone Miner Metab 2008; 6(3-4): 101- 13.
28. Whooley MA, Kip KE, Cauley JA, Ensrud KE, Nevitt MC, Browner WS. Depression, falls, and risk of fracture in older women. Study of Osteoporotic Fractures Research Group. Arch Intern Med 1999; 159(5): 484-90.
29. Yirmiya R, Bab I. Major depression is a risk factor for low bone mineral density: a meta-analysis. Biol Psychiatry 2009; 66(5): 423-32.
30. Oikonen M, Hintsanen M, Laaksonen M, et al. Depressive symptoms are associated with lower bone mineral density in young adults with high job strain. The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study. Int J Behav Med 2014; 21(3): 464-9.
31. Rauma PH, Pasco JA, Berk M, et al. The association between use of antidepressants and bone quality using quantitative heel ultrasound. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 2015; 49(5): 437-43.
32. Oh SM, Kim HC, Kim KM, Ahn SV, Choi DP, Suh I. Association between depressive symptoms and bone stiffness index in young adults: the Kangwha study. PLoS One 2013; 8(7): e69929.
33. Oh SM, Kim HC, Ahn SV, Rhee Y, Suh I. Association between depression and bone mineral density in communitydwelling older men and women in Korea. Maturitas 2012; 71(2): 142-6.
34. Fazeli PK, Mendes N, Russell M, Herzog DB, Klibanski A, Misra M. Bone density characteristics and major depressive disorder in adolescents. Psychosom Med 2013; 75(2): 117- 23.
35. Malik P, Gasser RW, Moncayo RC, et al. Bone mineral density and bone metabolism in patients with major depressive disorder without somatic comorbidities. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 44: 58-63.
36. Wu Q, Liu J, Gallegos-Orozco JF, Hentz JG. Depression, fracture risk, and bone loss: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Osteoporos Int 2010; 21(10): 1627-35.
37. Diem SJ, Blackwell TL, Stone KL, et al. Depressive symptoms and rates of bone loss at the hip in older women. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007; 55(6): 824-31.
38. Diem SJ, Harrison SL, Haney E, et al. Depressive symptoms and rates of bone loss at the hip in older men. Osteoporos Int 2013; 24(1): 111-9.
39. Cizza G, Mistry S, Nguyen VT, et al. Do premenopausal women with major depression have low bone mineral density? A 36-month prospective study. PLoS One 2012; 7(7): e40894.
40. Dorn LD, Beal SJ, Kalkwarf HJ, Pabst S, Noll JG, Susman EJ. Longitudinal impact of substance use and depressive symptoms on bone accrual among girls aged 11-19 years. J Adolesc Health 2013; 52(4): 393-9.
41. Lourenco S, Lucas R, da Silva DF, Ramos E, Barros H. Depressive symptoms are not associated with forearm bone accrual during adolescence. Arch Osteoporos 2014; 9(1): 173.
42. Cummings SR, Nevitt MC. A hypothesis: the causes of hip fractures. J Gerontol 1989; 44(4): M107-11.
43. Deandrea S, Lucenteforte E, Bravi F, Foschi R, La Vecchia C, Negri E. Risk factors for falls in community-dwelling older people: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiology 2010; 21(5): 658-68.
44. Guideline for the prevention of falls in older persons. American Geriatrics Society, British Geriatrics Society, and American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons Panel on Falls Prevention. J Am Geriatr Soc 2001; 49(5): 664-72.
45. Olfson M, Marcus SC. National patterns in antidepressant medication treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2009; 66(8): 848- 56.
46. Pirraglia PA, Stafford RS, Singer DE. Trends in Prescribing of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Other Newer Antidepressant Agents in Adult Primary Care. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry 2003; 5(4): 153-7.
47. Eom CS, Lee HK, Ye S, Park SM, Cho KH. Use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of fracture: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Bone Miner Res 2012; 27(5): 1186-95.
48. Wu Q, Bencaz AF, Hentz JG, Crowell MD. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and risk of fractures: a meta-analysis of cohort and case-control studies. Osteoporos Int 2012; 23(1): 365-75.
49. Rabenda V, Nicolet D, Beaudart C, Bruyere O, Reginster JY. Relationship between use of antidepressants and risk of fractures: a meta-analysis. Osteoporos Int 2013; 24(1): 121- 37.
50. Schwan S, Hallberg P. SSRIs, bone mineral density, and risk of fractures--a review. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2009; 19(10): 683-92.
51. Rizzoli R, Cooper C, Reginster JY, et al. Antidepressant medications and osteoporosis. Bone 2012; 51(3): 606-13.
52. Gebara MA, Shea ML, Lipsey KL, et al. Depression, antidepressants, and bone health in older adults: a systematic review. J Am Geriatr Soc 2014; 62(8): 1434-41.
53. Diem SJ, Blackwell TL, Stone KL, et al. Use of antidepressants and rates of hip bone loss in older women: the study of osteoporotic fractures. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167(12): 1240-5.
54. Raisz LG. Physiology and pathophysiology of bone remodeling. Clin Chem 1999; 45(8 Pt 2): 1353-8.
55. Lenze EJ, Munin MC, Skidmore ER, et al. Onset of depression in elderly persons after hip fracture: implications for prevention and early intervention of late-life depression. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007; 55(1): 81-6.
56. Vrkljan M, Thaller V, Lovricevic I, et al. Depressive disorder as possible risk factor of osteoporosis. Coll Antropol 2001; 25(2): 485-92.
57. Kahl KG, Greggersen W, Rudolf S, et al. Bone mineral density, bone turnover, and osteoprotegerin in depressed women with and without borderline personality disorder. Psychosom Med 2006; 68(5): 669-74.
58. Cizza G. Major depressive disorder is a risk factor for low bone mass, central obesity, and other medical conditions. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 2011; 13(1): 73-87.
59. Kahl KG, Rudolf S, Stoeckelhuber BM, et al. Bone mineral density, markers of bone turnover, and cytokines in young women with borderline personality disorder with and without comorbid major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2005; 162(1): 168-74.
60. Rosenblat JD, Cha DS, Mansur RB, McIntyre RS. Inflamed moods: a review of the interactions between inflammation and mood disorders. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 53: 23-34.
61. McNamara RK, Lotrich FE. Elevated immune-inflammatory signaling in mood disorders: a new therapeutic target? Expert Rev Neurother 2012; 12(9): 1143-61.
62. Dowlati Y, Herrmann N, Swardfager W, et al. A metaanalysis of cytokines in major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2010; 67(5): 446-57.
63. Dunn AJ, Swiergiel AH, de Beaurepaire R. Cytokines as mediators of depression: what can we learn from animal studies? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2005; 29(4-5): 891-909.
64. Felger JC, Lotrich FE. Inflammatory cytokines in depression: neurobiological mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Neuroscience 2013; 246: 199-229.
65. Anderson G, Berk M, Dean O, Moylan S, Maes M. Role of immune-inflammatory and oxidative and nitrosative stress pathways in the etiology of depression: therapeutic implications. CNS Drugs 2014; 28(1): 1-10.
66. Moylan S, Berk M, Dean OM, et al. Oxidative & nitrosative stress in depression: why so much stress? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 45: 46-62.
67. Anderson RJ, Freedland KE, Clouse RE, Lustman PJ. The prevalence of comorbid depression in adults with diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2001; 24(6): 1069-78.
68. Berk M, Dean OM, Cotton SM, et al. The efficacy of adjunctive N-acetylcysteine in major depressive disorder: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. J Clin Psychiatry 2014; 75(6): 628-36.
69. Berk M, Malhi GS, Gray LJ, Dean OM. The promise of Nacetylcysteine in neuropsychiatry. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2013; 34(3): 167-77.
70. Soczynska JK, Mansur RB, Brietzke E, et al. Novel therapeutic targets in depression: minocycline as a candidate treatment. Behav Brain Res 2012; 235(2): 302-17.
71. Banfi G, Iorio EL, Corsi MM. Oxidative stress, free radicals and bone remodeling. Clin Chem Lab Med 2008; 46(11): 1550-5.
72. Beishuizen A, Thijs LG. Endotoxin and the hypothalamopituitary- adrenal (HPA) axis. J Endotoxin Res 2003; 9(1): 3- 24.
73. Grinevich V, Ma XM, Herman JP, Jezova D, Akmayev I, Aguilera G. Effect of repeated lipopolysaccharide administration on tissue cytokine expression and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis activity in rats. J Neuroendocrinol 2001; 13(8): 711-23.
74. Silverman MN, Miller AH, Biron CA, Pearce BD. Characterization of an interleukin-6- and adrenocorticotropindependent, immune-to-adrenal pathway during viral infection. Endocrinology 2004; 145(8): 3580-9.
75. Turnbull AV, Rivier CL. Regulation of the hypothalamicpituitary- adrenal axis by cytokines: actions and mechanisms of action. Physiol Rev 1999; 79(1): 1-71.
76. Pace TW, Miller AH. Cytokines and glucocorticoid receptor signaling. Relevance to major depression. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1179: 86-105.
77. Murphy BE. Steroids and depression. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1991; 38(5): 537-59.
78. Carnahan RM, Perry PJ. Depression in aging men: the role of testosterone. Drugs Aging 2004; 21(6): 361-76.
79. Khosla S, Melton LJ, 3rd, Atkinson EJ, O'Fallon WM, Klee GG, Riggs BL. Relationship of serum sex steroid levels and bone turnover markers with bone mineral density in men and women: a key role for bioavailable estrogen. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83(7): 2266-74.
80. Aloumanis K, Mavroudis K. The "depressive" face of osteoporosis and the "osteoporotic" face of depression. Hormones (Athens) 2013; 12(3): 350-62.
81. Winokur A, Maislin G, Phillips JL, Amsterdam JD. Insulin resistance after oral glucose tolerance testing in patients with major depression. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145(3): 325-30.
82. Mansur RB, Brietzke E, McIntyre RS. Is there a "metabolicmood syndrome"? A review of the relationship between obesity and mood disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 52: 89-104.
83. Baskaran A, Carvalho AF, Mansur RB, McIntyre RS. Are Major Depressive Disorder and Diabetes Mellitus Amyloidogenic Conditions? CNS Neurol Disord Drug Targets 2014; 13(10): 1667-76.
84. Zhang Q, Riddle RC, Clemens TL. Bone and the regulation of global energy balance. J Intern Med 2015; 277(6): 681-9.
85. Banks WA, Owen JB, Erickson MA. Insulin in the brain: there and back again. Pharmacol Ther 2012; 136(1): 82-93.
86. Bingham EM, Hopkins D, Smith D, et al. The role of insulin in human brain glucose metabolism: an 18fluoro-deoxyglucose positron emission tomography study. Diabetes 2002; 51(12): 3384-90.
87. Craft S, Watson GS. Insulin and neurodegenerative disease: shared and specific mechanisms. Lancet Neurol 2004; 3(3): 169-78.
88. Gans RO. The metabolic syndrome, depression, and cardiovascular disease: interrelated conditions that share pathophysiologic mechanisms. Med Clin North Am 2006; 90(4): 573-91.
89. Mansur RB, Cha DS, Woldeyohannes HO, et al. Diabetes Mellitus and Disturbances in Brain Connectivity: A Bidirectional Relationship? Neuromolecular Med 2014; 16(4): 658-68.
90. Rosen CJ, Motyl KJ. No bones about it: insulin modulates skeletal remodeling. Cell 2010; 142(2): 198-200.
91. Clemens TL, Karsenty G. The osteoblast: an insulin target cell controlling glucose homeostasis. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26(4): 677-80.
92. Fulzele K, Riddle RC, DiGirolamo DJ, et al. Insulin receptor signaling in osteoblasts regulates postnatal bone acquisition and body composition. Cell 2010; 142(2): 309-19.
93. Ferron M, Wei J, Yoshizawa T, et al. Insulin signaling in osteoblasts integrates bone remodeling and energy metabolism. Cell 2010; 142(2): 296-308.
94. Schwartz AV. Diabetes Mellitus: Does it Affect Bone? Calcif Tissue Int 2003; 73(6): 515-9.
95. Isidro ML, Ruano B. Bone disease in diabetes. Curr Diabetes Rev 2010; 6(3): 144-55.
96. Hoang MT, Defina LF, Willis BL, Leonard DS, Weiner MF, Brown ES. Association between low serum 25- hydroxyvitamin D and depression in a large sample of healthy adults: the Cooper Center longitudinal study. Mayo Clin Proc 2011; 86(11): 1050-5.
97. Weber T, Eberle J, Messelhauser U, et al. Parathyroidectomy, elevated depression scores, and suicidal ideation in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: results of a prospective multicenter study. JAMA Surg 2013; 148(2): 109-15.
98. Cizza G, Nguyen VT, Eskandari F, et al. Low 24-hour adiponectin and high nocturnal leptin concentrations in a case-control study of community-dwelling premenopausal women with major depressive disorder: the Premenopausal, Osteopenia/Osteoporosis, Women, Alendronate, Depression (POWER) study. J Clin Psychiatry 2010; 71(8): 1079-87.
99. Gimble JM. Leptin's balancing act between bone and fat. J Bone Miner Res 2011; 26(8): 1694-7.
100. Sharma S, Tandon VR, Mahajan S, Mahajan V, Mahajan A. Obesity: Friend or foe for osteoporosis. J Midlife Health 2014; 5(1): 6-9.
101. Karsenty G, Ferron M. The contribution of bone to wholeorganism physiology. Nature 2012; 481(7381): 314-20.
102. Stahl SM. Mechanism of action of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors. Serotonin receptors and pathways mediate therapeutic effects and side effects. J Affect Disord 1998; 51(3): 215-35.
103. Warden SJ, Bliziotes MM, Wiren KM, Eshleman AJ, Turner CH. Neural regulation of bone and the skeletal effects of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine). Mol Cell Endocrinol 2005; 242(1-2): 1-9.
104. Yadav VK, Oury F, Suda N, et al. A serotonin-dependent mechanism explains the leptin regulation of bone mass, appetite, and energy expenditure. Cell 2009; 138(5): 976-89.
105. Elefteriou F, Ahn JD, Takeda S, et al. Leptin regulation of bone resorption by the sympathetic nervous system and CART. Nature 2005; 434(7032): 514-20.
106. Westbroek I, van der Plas A, de Rooij KE, Klein-Nulend J, Nijweide PJ. Expression of serotonin receptors in bone. J Biol Chem 2001; 276(31): 28961-8.
107. Yadav VK, Ryu JH, Suda N, et al. Lrp5 controls bone formation by inhibiting serotonin synthesis in the duodenum. Cell 2008; 135(5): 825-37.
108. Gustafsson BI, Thommesen L, Stunes AK, et al. Serotonin and fluoxetine modulate bone cell function in vitro. J Cell Biochem 2006; 98(1): 139-51.
109. Tsapakis EM, Gamie Z, Tran GT, et al. The adverse skeletal effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. Eur Psychiatry 2012; 27(3): 156-69.
110. Anda RF, Williamson DF, Escobedo LG, Mast EE, Giovino GA, Remington PL. Depression and the dynamics of smoking. A national perspective. JAMA 1990; 264(12): 1541- 5.
111. Kallala R, Barrow J, Graham SM, Kanakaris N, Giannoudis PV. The in vitro and in vivo effects of nicotine on bone, bone cells and fracture repair. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2013; 12(2): 209-33.
112. Kapoor D, Jones TH. Smoking and hormones in health and endocrine disorders. Eur J Endocrinol 2005; 152(4): 491-9.
113. Yoon V, Maalouf NM, Sakhaee K. The effects of smoking on bone metabolism. Osteoporos Int 2012; 23(8): 2081-92.
114. Rothem DE, Rothem L, Soudry M, Dahan A, Eliakim R. Nicotine modulates bone metabolism-associated gene expression in osteoblast cells. J Bone Miner Metab 2009; 27(5): 555-61.
115. Grant BF, Harford TC. Comorbidity between DSM-IV alcohol use disorders and major depression: results of a national survey. Drug Alcohol Depend 1995; 39(3): 197-206.
116. Sampson HW. Alcohol, osteoporosis, and bone regulating hormones. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1997; 21(3): 400-3.
117. Honkanen R, Visuri T. Blood alcohol levels in a series of injured patients with special reference to accident and type of injury. Ann Chir Gynaecol 1976; 65(4): 287-94.
118. Laitinen K, Valimaki M. Alcohol and bone. Calcif Tissue Int 1991; 49 Suppl: S70-3.
119. Carter MI, Hinton PS. Physical activity and bone health. Mo Med 2014; 111(1): 59-64.
120. DiVasta AD, Gordon CM. Exercise and bone: where do we stand? Metabolism 2013; 62(12): 1714-7.
121. Baldwin RC. Preventing late-life depression: a clinical update. Int Psychogeriatr 2010; 22(8): 1216-24.
122. Carek PJ, Laibstain SE, Carek SM. Exercise for the treatment of depression and anxiety. Int J Psychiatry Med 2011; 41(1): 15-28.
123. Conn VS. Depressive symptom outcomes of physical activity interventions: meta-analysis findings. Ann Behav Med 2010; 39(2): 128-38.
124. Cooney GM, Dwan K, Greig CA, et al. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013; 9: CD004366.
125. Mead GE, Morley W, Campbell P, Greig CA, McMurdo M, Lawlor DA. Exercise for depression. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009; (3):CD004366.
126. Chang CY, Chen WL, Liou YF, et al. Increased risk of major depression in the three years following a femoral neck fracture--a national population-based follow-up study. PLoS One 2014; 9(3): e89867.
127. Carpintero P, Caeiro JR, Carpintero R, Morales A, Silva S, Mesa M. Complications of hip fractures: A review. World J Orthop 2014; 5(4): 402-11.
128. Chau K, Atkinson SA, Taylor VH. Are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors a secondary cause of low bone density? J Osteoporos 2012; 2012: 323061.
129. Stahl SM, Lee-Zimmerman C, Cartwright S, Morrissette DA. Serotonergic drugs for depression and beyond. Curr Drug Targets 2013; 14(5): 578-85.
130. Bliziotes MM, Eshleman AJ, Zhang XW, Wiren KM. Neurotransmitter action in osteoblasts: expression of a functional system for serotonin receptor activation and reuptake. Bone 2001; 29(5): 477-86.
131. Colon-Emeric C, O'Connell MB, Haney E. Osteoporosis piece of multi-morbidity puzzle in geriatric care. Mt Sinai J Med 2011; 78(4): 515-26.
132. Graff LA, Walker JR, Bernstein CN. Depression and anxiety in inflammatory bowel disease: a review of comorbidity and management. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2009; 15(7): 1105-18.
133. Kaidanovich-Beilin O, Cha DS, McIntyre RS. Crosstalk between metabolic and neuropsychiatric disorders. F1000 Biol Rep 2012; 4: 14.
134. Misra M, Klibanski A. Anorexia nervosa and bone. J Endocrinol 2014; 221(3): R163-76.
135. Mattar L, Huas C, Duclos J, Apfel A, Godart N. Relationship between malnutrition and depression or anxiety in Anorexia Nervosa: a critical review of the literature. J Affect Disord 2011; 132(3): 311-8.
136. Rauma PH, Koivumaa-Honkanen H, Williams LJ, Tuppurainen MT, Kroger HP, Honkanen RJ. Life satisfaction and bone mineral density among postmenopausal women: cross-sectional and longitudinal associations. Psychosom Med 2014; 76(9): 709-15.
137. Calarge CA, Butcher BD, Burns TL, Coryell WH, Schlechte JA, Zemel BS. Major depressive disorder and bone mass in adolescents and young adults. J Bone Miner Res 2014; 29(10): 2230-7.
138. Diem SJ, Ruppert K, Cauley JA, et al. Rates of bone loss among women initiating antidepressant medication use in midlife. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2013; 98(11): 4355-63.