Advances in the science, treatment, and prevention of the disease of obesity: Ref lections from a diabetes care editors' expert forum

Diabetes Care

Volumn 38, Issue 8, 2015, Pages 1567-1582

  Cefalu, William T ^a   Bray, George A ^a   Home, Philip D ^b   Garvey, W Timothy ^c   Klein, Samuel ^d   Pi Sunyer, F Xavier ^e   Hu, Frank B ^f   Raz, Itamar ^g   Gaal, Luc Van ^h   Wolfe, Bruce M ⁱ   Ryan, Donna H ^a  

^a PENNINGTON BIOMEDICAL RESEARCH CENTER   (United States)

^b NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF ALABAMA AT BIRMINGHAM   (United States)

^d WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

^f HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^g HADASSAH HEBREW UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^h AntwerpUniversityHospital ^*  (Belgium)

ⁱ OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; AMFEBUTAMONE PLUS NALTREXONE; DEXFENFLURAMINE; FENFLURAMINE; INSULIN; LIRAGLUTIDE; LORCASERIN; METFORMIN; PHENTERMINE PLUS TOPIRAMATE; RIMONABANT; SIBUTRAMINE; SULFONYLUREA DERIVATIVE; TETRAHYDROLIPSTATIN; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; ANTIOBESITY AGENT;

ARTICLE; BARIATRIC SURGERY; BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION; BODY MASS; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; DIABETES MELLITUS; DRUG EFFICACY; DYSLIPIDEMIA; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GLYCEMIC CONTROL; HUMAN; HYPERGLYCEMIA; HYPERTENSION; INCIDENCE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; METABOLIC DISORDER; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NONALCOHOLIC FATTY LIVER; OBESITY; OSTEOARTHRITIS; OVARY POLYCYSTIC DISEASE; PATIENT SAFETY; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; SEX DIFFERENCE; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; STRESS INCONTINENCE; TREATMENT OUTCOME; TREATMENT RESPONSE; WEIGHT LOSS PROGRAM; ADULT; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; BODY WEIGHT; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; FEMALE; FORECASTING; MALE; METABOLIC DISEASES; PHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; RISK REDUCTION; UNITED STATES; WEIGHT REDUCTION;

ADULT; ANTI-OBESITY AGENTS; BARIATRIC SURGERY; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; BODY WEIGHT; DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DIABETIC ANGIOPATHIES; FEMALE; FORECASTING; HUMANS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; MALE; METABOLIC DISEASES; OBESITY; PATIENT SAFETY; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; TREATMENT OUTCOME; UNITED STATES; WEIGHT LOSS;

EID: 84958055556     PISSN: 01495992     EISSN: 19355548     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2337/dc15-1081     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Ogden CL. Prevalence of overweight, obesity, and extreme obesity among adults: United States, trends 1960- 1962 through 2009-2010 [Internet], 2012. National Center for Health Statistics. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity-adult-09-10/obesity-adult-09-10.htm Accessed 24 September 2014.
2. Flegal KM, CarrollMD, Kuczmarski RJ, Johnson CL. Overweight and obesity in the United States: prevalence and trends, 1960-1994. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1998;22:39-47.
3. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. JAMA 2014;311: 806-814.
4. World Health Organization. Global Health Risks [Internet], 2009. Available from http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global-burden-disease/global-health-risks/en. Accessed 24 September 2014.
5. Trust for America's Health and Robert Wood Johnson Foundation. F as in Fat: How Obesity Threatens America's Future. Washington, DC, Trust for America's Health, 2012.
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Long-term trends in diabetes [Internet], 2014. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/statistics/slides/long-term-trends.pdf Accessed 24 September 2014.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National diabetes statistics report: estimates of diabetes and its burden in the United States, 2014 [Internet], 2014. Available from http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/pubs/statsreport14/national-diabetes-report-web.pdf Accessed 24 September 2014.
8. Garrison RJ, Kannel WB, Stokes J 3rd, Castelli WP. Incidence and precursors of hypertension in young adults: The Framingham Offspring Study. Prev Med 1987;16:235-251.
9. American Cancer Society. Cancer facts & figures, 2012 [Internet], 2012. Available from http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2012/. Accessed 24 September 2014.
10. Fontaine KR, Barofsky I. Obesity and healthrelated quality of life. Obes Rev 2001;2:173-182.
11. Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L; NEDCOM, the Netherlands Epidemiology and Demography Compression of Morbidity Research Group. Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: A life-table analysis. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:24-32.
12. Cawley J, Meyerhoefer C. The medical care costs of obesity: An instrumental variables approach. J Health Econ 2012;31:219-230.
13. Withrow D, Alter DA. The economic burden of obesityworldwide: A systematic review of the direct costs of obesity. Obes Rev 2011;12:131- 141.
14. Rudd Center for Food Policy & Obesity. Commodity policy and agricultural subsidies [Internet]. Available from http://yaleruddcenter.org/what-we-do.aspx?id=81. Accessed 29 September 2014.
15. Lutter M, Nestler EJ. Homeostatic and hedonic signals interact in the regulation of food intake. J Nutr 2009;139:629-632.
16. Putnam J, Allshouse J, Kantor LS. U.S. per capita food supply trends: more calories, refined carbohydrates, and fats. FoodReview 2002;25:2-15.
17. Church TS, Thomas DM, Tudor-Locke C, et al. Trends over 5 decades in U.S. occupation-related physical activity and their associations with obesity. PLoS ONE 2011;6:e19657.
18. Ladabaum U, Mannalithara A, Myer PA, Singh G. Obesity, abdominal obesity, physical activity, and caloric intake in US adults: 1988 to 2010. Am J Med 2014;127:717-727 e12.
19. World Health Organization/Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Global and regional food consumption patterns and trends. In Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention Chronic Diseases: Report of the Joint WHO/FAO Expert Consultation. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2003 (Tech. Rep. Ser., no. 916) p. 13-29.
20. Bray GA. From farm to fat cell: why aren't we all fat? Metabolism 2015;64:349-353.
21. Maes HH, Neale MC, Eaves LJ. Genetic and environmental factors in relative body weight and human adiposity. Behav Genet 1997;27: 325-351.
22. Fall T, Ingelsson E. Genome-wide association studies of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014;382:740-757.
23. Speliotes EK, Willer CJ, Berndt SI, et al.; MAGIC; Procardis Consortium. Association analyses of 249, 796 individuals reveal 18 new loci associated with body mass index. Nat Genet 2010;42:937-948.
24. Zhang X, Qi Q, Zhang C, et al. FTO genotype and 2-year change in body composition and fat distribution in response to weight-loss diets: The POUNDS LOST Trial. Diabetes 2012;61:3005-3011.
25. Herrera BM, Keildson S, Lindgren CM. Genetics and epigenetics of obesity. Maturitas 2011;69:41-49.
26. Godfrey KM, Sheppard A, Gluckman PD, et al. Epigenetic gene promoter methylation at birth is associated with child's later adiposity. Diabetes 2011;60:1528-1534.
27. Christakis NA, Fowler JH. The spread of obesity in a large social network over 32 years. N Engl J Med 2007;357:370-379.
28. Halberg N, Wernstedt-Asterholm I, Scherer PE. The adipocyte as an endocrine cell. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2008;37:753-768.
29. Greenberg AS, Obin MS. Obesity and the role of adipose tissue in inflammation and metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 2006;83(Suppl.):461S- 465S.
30. Lenard NR, Berthoud H-R. Central and peripheral regulation of food intake and physical activity: pathways and genes. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2008;16(Suppl. 3):S11-S22.
31. Hardy OT, Czech MP, Corvera S. What causes the insulin resistance underlying obesity? Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 2012;19:81-87.
32. Sweeney TE, Morton JM. The human gut microbiome: A review of the effect of obesity and surgically induced weight loss. JAMA Surg 2013;148:563-569.
33. Phillips CM. Metabolically healthy obesity: definitions, determinants and clinical implications. Rev EndocrMetab Disord 2013;14:219-227.
34. Phillips CM, Dillon C, Harrington JM, et al. Defining metabolically healthy obesity: role of dietary and lifestyle factors. PLoS ONE 2013;8: e76188.
35. Wildman RP, Muntner P, Reynolds K, et al. The obese without cardiometabolic risk factor clustering and the normal weight with cardiometabolic risk factor clustering: prevalence and correlates of 2 phenotypes among the US population (NHANES 1999-2004). Arch Intern Med 2008;168:1617-1624.
36. Kramer CK, Zinman B, Retnakaran R. Aremetabolically healthy overweight and obesity benign conditions?: A systematic reviewand meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2013;159:758-769.
37. Garrison RJ, Castelli WP. Weight and thirtyyear mortality of men in the FraminghamStudy. Ann Intern Med 1985;103:1006-1009.
38. Hamer M, Stamatakis E.Metabolically healthy obesity and risk of all-cause and cardiovascular disease mortality. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012; 97:2482-2488.
39. Hwang L-C, Bai C-H, Sun C-A, Chen C-J. Prevalence of metabolically healthy obesity and its impacts on incidences of hypertension, diabetes and the metabolic syndrome in Taiwan. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 2012;21:227-233.
40. Chang Y, KimB-K, Yun KE, et al.Metabolicallyhealthy obesity and coronary artery calcification. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63:2679-2686.
41. Appleton SL, Seaborn CJ, Visvanathan R, et al.; North West Adelaide Health Study Team. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease outcomes in the metabolically healthy obese phenotype: A cohort study. Diabetes Care 2013;36: 2388-2394.
42. Fabbrini E, Yoshino J, Yoshino M, et al. Metabolically normal obese people are protected from adverse effects following weight gain. J Clin Invest 2015;125:787-795.
43. Korenblat KM, Fabbrini E, Mohammed BS, Klein S. Liver, muscle, and adipose tissue insulin action is directly related to intrahepatic triglyceride content in obese subjects. Gastroenterology 2008;134:1369-1375.
44. Lambert JE, Ramos-Roman MA, Browning JD, Parks EJ. Increased de novo lipogenesis is a distinct characteristic of individuals with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 2014;146:726-735.
45. Fabbrini E, Mohammed BS, Magkos F, Korenblat KM, Patterson BW, Klein S. Alterations in adipose tissue and hepatic lipid kinetics in obese men and women with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Gastroenterology 2008;134: 424-431.
46. Boden G. Fatty acid-induced inflammation and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle and liver. Curr Diab Rep 2006;6:177-181.
47. Boden G, Chen X, Ruiz J, White JV, Rossetti L. Mechanisms of fatty acid-induced inhibition of glucose uptake. J Clin Invest 1994;93:2438- 2446.
48. Fabbrini E, Magkos F, Mohammed BS, et al. Intrahepatic fat, not visceral fat, is linked with metabolic complications of obesity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:15430-15435.
49. Herman MA, Peroni OD, Villoria J, et al. A novel ChREBP isoform in adipose tissue regulates systemic glucose metabolism. Nature 2012;484:333-338.
50. Graham TE, Kahn BB. Tissue-specific alterations of glucose transport and molecular mechanisms of intertissue communication in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Horm Metab Res 2007;39:717-721.
51. Kursawe R, Eszlinger M, Narayan D, et al. Cellularity and adipogenic profile of the abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue from obese adolescents: Association with insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis. Diabetes 2010;59:2288-2296.
52. Sun K, Kusminski CM, Scherer PE. Adipose tissue remodeling and obesity. J Clin Invest 2011;121:2094-2101.
53. Lumeng CN, Saltiel AR. Inflammatory links between obesity and metabolic disease. J Clin Invest 2011;121:2111-2117.
54. Khan MT, Nieuwdorp M, Backhed F. Microbial modulation of insulin sensitivity. Cell Metab 2014;20:753-760.
55. Karlsson FH, Tremaroli V, Nookaew I, et al. Gut metagenome in European women with normal, impaired and diabetic glucose control. Nature 2013;498:99-103.
56. Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, et al. Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterology 2012;143:913-916.
57. Parlevliet ET, Coomans CP, Rensen PC, Romijn JA. The brain modulates insulin sensitivity in multiple tissues. Front Horm Res 2014;42: 50-58.
58. Ogden CL, Yanovski SZ, Carroll MD, Flegal KM. The epidemiology of obesity. Gastroenterology 2007;132:2087-2102.
59. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Obesity Education Initiative Expert Panel on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Obesity in Adults. Clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: The evidence report. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 1998 (report no. 98-4083).
60. Jensen MD, Ryan DH, Apovian CM, et al. 2013 AHA/ACC/TOS guideline for the management of overweight and obesity in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and The Obesity Society. J Am Coll Cardiol 2014;63(25 Pt B):2985-3023.
61. Chang A, Van Horn L, Jacobs DR Jr, et al. Lifestyle-related factors, obesity, and incident microalbuminuria: The CARDIA (Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults) study. Am J Kidney Dis 2013;62:267-275.
62. van Leiden HA, Dekker JM, Moll AC, et al. Blood pressure, lipids, and obesity are associated with retinopathy: The Hoorn Study. Diabetes Care 2002;25:1320-1325.
63. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet 2009;374:1677- 1686.
64. Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Henry R, et al. Prevention of type 2 diabetes in subjects with prediabetes and metabolic syndrome treated with phentermine and topiramate extended release. Diabetes Care 2014;37:912-921.
65. Wing RR, Lang W, Wadden TA, et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. Benefits of modest weight loss in improving cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese individuals with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2011;34:1481-1486.
66. Assy N, Hussein O, Abassi Z. Weight loss induced by orlistat reverses fatty infiltration and improves hepatic fibrosis in obese patients with non-alcoholic steatohepatitis. Gut 2007; 56:443-444.
67. Dixon JB, Bhathal PS, Hughes NR, O'Brien PE. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: improvement in liver histological analysis with weight loss. Hepatology 2004;39:1647-1654.
68. Patel AA, Torres DM, Harrison SA. Effect of weight loss on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. J Clin Gastroenterol 2009;43:970-974.
69. Foster GD, Borradaile KE, Sanders MH, et al.; Sleep AHEAD Research Group of Look AHEAD Research Group. A randomized study on the effect of weight loss on obstructive sleep apnea among obese patients with type 2 diabetes: The Sleep AHEAD study. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:1619-1626.
70. Winslow DH, Bowden CH, DiDonato KP, McCullough PA. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of an oral, extendedrelease formulation of phentermine/topiramate for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in obese adults. Sleep 2012;35:1529-1539.
71. Christensen R, Bartels EM, Astrup A, Bliddal H. Effect of weight reduction in obese patients diagnosed with knee osteoarthritis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007; 66:433-439.
72. Felson DT, Zhang Y, Anthony JM, Naimark A, Anderson JJ.Weight loss reduces the risk for symptomatic knee osteoarthritis inwomen. the Framingham Study. Ann Intern Med 1992;116:535-539.
73. Aaboe J, Bliddal H, Messier SP, Alkjær T, Henriksen M. Effects of an intensive weight loss program on knee joint loading in obese adults with knee osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2011;19:822-828.
74. Burgio KL, Richter HE, Clements RH, Redden DT, Goode PS. Changes in urinary and fecal incontinence symptoms with weight loss surgery in morbidly obese women. Obstet Gynecol 2007;110:1034-1040.
75. Subak LL, Wing R, West DS, et al.; PRIDE Investigators. Weight loss to treat urinary incontinence in overweight and obese women. N Engl J Med 2009;360:481-490.
76. Singh M, Lee J, Gupta N, et al. Weight loss can lead to resolution of gastroesophageal reflux disease symptoms: A prospective intervention trial. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21: 284-290.
77. Tutuian R. Obesity and GERD: pathophysiology and effect of bariatric surgery. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2011;13:205-212.
78. Panidis D, Farmakiotis D, Rousso D, Kourtis A, Katsikis I, Krassas G. Obesity, weight loss, and the polycystic ovary syndrome: effect of treatment with diet and orlistat for 24 weeks on insulin resistance and androgen levels. Fertil Steril 2008;89:899-906.
79. Norman RJ, Davies MJ, Lord J, Moran LJ. The role of lifestyle modification in polycystic ovary syndrome. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2002;13: 251-257.
80. Moran LJ, Ko H, Misso M, et al. Dietary composition in the treatment of polycystic ovary syndrome: A systematic review to inform evidence-based guidelines. J Acad Nutr Diet 2013;113:520-545.
81. Prospective Studies Collaboration. Bodymass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet 2009;373:1083-1096.
82. Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, et al. Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults. N Engl J Med 2010; 363:2211-2219.
83. Fontaine KR, Redden DT, Wang C, Westfall AO, Allison DB. Years of life lost due to obesity. JAMA 2003;289:187-193.
84. Dorn JM, Schisterman EF, WinkelsteinWJr, Trevisan M. Body mass index and mortality in a general population sample of men and women. The Buffalo Health Study. Am J Epidemiol 1997; 146:919-931.
85. McGee DL; Diverse Populations Collaboration. Body mass index and mortality: A metaanalysis based on person-level data from twenty-six observational studies. Ann Epidemiol 2005;15:87-97.
86. Flegal KM, Graubard BI, Williamson DF, Gail MH. Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. JAMA 2005; 293:1861-1867.
87. Willett WC, Hu FB, Thun M. Overweight, obesity, and all-cause mortality. JAMA 2013; 309:1681.
88. Flegal KM, Kit BK, Orpana H, Graubard BI. Association of all-cause mortality with overweight and obesity using standard body mass index categories: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 2013;309:71-82.
89. Tobias DK, Hu FB. Does being overweight really reduce mortality? Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21:1746-1749.
90. Sjöström L, Narbro K, Sjöström CD, et al.; Swedish Obese Subjects Study. Effects of bariatric surgery on mortality in Swedish obese subjects. N Engl J Med 2007;357:741-752.
91. Sjöström L, Peltonen M, Jacobson P, et al. Bariatric surgery and long-term cardiovascular events. JAMA 2012;307:56-65.
92. Uusitupa M, Peltonen M, Lindström J, et al.; Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study Group. Tenyear mortality and cardiovascular morbidity in the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Studydsecondary analysis of the randomized trial. PLoS ONE 2009;4: e5656.
93. Li G, Zhang P, Wang J, et al. The long-term effect of lifestyle interventions to prevent diabetes in the China Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: A 20-year follow-up study. Lancet 2008; 371:1783-1789.
94. Li G, Zhang P, Wang J, et al. Cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality, and diabetes incidence after lifestyle intervention for people with impaired glucose tolerance in the Da Qing Diabetes Prevention Study: A 23-year follow-up study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2014;2:474- 480.
95. Wing RR, Bolin P, Brancati FL, et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. Cardiovascular effects of intensive lifestyle intervention in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med 2013;369:145-154.
96. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, North American Association for the Study of Obesity. The practical guide: identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. National Institutes of Health, 2000 (NIH publication no. 00-4084).
97. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al.; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002;346:393-403.
98. Ryan DH, Espeland MA, Foster GD, et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. Look AHEAD (Action for Health in Diabetes): design and methods for a clinical trial of weight loss for the prevention of cardiovascular disease in type 2 diabetes. Control Clin Trials 2003;24: 610-628.
99. Look AHEAD Research Group. Eight-year weight losses with an intensive lifestyle intervention: The look AHEAD study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014;22:5-13.
100. Pi-Sunyer X, Blackburn G, Brancati FL, et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. Reduction in weight and cardiovascular disease risk factors in individuals with type 2 diabetes: one-year results of the look AHEAD trial. Diabetes Care 2007;30:1374-1383.
101. Wing RR, Hamman RF, Bray GA, et al.; Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group. Achieving weight and activity goals among diabetes prevention program lifestyle participants. Obes Res 2004;12:1426-1434.
102. Ackermann RT, Finch EA, Brizendine E, Zhou H, Marrero DG. Translating the Diabetes Prevention Program into the community: The DEPLOY pilot study. Am J Prev Med 2008;35: 357-363.
103. Perri MG. Effects of behavioral treatment on long-term weight loss: lessons learned from the look AHEAD trial. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014;22:3-4.
104. Delahanty LM, Nathan DM. Implications of the diabetes prevention program and Look AHEAD clinical trials for lifestyle interventions. J Am Diet Assoc 2008;108(Suppl. 1): S66-S72.
105. Albright AL, Gregg EW. Preventing type 2 diabetes in communities across the U.S.: The National Diabetes Prevention Program. Am J Prev Med 2013;44(Suppl. 4):S346-S351.
106. Ratner RE; Diabetes Prevention Program Research. An update on the Diabetes Prevention Program. Endocr Pract 2006;12(Suppl. 1): 20-24.
107. Wadden TA, Neiberg RH, Wing RR, et al.; Look AHEAD Research Group. Four-year weight losses in the Look AHEAD study: factors associated with long-term success. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011;19:1987-1998.
108. Wing RR, Phelan S. Long-term weight loss maintenance. Am J Clin Nutr 2005;82(Suppl.): 222S-225S.
109. Jakicic JM, Winters C, Lang W, Wing RR. Effects of intermittent exercise and use of home exercise equipment on adherence, weight loss, and fitness in overweight women: A randomized trial. JAMA 1999;282:1554-1560.
110. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837-853.
111. UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet 1998;352:854-865.
112. Kahn SE, Haffner SM, Heise MA, et al.; ADOPT Study Group. Glycemic durability of rosiglitazone, metformin, or glyburide monotherapy. N Engl J Med 2006;355:2427-2443.
113. Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, et al.; ORIGIN Trial Investigators. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med 2012;367:319-328.
114. van Dieren S, Czernichow S, Chalmers J, et al. Weight changes and their predictors amongst 11 140 patients with type 2 diabetes in the ADVANCE trial. Diabetes Obes Metab 2012;14:464-469.
115. Balkau B, Home PD, Vincent M, Marre M, Freemantle N. Factors associated with weight gain in people with type 2 diabetes starting on insulin. Diabetes Care 2014;37: 2108-2113.
116. Stimson RH, Walker BR. Glucocorticoids and 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 in obesity and the metabolic syndrome. Minerva Endocrinol 2007;32:141-159.
117. SharmaAM, Pischon T, Hardt S, Kunz I, Luft FC. Hypothesis: b-adrenergic receptor blockers and weight gain: A systematic analysis. Hypertension 2001;37:250-254.
118. DeToledo JC, Toledo C, DeCerce J, Ramsay RE. Changes in body weight with chronic, highdose gabapentin therapy. Ther Drug Monit 1997;19:394-396.
119. Tschoner A, Engl J, Laimer M, et al. Metabolic side effects of antipsychotic medication. Int J Clin Pract 2007;61:1356-1370.
120. Stricker RB, Goldberg B. Weight gain associated with protease inhibitor therapy in HIVinfected patients. Res Virol 1998;149:123-126.
121. Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes: A patient-centered approach: position statement of the American Diabetes Association (ADA) and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (EASD). Diabetes Care 2012;35:1364-1379.
122. Inzucchi SE, Bergenstal RM, Buse JB, et al. Management of hyperglycemia in type 2 diabetes, 2015: A patient-centered approach: update to a position statement of the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2015; 38:140-149.
123. Scheen AJ, Van Gaal LF. Combating the dual burden: Therapeutic targeting of common pathways in obesity and type 2 diabetes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2014;2:911-922.
124. Cornell S. Differentiating among incretin therapies: A multiple-target approach to type 2 diabetes. J Clin Pharm Ther 2012;37:510-524.
125. DeFronzo RA, Ratner RE, Han J, Kim DD, Fineman MS, Baron AD. Effects of exenatide (exendin-4) on glycemic control and weight over 30 weeks in metformin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;28: 1092-1100.
126. Buse JB, Rosenstock J, Sesti G, et al.; LEAD- 6 Study Group. Liraglutide once a day versus exenatide twice a day for type 2 diabetes: A 26-week randomised, parallel-group, multinational, open-label trial (LEAD-6). Lancet 2009; 374:39-47.
127. Van Gaal L, Scheen A. Weight management in type 2 diabetes: current and emerging approaches to treatment. Diabetes Care 2015; 38:1161-1172.
128. Bolinder J, Ljunggren O, Kullberg J, et al. Effects of dapagliflozin on body weight, total fat mass, and regional adipose tissue distribution in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus with inadequate glycemic control on metformin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:1020-1031.
129. Bays HE, Weinstein R, Law G, Canovatchel W. Canagliflozin: effects in overweight and obese subjects without diabetes mellitus. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2014;22:1042-1049.
130. Buse JB, Bergenstal RM, Glass LC, et al. Use of twice-daily exenatide in basal insulin-treated patients with type 2 diabetes: A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 2011;154: 103-112.
131. Riddle MC, Aronson R, Home P, et al. Adding once-daily lixisenatide for type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled by established basal insulin: A 24-week, randomized, placebo-controlled comparison (GetGoal-L). Diabetes Care 2013;36: 2489-2496.
132. Rosenstock J, Fonseca VA, Gross JL, et al.; Harmony 6 Study Group. Advancing basal insulin replacement in type 2 diabetes inadequately controlled with insulin glargine plus oral agents: A comparison of adding albiglutide, a weekly GLP-1 receptor agonist, versus thrice-daily prandial insulin lispro. Diabetes Care 2014;37: 2317-2325.
133. Gough SC, Bode B, Woo V, et al.; NN9068- 3697 (DUAL-I) trial investigators. Efficacy and safety of a fixed-ratio combination of insulin degludec and liraglutide (IDegLira) compared with its components given alone: results of a phase 3, open-label, randomised, 26-week, treat-to-target trial in insulin-naive patients with type 2 diabetes. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol 2014;2:885-893.
134. Wilding JPH, Norwood P, T'joen C, Bastien A, List JF, Fiedorek FT. A study of dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes receiving high doses of insulin plus insulin sensitizers: Applicability of a novel insulin-independent treatment. Diabetes Care 2009;32:1656-1662.
135. Kim GW, Lin JE, Blomain ES, Waldman SA. Antiobesity pharmacotherapy: new drugs and emerging targets. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2014; 95:53-66.
136. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA announces withdrawal fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine (fen-phen) [Internet], 15 September 1997. Available from http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm179871.htm. Accessed 17 December 2014.
137. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Meridia (sibutramine): market withdrawal due to risk of serious cardiovascular events [Internet], 8 October 2010. Available from http://www.fda.gov/Safety/MedWatch/SafetyInformation/SafetyAlertsforHumanMedicalProducts/ucm228830.htm. Accessed 17 December 2014.
138. European Medicines Agency. Public statement on Acomplia (rimonabant): withdrawal of the marketing authorisation in the European Union [Internet], 30 January 2009. Available from http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en-GB/document-library/Public-statement/2009/11/WC500012189.pdfAccessed 17 December 2014.
139. Zhi J, Melia AT, Guerciolini R, et al. Retrospective population-based analysis of the doseresponse (fecal fat excretion) relationship of orlistat in normal and obese volunteers. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1994;56:82-85.
140. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves weight-management drug Qsymia [Internet], 17 July 2012. Available from http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm312468.htm. Accessed 17 December 2014.
141. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves Belviq to treat someoverweight or obese adults [Internet], 27 June 2012. Available from http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm309993.htm. Accessed 17 December 2014.
142. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves weight-management drug Contrave [Internet], 10 September 2014. Available from http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm413896.htm. Accessed 17 December 2014.
143. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA approves weight-management drug Saxenda [Internet], 23 December 2014. Available from http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm427913.htmAccessed 9 February 2015.
144. Torgerson JS, Hauptman J, Boldrin MN, Sjöström L. XENical in the prevention of diabetes in obese subjects (XENDOS) study: A randomized study of orlistat as an adjunct to lifestyle changes for the prevention of type 2 diabetes in obese patients. Diabetes Care 2004; 27:155-161.
145. Allison DB, Gadde KM, Garvey WT, et al. Controlled-release phentermine/topiramate in severely obese adults: A randomized controlled trial (EQUIP). Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012;20: 330-342.
146. Gadde KM, Allison DB, Ryan DH, et al. Effects of low-dose, controlled-release, phentermine plus topiramate combination on weight and associated comorbidities in overweight and obese adults (CONQUER): A randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2011; 377:1341-1352.
147. Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Look M, et al. Twoyear sustained weight loss and metabolic benefits with controlled-release phentermine/topiramate in obese and overweight adults (SEQUEL): A randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 3 extension study. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:297-308.
148. Fidler MC, Sanchez M, Raether B, et al.; BLOSSOM Clinical Trial Group. A one-year randomized trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in obese and overweight adults: The BLOSSOM trial. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011;96:3067-3077.
149. Smith SR, Weissman NJ, Anderson CM, et al.; Behavioral Modification and Lorcaserin for Overweight and Obesity Management (BLOOM) Study Group. Multicenter, placebocontrolled trial of lorcaserin for weight management. N Engl J Med 2010;363:245-256.
150. O'Neil PM, Smith SR, Weissman NJ, et al. Randomized placebo-controlled clinical trial of lorcaserin for weight loss in type 2 diabetes mellitus: The BLOOM-DM study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2012;20:1426-1436.
151. Greenway FL, Fujioka K, Plodkowski RA, et al.; COR-I Study Group. Effect of naltrexone plus bupropion on weight loss in overweight and obese adults (COR-I): A multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2010;376:595-605.
152. Apovian CM, Aronne L, Rubino D, et al.; COR-II Study Group. A randomized, phase 3 trial of naltrexone SR/bupropion SR on weight and obesity-related risk factors (COR-II). Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21:935-943.
153. Wadden TA, Hollander P, Klein S, et al.; NN8022-1923 Investigators. Weight maintenance and additional weight loss with liraglutide after low-calorie-diet-induced weight loss: The SCALE Maintenance randomized study. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013;37:1443-1451.
154. Astrup A, Carraro R, Finer N, et al.; NN8022-1807 Investigators. Safety, tolerability and sustained weight loss over 2 years with the once-daily human GLP-1 analog, liraglutide. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012;36:843-854.
155. Garber AJ, Abrahamson MJ, Barzilay JI, et al.; American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. AACE comprehensive diabetes management algorithm 2013. Endocr Pract 2013;19: 327-336.
156. VIVUS. Qsymia prescribing information [Internet], 2014. Available fromhttps://www.qsymia.com/pdf/prescribing-information.pdf. Accessed 17 December 2014.
157. Eisai.Belviqprescribing information[Internet], 2012. Available from https://www.belviq.com/pdf/Belviq-Prescribing-information.pdf Accessed 17 December 2014.
158. Takeda Pharmaceuticals. CONTRAVE prescribing information [Internet], 2014. Available from http://general.takedapharm.com/content/file.aspx?filetypecode=CONTRAVEPI&cacheRandomizer=aaa3d519-2e84-4e5d-bb7a-5759af394a09. Accessed 17 December 2014.
159. Novo Nordisk. Saxenda prescribing information [Internet], 2014. Available from http://novo-pi.nnittest.com/saxenda.pdf. Accessed 9 February 2015.
160. Garvey WT. New tools for weight-loss therapy enable a more robust medical model for obesity treatment: rationale for a complicationscentric approach. Endocr Pract 2013;19:864- 874.
161. Aronne LJ, Wadden TA, Peterson C, Winslow D, Odeh S, Gadde KM. Evaluation of phentermine and topiramate versus phentermine/topiramate extended-release in obese adults. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2013;21:2163-2171.
162. Munro JF, MacCuish AC, Wilson EM, Duncan LJP. Comparison of continuous and intermittent anorectic therapy in obesity. BMJ 1968;1:352-354.
163. Hollander PA, Elbein SC, Hirsch IB, et al. Role of orlistat in the treatment of obese patients with type 2 diabetes. A 1-year randomized double-blind study. Diabetes Care 1998;21: 1288-1294.
164. Garvey WT, Ryan DH, Bohannon NJV, et al. Weight-loss therapy in type 2 diabetes: effects of phentermine and topiramate extended release. Diabetes Care 2014;37:3309-3316.
165. Garvey WT, Troupin B, Tam P, Najarian T, Peterson C, Day WW. One-year treatment with VI-0521 in type 2 diabetes demonstrates continued glycemic improvement and weight loss. Diabetes 2009;58(Suppl. 1):A95.
166. Hollander P, Gupta AK, Plodkowski R, et al.; COR-Diabetes Study Group. Effects of naltrexone sustained-release/bupropion sustained-release combination therapy on body weight and glycemic parameters in overweight and obese patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2013;36:4022- 4029.
167. Drugs.com. People with type 2 diabetes achieve 6% weight loss with liraglutide 3 mg in phase 3a obesity trial [Internet], 2013. Available from http://www.drugs.com/clinical-trials/type-2-diabetes-achieve-6-weight-loss-liraglutide-3-mg-phase-3a-obesity-trial-15264.html Accessed 18 December 2014.
168. Garvey WT, Garber AJ, Mechanick JI, et al.; on behalf of the AACE Obesity Scientific Committee. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology consensus conference on obesity: building an evidence base for comprehensive action. Endocr Pract 2014;20:956-976.
169. Garvey WT, Garber AJ, Mechanick JI, et al.; on behalf of the AACE Obesity Scientific Committee. American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists and American College of Endocrinology position statement on the 2014 advanced framework for a new diagnosis of obesity as a chronic disease. Endocr Pract 2014;20: 977-989.
170. Pories WJ, Mehaffey JH, Staton KM. The surgical treatment of type two diabetes mellitus. Surg Clin North Am 2011;91:821-836, viii.
171. Consensus Development Conference Panel. Gastrointestinal surgery for severe obesity. Ann Intern Med 1991;115:956-961.
172. Sultan S, Parikh M, Youn H, Kurian M, Fielding G, Ren C. Early U.S. outcomes after laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding in patients with a body mass index less than 35 kg/m2. Surg Endosc 2009;23:1569-1573.
173. Langer FB, Reza Hoda MA, Bohdjalian A, et al. Sleeve gastrectomy and gastric banding: effects on plasma ghrelin levels. Obes Surg 2005;15:1024-1029.
174. Hess DS, Hess DW. Biliopancreatic diversion with a duodenal switch. Obes Surg 1998;8: 267-282.
175. Buchwald H, Avidor Y, Braunwald E, et al. Bariatric surgery: A systematic review and metaanalysis. JAMA 2004;292:1724-1737.
176. Pories WJ, Swanson MS, MacDonald KG, et al. Who would have thought it? An operation proves to be the most effective therapy for adult-onset diabetes mellitus. Ann Surg 1995; 222:339-350; discussion 350-352.
177. Favretti F, Segato G, Ashton D, et al. Laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding in 1, 791 consecutive obese patients: 12-year results. Obes Surg 2007;17:168-175.
178. Higa K, Ho T, Tercero F, Yunus T, Boone KB. Laparoscopic Roux-en-Y gastric bypass: 10-year follow-up. Surg Obes Relat Dis 2011;7:516-525.
179. Sj östr öm L, Lindroos A-K, Peltonen M, et al.; Swedish Obese Subjects Study Scientific Group. Lifestyle, diabetes, and cardiovascular risk factors 10 years after bariatric surgery. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2683-2693.
180. Adams TD, Davidson LE, Litwin SE, et al. Health benefits of gastric bypass surgery after 6 years. JAMA 2012;308:1122-1131.
181. Belle SH, Berk PD, Courcoulas AP, et al.; Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery Consortium Writing Group. Safety and efficacy of bariatric surgery: Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery. Surg Obes Relat Dis 2007;3: 116-126.
182. Courcoulas AP, Christian NJ, Belle SH, et al.; Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (LABS) Consortium. Weight change and health outcomes at 3 years after bariatric surgery among individuals with severe obesity. JAMA 2013;310:2416-2425.
183. Christou NV, Sampalis JS, Liberman M, et al. Surgery decreases long-term mortality, morbidity, and health care use in morbidly obese patients. Ann Surg 2004;240:416-423; discussion 423-424.
184. Schauer PR, Kashyap SR, Wolski K, et al. Bariatric surgery versus intensive medical therapy in obese patients with diabetes. N Engl J Med 2012;366:1567-1576.
185. Lee WJ, Chong K, Ser KH, et al. Gastric bypass vs sleeve gastrectomy for type 2 diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial. Arch Surg 2011;146:143-148.
186. Lim EL, Hollingsworth KG, Aribisala BS, Chen MJ, Mathers JC, Taylor R. Reversal of type 2 diabetes: normalisation of beta cell function in association with decreased pancreas and liver triacylglycerol. Diabetologia 2011;54: 2506-2514.
187. Scopinaro N, Papadia F, Marinari G, Camerini G, Adami G. Long-term control of type 2 diabetes mellitus and the other major components of the metabolic syndrome after biliopancreatic diversion in patients with BMI, 35 kg/m2. Obes Surg 2007;17:185-192.
188. Dixon JB, O'Brien PE, Playfair J, et al. Adjustable gastric banding and conventional therapy for type 2 diabetes: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2008;299:316-323.
189. Lee WJ, Wang W, Lee YC, Huang MT, Ser KH, Chen JC. Effect of laparoscopic mini-gastric bypass for type 2 diabetes mellitus: comparison of BMI .35 and, 35 kg/m2. J Gastrointest Surg 2008;12:945-952.
190. Purnell J, Selzer F, Wahed A, et al. Improved probability of diabetes remission 3 years after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (GBP) compared to laparoscopic gastric banding (LAGB) controlling for percentage weight change: results from the Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (LABS) 2 study. Poster presented at The Obesity Society's ObesityWeek 2014, 2-7 November 2014, Boston Convention and Exhibition Center, Boston, MA.
191. Flum DR, Belle SH, King WC, et al.; Longitudinal Assessment of Bariatric Surgery (LABS) Consortium. Perioperative safety in the longitudinal assessment of bariatric surgery. N Engl J Med 2009;361:445-454.
192. Konttinen H, Peltonen M, Sj östr öm L, Carlsson L, Karlsson J. Psychological aspects of eating behavior as predictors of 10-y weight changes after surgical and conventional treatment of severe obesity: results from the Swedish Obese Subjects intervention study. Am J Clin Nutr 2015;101:16-24.
193. Seger JC, Horn DB, Westman EC, et al. Obesity algorithm presented by the American Society of Bariatric Physicians [Internet]. Available from www.obesityalgorithm.org Accessed 17 December 2014.
194. American Medical Association. AMA Resolution No. 420 (A-13) [Internet], 2013. Available from http://www.ama-assn.org/assets/meeting/2013a/a13-addendum-refcomm-d.pdf Accessed 7 January 2015.
195. American Society for Metabolic and Bariatric Surgery, The Obesity Society, American Society of Bariatric Physicians, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. Obesity is a disease: leading obesity groups agree [Internet], 2013. Available from http://connect.asmbs.org/PDF%20Documents/Press%20Releases/2013/Obesity%20is%20a%20Disease-%20Leading%20Obesity%20Groups%20Agree.pdf Accessed 21 December 2014.
196. World Health Organization. Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic: Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2000 (WHO Tech. Rep. Ser., no. 894).
197. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA's obesity working group report: questions and answers [Internet]. Available from http://www.fda.gov/Food/FoodScienceResearch/ConsumerBehaviorResearch/ucm082094.htm#gen2211. Accessed 7 January 2015.
198. American Board of Obesity Medicine. Home page [Internet]. Available from http://abom.org. Accessed 21 December 2014.
199. Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. National coverage determination (NCD) for intensive behavioral therapy for obesity (210.12) [Internet]. Available from http://www.cms.gov/medicare-coverage-database/details/ncd-details.aspx?NCDId=353&ncdver=1&CoverageSelection=Both&ArticleType=All&PolicyType=Final&s=All&KeyWord=obesity&KeyWordLookUp=Title&KeyWordSearchType=And&bc=gAAAABAAAAAA& Accessed 21 December 2014.
200. Patient-Centered Outcomes Research Institute. PCORI board approves $102 million in support for 46 new research projects [Internet], 2014. Available from http://www.pcori.org/content/pcori-board-approves-102-millionsupport-46-new-research-projects Accessed 21 December 2014.
201. The Obesity Society. A promising milestone in coverage for obesity treatments [Internet], 2014. Available from http://www.obesity.org/publications/a-promising-milestonein-coverage-for-obesity-treatments.htm Accessed 21 December 2014.
202. Wyatt E. Weight-loss companies charged with fraud [Internet], The New York Times 7 January 2014. Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2014/01/08/business/us-charges-4-companieswith-deception-in-weight-loss-products.html?-r=0. Accessed 21 December 2014.