Contemporary issues on the epidemiology and antiretroviral adherence of HIV-infected adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: A narrative review

Journal of the International AIDS Society

Volumn 18, Issue 1, 2015, Pages

  Adejumo, Olurotimi A ^a   Malee, Kathleen M ^b   Ryscavage, Patrick ^c   Hunter, Scott J ^d   Taiwo, Babafemi O ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IBADAN   (Nigeria)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO   (United States)

^e NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Adherence; Adolescents; Antiretroviral; Epidemiology; HIV; Review; Sub Saharan Africa

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; ANTI HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS AGENT;

ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY SYNDROME; ADOLESCENT; ADOLESCENT DISEASE; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ANTIVIRAL THERAPY; ARTICLE; BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATABASE; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; HEALTH SERVICE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTED PATIENT; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; MEDICATION COMPLIANCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SEX DIFFERENCE; SEXUAL PROMISCUITY; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SOCIAL SUPPORT; STIGMA; CHILD; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; INFANT; MALE; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGY; SOUTH AFRICA; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; AFRICA SOUTH OF THE SAHARA; ANTI-HIV AGENTS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; FEMALE; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS; INFANT; MALE; MEDICATION ADHERENCE; SOUTH AFRICA; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84942474831     PISSN: None     EISSN: 17582652     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7448/IAS.18.1.20049     Document Type: Article

References (246)

1. UNAIDS. The gap report. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations; 2014.
2. World Health Organization. Adolescent health. WHO; 2013 [cited 2013 Nov 10]. Available from: http://www.who.int/topics/adolescent-health/en/
3. UNICEF. The state of the world's children 2011: adolescence - an age of opportunity. UNICEF; 2011 [cited 2014 Sep 21]. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/sowc2011/
4. Marcell AV. Adolescence. In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BMD, Zitelli BJ, Davies HW, editors. Nelson textbook of pediatrics. 18th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2007. Chapter 12.
5. Gardner M, Steinberg L. Peer influence on risk taking, risk preference, and risky decision making in adolescence and adulthood: an experimental study. Dev Psychol. 2005;41:625-35.
6. Chein J, Albert D, O'Brien L, Uckert K, Steinberg L. Peers increase adolescent risk taking by enhancing activity in the brain's reward circuitry. Dev Sci. 2011;14:F1-10.
7. UNFPA. Adolescents and youth: towards realizing the full potential of adolescents and youth [Internet]. 2014. Available from: http://www.unfpa.org/public/adolescents
8. Blum RW, Nelson-Mmari K. The health of young people in a global context. J Adolesc Health. 2004;35:402-18.
9. Romer D. Adolescent risk taking, impulsivity, and brain development: implications for prevention. Dev Psychobiol. 2010;52:263-76.
10. World Health Organization. Adolescent mental health: mapping actions of nongovernmental organizations and other international development organizations [Internet]. Geneva; 2012 [cited 2014 Nov 8]. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2012/9789241503648-eng.pdf
11. World Health Organization Dept of Child and Adolescent Health and Development. Adolescent friendly health services: an agenda for change [Internet]. Geneva; 2003 [cited 2014 Sep 21]. Available from: http://apps.who.int//iris/handle/10665/67923
12. Idele P, Gillespie A, Porth T, Suzuki C, Mahy M, Kasedde S, et al. Epidemiology of HIV and AIDS among adolescents: current status, inequities, and data gaps. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;66:S144-53.
13. Parienti J-J. The case of adherence in the youth: rebel without a cause? AIDS. 2014;28:1983-5.
14. Sawyer S, Drew S, Duncan R. Adolescents with chronic disease - the double whammy. Aust Fam Physician. 2007;36:622-7.
15. Bregnballe V, Schiøtz PO, Lomborg K. Parenting adolescents with cystic fibrosis: the adolescents' and young adults' perspectives. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2011;5:563-70.
16. World Health Organization. The adolescent with a chronic condition. WHO; 2007 [cited 2014 Nov 10]. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595704-eng.pdf?ua-1
17. Patel V, Flisher AJ, Hetrick S, McGorry P. Mental health of young people: a global public-health challenge. Lancet. 2007;369:1302-13.
18. UNAIDS. AIDS by the numbers [Internet]. Geneva; 2013 [cited 2014 Jun 22]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2013/JC2571-AIDS-by-the-numbers-en.pdf
19. UNICEF. Towards an AIDS-free generation - children and AIDS: sixth stocktaking report, 2013. New York: UNICEF; 2013.
20. UNICEF. All in towards ending the AIDS epidemic among adolescents [Internet]. New York; 2014. Available from: http://childrenandaids.org/files/All-In-Brochure.pdf
21. UNICEF. Opportunity in crisis: preventing HIV from early adolescence to young adulthood. UNICEF; 2010 [cited 2014 Aug 24]. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/publications/index-58708.html
22. United Nations. Regional overview: youth in Africa [Internet]. New York; 2012 Sep. Available from: http://social.un.org/youthyear/docs/RegionalOverviewYouthinAfrica.pdf
23. UNICEF. Progress for children: a report card on adolescents (No. 10). UNICEF; 2012 [cited 2014 Sep 21]. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/publications/index-62280.html
24. Zou J, Yamanaka Y, John M,Watt M, Ostermann J, Thielman N. Religion and HIV in Tanzania: influence of religious beliefs on HIV stigma, disclosure, and treatment attitudes. BMC Public Health. 2009;9:75.
25. Balogun AS. Islamic perspectives on HIV/AIDS and antiretroviral treatment: the case of Nigeria. Afr J AIDS Res. 2010;9:459-66.
26. Amuri M, Mitchell S, Cockcroft A, Andersson N. Socio-economic status and HIV/AIDS stigma in Tanzania. AIDS Care. 2011;23:378-82.
27. O'Brien S, Broom A. Gender, culture and changing attitudes: experiences of HIV in Zimbabwe. Cult Health Sex. 2013;15:583-97.
28. Roura M, Wringe A, Busza J, Nhandi B, Mbata D, Zaba B, et al. "Just like fever": a qualitative study on the impact of antiretroviral provision on the normalisation of HIV in rural Tanzania and its implications for prevention. BMC Int Health Hum Rights. 2009;9:22.
29. Rankin WW, Brennan S, Schell E, Laviwa J, Rankin SH. The stigma of being HIV-positive in Africa. PLoS Med. 2005;2:e247.
30. Duff P, Kipp W, Wild TC, Rubaale T, Okech-Ojony J. Barriers to accessing highly active antiretroviral therapy by HIV-positive women attending an antenatal clinic in a regional hospital in western Uganda. J Int AIDS Soc. 2010;13:37.
31. Theilgaard ZP, Katzenstein TL, Chiduo MG, Pahl C, Bygbjerg IC, Gerstoft J, et al. Addressing the fear and consequences of stigmatization - a necessary step towards making HAART accessible to women in Tanzania: a qualitative study. AIDS Res Ther. 2011;8:28.
32. Akullian A, Kohler P, Kinuthia J, Laserson K, Mills LA, Okanda J, et al. Geographic distribution of HIV stigma among women of childbearing age in rural Kenya. AIDS Lond Engl. 2014;28:1665-72.
33. Stangl AL, Lloyd JK, Brady LM, Holland CE, Baral S. A systematic review of interventions to reduce HIV-related stigma and discrimination from 2002 to 2013: how far have we come? J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18734, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.3.18734
34. Kandwal R, Bahl T. Link to slower access to care: what is the stigma?: an Indian perspective. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2011;8:235-40.
35. Williams MV, Palar K, Derose KP. Congregation-based programs to address HIV/AIDS: elements of successful implementation. J Urban Health Bull N Y Acad Med. 2011;88:517-32.
36. Wolf HT, Halpern-Felsher BL, Bukusi EA, Agot KE, Cohen CR, Auerswald CL. "It is all about the fear of being discriminated [against] . . . the person suffering from HIV will not be accepted": a qualitative study exploring the reasons for loss to follow-up among HIV-positive youth in Kisumu, Kenya. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:1154.
37. Madiba S, Mokgatle M. "Students want HIV testing in schools" a formative evaluation of the acceptability of HIV testing and counselling at schools in Gauteng and North West provinces in South Africa. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:388.
38. Denison JA, Banda H, Dennis AC, Packer C, Nyambe N, Stalter RM, et al. "The sky is the limit": adhering to antiretroviral therapy and HIV selfmanagement from the perspectives of adolescents living with HIV and their adult caregivers. J Int AIDS Soc. 2015;18:19358, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.18.1.19358
39. Birungi H, Obare F, van der Kwaak A, Namwebya JH. Maternal health care utilization among HIV-positive female adolescents in Kenya. Int Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 2011;37:143-9.
40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV among youth [Internet]. Atlanta; 2014 [cited 2014 Aug 24]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/risk/age/youth/index.html?s-cid=tw-std0141316
41. UNICEF. Preventing HIV infection among adolescents and young people [Internet]. Nairobi; 2012 [cited 2014 May 22]. Available from: http://www.unicef.org/esaro/5482-HIV-prevention.html
42. Muula AS. HIV infection and AIDS among young women in South Africa. Croat Med J. 2008;49:423-35.
43. UNICEF. Eatern & Southern Africa HIV & AIDS - preventing HIV infection among adolescents and young people. UNICEF; 2009.
44. Bankole A, Singh S, Woog V, Wulf D. Risk and protection: youth and HIV/AIDS in sub-Saharan Africa [Internet]. New York: The Alan Guttmacher Institute; 2004 [cited 2014 Aug 29]. Available from: http://www.popline.org/node/234682
45. Muula AS, Ngulube TJ, Siziya S, Makupe CM, Umar E, Prozesky HW, et al. Gender distribution of adult patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in Southern Africa: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2007;7: 63-8.
46. UNAIDS. Access to antiretroviral therapy in Africa: status report on progress towards the 2015 targets [Internet]. Geneva; 2014 [cited 2014 Aug 29]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/unaidspublication/2013/20131219-AccessARTAfricaStatusReportProgresstowards2015Targets-en.pdf
47. UNAIDS. Global AIDS response progress reporting. Geneva; UNAIDS; 2014.
48. World Health Organization. Towards universal access. Scaling up priority HIV/AIDS interventions in the health sector. Geneva, Switzerland: WHO; 2007.
49. UNAIDS. Global report 2013 - UNAIDS global report 2013 [Internet]. Geneva; 2013 [cited 2014 May 11]. Available from: http://www.unaids.org/en/media/unaids/contentassets/documents/epidemiology/2013/gr2013/UNAIDS-Global-Report-2013-en.pdf
50. Hazra R, Siberry GK, Mofenson LM. Growing up with HIV: children, adolescents, and young adults with perinatally acquired HIV infection. Annu Rev Med. 2010;61:169-85.
51. Anaky M-F, Duvignac J, Wemin L, Kouakoussui A, Karcher S, Toure S, et al. Scaling up antiretroviral therapy for HIV-infected children in Cote d'Ivoire: determinants of survival and loss to programme. Bull World Health Organ. 2010;88:490-9.
52. Davies M-A, Keiser O, Technau K, Eley B, Rabie H, van Cutsem G, et al. Outcomes of the South African National Antiretroviral Treatment Programme for children: the IeDEA Southern Africa collaboration. South Afr Med J. 2009;99:730-7.
53. Van Dijk JH, Sutcliffe CG, Munsanje B, Sinywimaanzi P, Hamangaba F, Thuma PE, et al. HIV-infected children in rural Zambia achieve good immunologic and virologic outcomes two years after initiating antiretroviral therapy. PLoS One. 2011;6:e19006.
54. Buchacz K, Rogol AD, Lindsey JC, Wilson CM, Hughes MD, Seage GR, et al. Delayed onset of pubertal development in children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33: 56-65.
55. Wood SM, Shah SS, Steenhoff AP, Rutstein RM. The impact of AIDS diagnoses on long-term neurocognitive and psychiatric outcomes of surviving adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV. AIDS Lond Engl. 2009;23:1859-65.
56. Andiman WA, Chernoff MC, Mitchell C, Purswani M, Oleske J, Williams PL, et al. Incidence of persistent renal dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus-infected children: associations with the use of antiretrovirals, and other nephrotoxic medications and risk factors. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2009;28:619-25.
57. Patel K, Mittleman M, Colan S, Oleske J, Patel K, Van Dyke R, et al. Predictors of cardiac dysfunction among children and adolescents perinatallyinfected with HIV-1. In: AIDS 2010 - XVIII International AIDS Conference. Vienna: International AIDS Society; 2010.
58. Fakoya A, Lamba H, Mackie N, et al. British HIV Association, BASHH and FSRH guidelines for the management of the sexual and reproductive health of people living with HIV infection 2008. HIV Med. 2008;9:681-720.
59. Cowan F, Pettifor A. HIV in adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2009;4:288-93.
60. Kasedde S, Luo C, McClure C, Chandan U. Reducing HIV and AIDS in adolescents: opportunities and challenges. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep. 2013;10:159-68.
61. Strode A, Grant K. Children and HIV: using an evidence-based approach to identifying legal strategies that protect and promote the right of children infected and affected by HIV and AIDS. Working paper prepared for the third meeting of the technical advisory group of the global commission on HIV and the law. 2011.
62. World Health Organization. HIV and adolescents: HIV testing and counselling, treatment and care for adolescents living with HIV: summary of key features and recommendations [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013 [cited 2014 Dec 14]. Available from: http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/94561/1/9789241506526-eng.pdf
63. World Health Organization. Adolescent health epidemiology. WHO; 2014 [cited 2014 Dec 15]. Available from: http://www.who.int/maternal-child-adolescent/epidemiology/adolescence/en/
64. World Health Organization. WHO calls for stronger focus on adolescent health. WHO; 2014 [cited 2014 Aug 24]. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/focus-adolescent-health/en/
65. Nichols SL, Bethel J, Garvie PA, Patton DE, Thornton S, Kapogiannis BG, et al. Neurocognitive functioning in antiretroviral therapy-naïve youth with behaviorally acquired human immunodeficiency virus. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2013;53:763-71.
66. Smith R, Chernoff M, Williams PL, et al. Impact of human immunodeficiency virus severity on cognitive and adaptive functioning during childhood and adolescence. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2012;31:592-8. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e318253844b
67. Smith R, Wilkins M. Perinatally acquired HIV infection: long-term neuropsychological consequences and challenges ahead. Child Neuropsychol. 2015;21:234-68. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2014.898744
68. Mellins CA, Malee KM. Understanding the mental health of youth living with perinatal HIV infection: lessons learned and current challenges. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18593, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18593
69. Holguin A, Banda M, Willen EJ, Malama C, Chiyenu KO, Mudenda VC, et al. HIV-1 effects on neuropsychological performance in a resource-limited country, Zambia. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:1895-901.
70. Joska JA, Westgarth-Taylor J, Hoare J, Thomas KGF, Paul R, Myer L, et al. Neuropsychological outcomes in adults commencing highly active anti-retroviral treatment in South Africa: a prospective study. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:39.
71. Nakasujja N, Skolasky RL, Musisi S, Allebeck P, Robertson K, Ronald A, et al. Depression symptoms and cognitive function among individuals with advanced HIV infection initiating HAART in Uganda. BMC Psychiatry. 2010;10:44.
72. Patel VN, Mungwira RG, Tarumbiswa TF, Heikinheimo T, van Oosterhout JJ. High prevalence of suspected HIV-associated dementia in adult Malawian HIV patients. Int J STD AIDS. 2010;21:356-8.
73. Salawu FK, Bwala SA, Wakil MA, Bani B, Bukbuk DN, Kida I. Cognitive function in HIV-seropositive Nigerians without AIDS. J Neurol Sci. 2008;267: 142-6.
74. Njamnshi AK, Djientcheu Vde P, Fonsah JY, Yepnjio FN, Njamnshi DM, Muna WE. The International HIV Dementia Scale is a useful screening tool for HIV-associated dementia/cognitive impairment in HIV-infected adults in Yaoundé - Cameroon. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:393-7.
75. Boivin MJ, Green SD, Davies AG, Giordani B, Mokili JK, Cutting WA. A preliminary evaluation of the cognitive and motor effects of pediatric HIV infection in Zairian children. Health Psychol. 1995;14:13-21.
76. Abubakar A, Van Baar A, Van de Vijver FJ, Holding P, Newton CR. Paediatric HIV and neurodevelopment in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Trop Med Int Health. 2008;13:880-7.
77. Bagenda D, Nassali A, Kalyesubula I, Sherman B, Drotar D, Boivin MJ, et al. Health, neurologic, and cognitive status of HIV-infected, long-surviving, and antiretroviral-naive Ugandan children. Pediatrics. 2006;117:729-40.
78. Msellati P, Lepage P, Hitimana DG, Van Goethem C, Van de Perre P, Dabis F. Neurodevelopmental testing of children born to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 seropositive and seronegative mothers: a prospective cohort study in Kigali, Rwanda. Pediatrics. 1993;92:843-8.
79. World Health Organization. Adherence to long-term therapies - evidence for action [Internet]. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2003 [cited 2014 Jul 29]. Available from: http://www.who.int/chp/knowledge/publications/adherence-full-report.pdf
80. Ajose O, Mookerjee S, Mills EJ, Boulle A, Ford N. Treatment outcomes of patients on second-line antiretroviral therapy in resource-limited settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS. 2012;26:929-38.
81. Chesney MA. The elusive gold standard. Future perspectives for HIV adherence assessment and intervention. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006; 43(Suppl 1):S149-55.
82. Parienti J-J, Ragland K, Lucht F, de la Blanchardière A, Dargère S, Yazdanpanah Y, et al. Average adherence to boosted protease inhibitor therapy, rather than the pattern of missed doses, as a predictor of HIV RNA replication. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50:1192-7.
83. Paterson DL, Swindells S, Mohr J, Brester M, Vergis EN, Squier C, et al. Adherence to protease inhibitor therapy and outcomes in patients with HIV infection. Ann Intern Med. 2000;133:21-30.
84. Nachega JB, Hislop M, Nguyen H, Dowdy DW, Chaisson RE, Regensberg L, et al. Antiretroviral therapy adherence, virologic and immunologic outcomes in adolescents compared with adults in Southern Africa. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;51:65-71.
85. Murphy DA, Wilson CM, Durako SJ, Muenz LR, Belzer M, Adolescent Medicine HIV/AIDS Research Network. Antiretroviral medication adherence among the REACH HIV-infected adolescent cohort in the USA. AIDS Care. 2001;13:27-40.
86. Belzer ME, Fuchs DN, Luftman GS, Tucker DJ. Antiretroviral adherence issues among HIV-positive adolescents and young adults. J Adolesc Health. 1999;25:316-9.
87. Farmer KC. Methods for measuring and monitoring medication regimen adherence in clinical trials and clinical practice. Clin Ther. 1999;21:1074-90.
88. Fairman K, Motherall B. Evaluating medication adherence: which measure is right for your program? J Manag Care Pharm. 2000;6:499-504.
89. Wiens MO, MacLeod S, Musiime V, Ssenyonga M, Kizza R, Bakeera-Kitaka S, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-positive adolescents in Uganda assessed by multiple methods: a prospective cohort study. Paediatr Drugs. 2012;14:331-5.
90. Langat NT, Odero W, Gatongi P. Antiretroviral drug adherence by HIV infected children attending Kericho District Hospital, Kenya. East Afr J Public Health. 2012;9:101-4.
91. Kim S-H, Gerver SM, Fidler S, Ward H. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in adolescents living with HIV: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Lond Engl. 2014;28:1945-56. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0000000000000316
92. Dube N, Summers R, Tint K-S, Mayayise G. A pharmacovigilance study of adults on highly active antiretroviral therapy, South Africa: 2007-2011. Pan Afr Med J. 2012;11:39.
93. Ryscavage PA, Anderson EJ, Sutton SH, Reddy S, Taiwo B. Clinical outcomes of adolescents and young adults in adult HIV care. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011;58:193-7.
94. AIDSInfo. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy j adult and adolescent ARV guidelines. AIDSinfo; 2014 [cited 2014 Aug 26]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/
95. Rudy BJ, Murphy DA, Harris DR, Muenz L, Ellen J., Adolescent Trials Network for HIV/AIDS Interventions. Patient-related risks for nonadherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected youth in the United States: a study of prevalence and interactions. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2009;23: 185-94.
96. Agwu AL, Fairlie L. Antiretroviral treatment, management challenges and outcomes in perinatally HIV-infected adolescents. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16: 18579, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18579
97. Evans D, Menezes C, Mahomed K, Macdonald P, Untiedt S, Levin L, et al. Treatment outcomes of HIV-infected adolescents attending public-sector HIV clinics across Gauteng and Mpumalanga, South Africa. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2013;29:892-900.
98. Nglazi MD, Kranzer K, Holele P, Kaplan R, Mark D, Jaspan H, et al. Treatment outcomes in HIV-infected adolescents attending a community-based antiretroviral therapy clinic in South Africa. BMC Infect Dis. 2012;12:21.
99. Shroufi A, Gunguwo H, Dixon M, Nyathi M, Ndebele W, Saint-Sauveur J-F, et al. HIV-infected adolescents in southern Africa can achieve good treatment outcomes: results from a retrospective cohort study. AIDS Lond Engl. 2013;27: 1971-8.
100. Bygrave H, Mtangirwa J, Ncube K, Ford N, Kranzer K, Munyaradzi D. Antiretroviral therapy outcomes among adolescents and youth in rural Zimbabwe. PLoS One. 2012;7:e52856.
101. Williams PL, Dyke RV, Eagle M, Smith D, Vincent C, Ciupak G, et al. Association of site-specific and participant-specific factors with retention of children in a long-term pediatric HIV cohort study. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;167: 1375-86.
102. Dachew BA, Tesfahunegn TB, Birhanu AM. Adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy and associated factors among children at the University of Gondar Hospital and Gondar Poly Clinic, Northwest Ethiopia: a crosssectional institutional based study. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:875.
103. Chandwani S, Koenig LJ, Sill AM, Abramowitz S, Conner LC, D'Angelo L. Predictors of antiretroviral medication adherence among a diverse cohort of adolescents with HIV. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2012;51: 242-51.
104. Mutwa PR, Van Nuil JI, Asiimwe-Kateera B, et al. Living situation affects adherence to combination antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected adolescents in Rwanda: a qualitative study. PLoS One. 2013;8:e60073.
105. Petersen I, Bhana A, Myeza N, Alicea S, John S, Holst H, et al. Psychosocial challenges and protective influences for socio-emotional coping of HIV+adolescents in South Africa: a qualitative investigation. AIDS Care. 2010;22: 970-8.
106. de Carvalho FT, de Morais NA, Koller SH, Piccinini CA. [Protective factors and resilience in people living with HIV/AIDS]. Cad Saúde Pública. 2007;23: 2023-33.
107. Small L, Mercado M, Gopalan P, Pardo G, Ann Mellins C, McKay MM. Enhancing the emotional wellbeing of perinatally HIV infected youth across global contexts. Glob Soc Welf Res Policy Pract. 2014;1:25-35.
108. Sopena S, Evangeli M, Dodge J, Melvin D. Coping and psychological adjustment in adolescents with vertically acquired HIV. AIDS Care. 2010;22: 1252-8.
109. Harms S, Kizza R, Sebunnya J, Jack S. Conceptions of mental health among Ugandan youth orphaned by AIDS. Afr J AIDS Res. 2009;8:7-16.
110. Betancourt TS, Meyers-Ohki S, Stulac SN, Barrera AE, Mushashi C, Beardslee WR. Nothing can defeat combined hands (Abashize hamwe ntakibananira): protective processes and resilience in Rwandan children and families affected by HIV/AIDS. Soc Sci Med. 2011;73:693-701.
111. Mghamba FW, Minzi OMS, Massawe A, Sasi P. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV infected children measured by caretaker report, medication return, and drug level in Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania. BMC Pediatr. 2013; 13:95.
112. Samet JH, Sullivan LM, Traphagen ET, Ickovics JR. Measuring adherence among HIV-infected persons: is MEMS consummate technology? AIDS Behav. 2001;5:21-30.
113. Gross R, Tierney C, Andrade A, et al. Modified directly observed antiretroviral therapy compared with self-administered therapy in treatment-naive HIV-1-infected patients: a randomized trial. Arch Intern Med. 2009;169:1224-32.
114. Parsons GN, Siberry GK, Parsons JK, Christensen JR, Joyner ML, Lee SL, et al. Multidisciplinary, inpatient directly observed therapy for HIV-1-infected children and adolescents failing HAART: a retrospective study. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2006;20:275-84.
115. Glikman D,Walsh L, Valkenburg J, Mangat PD, Marcinak JF. Hospital-based directly observed therapy for HIV-infected children and adolescents to assess adherence to antiretroviral medications. Pediatrics. 2007;119:e1142-8.
116. Purdy JB, Freeman AF, Martin SC, Ryder C, Elliott-DeSorbo DK, Zeichner S, et al. Virologic response using directly observed therapy in adolescents with HIV: an adherence tool. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2008;19:158-65.
117. Kaai S, Bullock S, Sarna A, Chersich M, Luchters S, Geibel S, et al. Perceived stigma among patients receiving antiretroviral treatment: a prospective randomised trial comparing an m-DOT strategy with standard-of-care in Kenya. SAHARA J. 2010;7:62-70.
118. Munyao P, Luchters S, Chersich MF, Kaai S, Geibel S, Mandaliya KN, et al. Implementation of clinic-based modified-directly observed therapy (m-DOT) for ART; experiences in Mombasa, Kenya. AIDS Care. 2010;22:187-94.
119. Vreeman RC, Nyandiko WM, Ayaya SO,Walumbe EG, Marrero DG, Inui TS. The perceived impact of disclosure of pediatric HIV status on pediatric antiretroviral therapy adherence, child well-being, and social relationships in a resource-limited setting. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2010;24:639-49.
120. Nabukeera-Barungi N, Kalyesubula I, Kekitiinwa A, Byakika-Tusiime J, Musoke P. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy in children attending Mulago Hospital, Kampala. Ann Trop Paediatr. 2007;27:123-31.
121. Biressaw S, Abegaz WE, Abebe M, Taye WA, Belay M. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and associated factors among HIV infected children in Ethiopia: unannounced home-based pill count versus caregivers' report. BMC Pediatr. 2013;13:132.
122. Müller AD, Jaspan HB, Myer L, Hunter AL, Harling G, Bekker L-G, et al. Standard measures are inadequate to monitor pediatric adherence in a resource-limited setting. AIDS Behav. 2011;15:422-31.
123. Haberer JE, Kiwanuka J, Nansera D, Wilson IB, Bangsberg DR. Challenges in using mobile phones for collection of antiretroviral therapy adherence data in a resource-limited setting. AIDS Behav. 2010;14:1294-301.
124. Haberer JE, Kiwanuka J, Nansera D, Muzoora C, Hunt PW, So J, et al. Realtime adherence monitoring of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected adults and children in rural Uganda. AIDS. 2013;27:2166-8. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e328363b53f
125. Muller AD, Bode S, Myer L, Roux P, von Steinbuchel N. Electronic measurement of adherence to pediatric antiretroviral therapy in South Africa. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2008;27:257-62.
126. Haberer JE, Kiwanuka J, Nansera D, Ragland K, Mellins C, Bangsberg DR. Multiple measures reveal antiretroviral adherence successes and challenges in HIV-infected Ugandan children. PLoS One. 2012;7:e36737.
127. Kalichman SC, Amaral CM, Stearns H, White D, Flanagan J, Pope H, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy assessed by unannounced pill counts conducted by telephone. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:1003-6.
128. Chesney MA. Factors affecting adherence to antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2000;30:S171-6.
129. Ndiaye M, Nyasulu P, Nguyen H, Lowenthal ED, Gross R, Mills EJ, et al. Risk factors for suboptimal antiretroviral therapy adherence in HIV-infected adolescents in Gaborone, Botswana: a pilot cross-sectional study. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2013;7:891-5.
130. Bangsberg DR, Hecht FM, Charlebois ED, Chesney M, Moss A. Comparing objective measures of adherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy: electronic medication monitors and unannounced pill counts. AIDS Behav. 2001;5:275-81.
131. Hong SY, Jerger L, Jonas A, et al. Medication possession ratio associated with short-term virologic response in individuals initiating antiretroviral therapy in Namibia. PLoS One. 2013;8:e56307.
132. Messou E, Chaix M-L, Gabillard D, et al. Association between medication possession ratio, virologic failure and drug resistance in HIV-1 infected adults on antiretroviral therapy in Côte d'Ivoire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011; 56:356-64.
133. Chi BH, Cantrell RA, Zulu I, et al. Adherence to first-line antiretroviral therapy affects non-virologic outcomes among patients on treatment for more than 12 months in Lusaka, Zambia. Int J Epidemiol. 2009;38:746-56.
134. McMahon JH, Jordan MR, Kelley K, Bertagnolio S, Hong SY, Wanke CA, et al. Pharmacy adherence measures to assess adherence to antiretroviral therapy: review of the literature and implications for treatment monitoring. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;52:493-506.
135. Jimmy-Gama D, Gibson S, McPake B, Maleta K. Antiretroviral therapy (ART) rationing and access mechanisms and their impact on youth ART utilization in Malawi. Malawi Med J. 2011;23:48-54.
136. Fetzer BC, Mupenda B, Lusiama J, Kitetele F, Golin C, Behets F. Barriers to and facilitators of adherence to pediatric antiretroviral therapy in a sub-Saharan setting: insights from a qualitative study. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2011;25:611-21.
137. Biadgilign S, Deribew A, Amberbir A, Deribe K. Barriers and facilitators to antiretroviral medication adherence among HIV-infected paediatric patients in Ethiopia: a qualitative study. SAHARA J. 2009;6:148-54.
138. Arage G, Tessema G, Kassa H. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy and its associated factors among children at South Wollo Zone Hospitals, Northeast Ethiopia: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:365.
139. Biadgilign S, Deribew A, Amberbir A, Deribe K. Adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy and its correlates among HIV infected pediatric patients in Ethiopia. BMC Pediatr. 2008;8:53.
140. Rutengwe RM. Identifying strategic interventions for improving household food and nutrition security in an urban informal settlement, South Africa. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2004;13:S169.
141. Nyandiko WM, Ayaya S, Nabakwe E, Tenge C, Sidle JE, Yiannoutsos CT, et al. Outcomes of HIV-infected orphaned and non-orphaned children on antiretroviral therapy in western Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43: 418-25.
142. Vreeman RC, Wiehe SE, Ayaya SO, Musick BS, Nyandiko WM. Association of antiretroviral and clinic adherence with orphan status among HIV-infected children in Western Kenya. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:163-70.
143. Bell S, Prata N, Lahiff M, Eskenazi B. Civil unrest and birthweight: an exploratory analysis of the 2007/2008 Kenyan Crisis. Soc Sci Med. 2012;74: 1324-30.
144. Mann M, Lurie MN, Kimaiyo S, Kantor R. Effects of political conflictinduced treatment interruptions on HIV drug resistance. AIDS Rev. 2013;15: 15-24.
145. Zwi A, Ugalde A. Towards an epidemiology of political violence in the third world. Soc Sci Med. 1989;28:633-42.
146. Ityavyar DA, Ogba LO. Violence, conflict and health in Africa. Soc Sci Med. 1989;28:649-57.
147. Yach D. The impact of political violence on health and health services in Cape Town, South Africa, 1986: methodological problems and preliminary results. Am J Public Health. 1988;78:772-6.
148. Herman AA. Political violence, health, and health services in South Africa. Am J Public Health. 1988;78:767-8.
149. Pyne-Mercier LD, John-Stewart GC, Richardson BA, Kagondu NL, Thiga J, Noshy H, et al. The consequences of post-election violence on antiretroviral HIV therapy in Kenya. AIDS Care. 2011;23:562-8.
150. Mann M, Diero L, Kemboi E, et al. Antiretroviral treatment interruptions induced by the Kenyan postelection crisis are associated with virological failure. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;64:220-4.
151. Reid T, van Engelgem I, Telfer B, Manzi M. Providing HIV care in the aftermath of Kenya's post-election violence Medecins Sans Frontieres' lessons learned January - March 2008. Confl Health. 2008;2:15.
152. Vreeman RC, Nyandiko WM, Ayaya SO,Walumbe EG, Marrero DG, Inui TS. Factors sustaining pediatric adherence to antiretroviral therapy in Western Kenya. Qual Health Res. 2009;19:1716-29.
153. Bikaako-Kajura W, Luyirika E, Purcell DW, Downing J, Kaharuza F, Mermin J, et al. Disclosure of HIV status and adherence to daily drug regimens among HIV-infected children in Uganda. AIDS Behav. 2006;10:85-93.
154. Peterson K, Togun T, Klis S, Menten J, Colebunders R. Depression and posttraumatic stress disorder among HIV-infected Gambians on antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2012;26:589-96.
155. Martin S, Elliott-DeSorbo DK, Wolters PL, Toledo-Tamula MA, Roby G, Zeichner S, et al. Patient, caregiver and regimen characteristics associated with adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected children and adolescents. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2007;26:61-7.
156. Murphy DA, Sarr M, Durako SJ, Moscicki A, Wilson CM, Muenz LR, et al. Barriers to HAART adherence among human immunodeficiency virus-infected adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:249-55.
157. Hosek SG, Harper GW, Domanico R. Predictors of medication adherence among HIV-infected youth. Psychol Health Med. 2005;10:166-79.
158. MacDonell KE, Naar-King S, Murphy DA, Parsons JT, Huszti H. Situational temptation for HIV medication adherence in high-risk youth. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2011;25:47-52.
159. MacDonell K, Naar-King S, Huszti H, Belzer M. Barriers to medication adherence in behaviorally and perinatally infected youth living with HIV. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:86-93.
160. Siu GE, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Kennedy CE, Dhabangi A, Kambugu A. HIV serostatus disclosure and lived experiences of adolescents at the Transition Clinic of the Infectious Diseases Clinic in Kampala, Uganda: a qualitative study. AIDS Care. 2012;24:606-11.
161. Vreeman RC, Gramelspacher AM, Gisore PO, Scanlon ML, Nyandiko WM. Disclosure of HIV status to children in resource-limited settings: a systematic review. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18466.
162. Wiener L, Mellins CA, Marhefka S, Battles HB. Disclosure of an HIV diagnosis to children: history, current research, and future directions. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2007;28:155-66.
163. Menon A, Glazebrook C, Campain N, Ngoma M. Mental health and disclosure of HIV status in Zambian adolescents with HIV infection: implications for peer-support programs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46:349-54.
164. Mburu G, Hodgson I, Kalibala S, Haamujompa C, Cataldo F, Lowenthal ED, et al. Adolescent HIV disclosure in Zambia: barriers, facilitators and outcomes. J Int AIDS Soc. 2014;17:18866, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.17.1.18866
165. Hejoaka F. Care and secrecy: being a mother of children living with HIV in Burkina Faso. Soc Sci Med. 2009;69:869-76.
166. Alubo O, Zwandor A, Jolayemi T, Omudu E. Acceptance and stigmatization of PLWA in Nigeria. AIDS Care. 2002;14:117-26.
167. Makoae LN, Portillo CJ, Uys LR, et al. The impact of taking or not taking ARVs on HIV stigma as reported by persons living with HIV infection in five African countries. AIDS Care. 2009;21:1357-62.
168. Elise A, France AM, Louise WM, Bata D, François R, Roger S, Philippe M. Assessment of adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy in a cohort of African HIV-infected children in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2005;40:498-500.
169. Iroha E, Esezobor CI, Ezeaka C, Temiye EO, Akinsulie A. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected children attending a donor-funded clinic at a tertiary hospital in Nigeria. Afr J AIDS Res. 2010;9:25-30.
170. Mukhtar-Yola M, Adeleke S, Gwarzo D, Ladan ZF. Preliminary investigation of adherence to antiretroviral therapy among children in Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Nigeria. Afr J AIDS Res. 2006;5:141-4.
171. Polisset J, Ametonou F, Arrive E, Aho A, Perez F. Correlates of adherence to antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected children in Lomé, Togo, West Africa. AIDS Behav. 2009;13:23-32.
172. Ugwu R, Eneh A. Factors influencing adherence to paediatric antiretroviral therapy in Portharcourt, South- South Nigeria. Pan Afr Med J. 2013;16:30. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.11604/pamj.2013.16.30.1877
173. Byakika-Tusiime J, Crane J, Oyugi JH, Ragland K, Kawuma A, Musoke P, et al. Longitudinal antiretroviral adherence in HIV+ Ugandan parents and their children initiating HAART in the MTCT-plus family treatment model: role of depression in declining adherence over time. AIDS Behav. 2009;13:82-91.
174. Wamalwa DC, Farquhar C, Obimbo EM, et al. Early response to highly active antiretroviral therapy in HIV-1-infected Kenyan children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;45:311-7.
175. Reddi A, Leeper SC, Grobler AC, et al. Preliminary outcomes of a paediatric highly active antiretroviral therapy cohort from KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. BMC Pediatr. 2007;7:13.
176. Tsai AC, Bangsberg DR, Bwana M, Haberer JE, Frongillo EA, Muzoora C, et al. How does antiretroviral treatment attenuate the stigma of HIV? Evidence from a cohort study in rural Uganda. AIDS Behav. 2013;17:2725-31.
177. Gilbert L,Walker L. "They (ARVs) are my life, without them I'm nothing" - experiences of patients attending a HIV/AIDS clinic in Johannesburg, South Africa. Health Place. 2009;15:1123-9.
178. Campbell C, Skovdal M, Madanhire C, Mugurungi O, Gregson S, Nyamukapa C. "We, the AIDS people . . .": how antiretroviral therapy enables Zimbabweans living with HIV/AIDS to cope with stigma. Am J Public Health. 2011;101:1004-10.
179. Zuch M, Lurie M. "A virus and nothing else": the effect of ART on HIV-related stigma in rural South Africa. AIDS Behav. 2012;16:564-70.
180. Kaishusha Mupendwa BP, Kadima Ntokamunda JL. [Treatment adhesion and factors affecting it at the Kadutu Clinic (Democratic Republic of the Congo)]. Santé . 2009;19:205-15.
181. Laughton B, Cornell M, Boivin M, Van Rie A. Neurodevelopment in perinatally HIV-infected children: a concern for adolescence. J Int AIDS Soc. 2013;16:18603, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7448/IAS.16.1.18603
182. Dawes S, Suarez P, Casey CY, Cherner M, Marcotte TD, Letendre S, et al. Variable patterns of neuropsychological performance in HIV-1 infection. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2008;30:613-26.
183. Hoare J, Fouche J-P, Spottiswoode B, et al. A diffusion tensor imaging and neurocognitive study of HIV-positive children who are HAART-naïve "slow progressors". J Neurovirol. 2012;18:205-12.
184. Hoare J, Jacqueline H,Westgarth-Taylor J, et al. A diffusion tensor imaging and neuropsychological study of prospective memory impairment in South African HIV positive individuals. Metab Brain Dis. 2012;27:289-97.
185. Abubakar A, Holding P, Van Baar A, Newton CR, Van de Vijver FJ, Espy KA. The performance of children prenatally exposed to HIV on the A-Not-B task in Kilifi, Kenya: a preliminary study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2013;10: 4132-42.
186. Melrose RJ, Tinaz S, Castelo JMB, Courtney MG, Stern CE. Compromised fronto-striatal functioning in HIV: an fMRI investigation of semantic event sequencing. Behav Brain Res. 2008;188:337-47.
187. Kandawasvika GQ, Ogundipe E, Gumbo FZ, Kurewa EN, Mapingure MP, Stray-Pedersen B. Neurodevelopmental impairment among infants born to mothers infected with human immunodeficiency virus and uninfected mothers from three peri-urban primary care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2011;53:1046-52.
188. Nichols SL, Montepiedra G, Farley JJ, Sirois PA, Malee K, Kammerer B, et al. Cognitive, academic and behavioral correlates of medication adherence in children and adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2012;33:298-308.
189. Rice ML, Buchanan AL, Siberry GK, et al. Language impairment in children perinatally infected with HIV compared to children who were HIV-exposed and uninfected. J Dev Behav Pediatr. 2012;33:112-23.
190. Rice ML, Zeldow B, Siberry GK, et al. Evaluation of risk for late language emergence after in utero antiretroviral drug exposure in HIV-exposed uninfected infants. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2013;32:e406-13.
191. Garvie PA, Zeldow B, Malee K, Nichols SL, Smith RA, Wilkins ML, et al. Discordance of cognitive and academic achievement outcomes in youth with perinatal HIV exposure. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2014;33:e232-8.
192. Kandawasvika GQ, Kuona P, Chandiwana P, Masanganise M, Gumbo FZ, Mapingure MP, et al. The burden and predictors of cognitive impairment among 6- to 8-year-old children infected and uninfected with HIV from Harare, Zimbabwe: a cross-sectional study. Child Neuropsychol. 2015;21:106-20.
193. Pugatch D, Bennett L, Patterson D. HIV medication adherence in adolescents. J HIVAIDS Prev Educ Adolesc Child. 2002;5:9-29.
194. Ford N, Lee J, Andrieux-Meyer I, Calmy A. Safety, efficacy, and pharmacokinetics of rilpivirine: systematic review with an emphasis on resource limited settings. HIVAIDS. 2011;3:35-44.
195. Spreen WR, Margolis DA, Pottage JC. Long-acting injectable antiretrovirals for HIV treatment and prevention. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2013;8: 565-71.
196. Spreen W, Williams P, Margolis D, Ford SL, Crauwels H, Lou Y, et al. Pharmacokinetics, safety, and tolerability with repeat doses of GSK1265744 and rilpivirine (TMC278) long-acting nanosuspensions in healthy adults. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2014;67:487-92.
197. Cervia JS. Easing the transition of HIV-infected adolescents to adult care. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2013;27:692-6.
198. Dowshen N, D'Angelo L. Health care transition for youth living with HIV/ AIDS. Pediatrics. 2011;128:762-71.
199. Hussen SA, Chahroudi A, Boylan A, Camacho-Gonzalez AF, Hackett S, Chakraborty R. Transition of youth living with HIV from pediatric to adultoriented healthcare: a review of the literature. Future Virol. 2015;9:921-9.
200. Wiener LS, Kohrt B-A, Battles HB, Pao M. The HIV experience: youth identified barriers for transitioning from pediatric to adult care. J Pediatr Psychol. 2011;36:141-54.
201. Malee K, Williams PL, Montepiedra G, Nichols S, Sirois PA, Storm D, et al. The role of cognitive functioning in medication adherence of children and adolescents with HIV infection. J Pediatr Psychol. 2009;34:164-75.
202. Vijayan T, Benin AL, Wagner K, Romano S, Andiman WA. We never thought this would happen: transitioning care of adolescents with perinatally acquired HIV infection from pediatrics to internal medicine. AIDS Care. 2009; 21:1222-9.
203. Gilliam PP, Ellen JM, Leonard L, Kinsman S, Jevitt CM, Straub DM. Transition of adolescents with HIV to adult care: characteristics and current practices of the adolescent trials network for HIV/AIDS interventions. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2011;22:283-94.
204. Abaasa AM, Todd J, Ekoru K, Kalyango JN, Levin J, Odeke E, et al. Good adherence to HAART and improved survival in a community HIV/AIDS treatment and care programme: the experience of the AIDS Support Organization (TASO), Kampala, Uganda. BMC Health Serv Res. 2008;8:241.
205. Mills EJ, Bakanda C, Birungi J, Chan K, Ford N, Cooper CL, et al. Life expectancy of persons receiving combination antiretroviral therapy in lowincome countries: a cohort analysis from Uganda. Ann Intern Med. 2011;155: 209-16.
206. Lowenthal ED, Bakeera-Kitaka S, Marukutira T, Chapman J, Goldrath K, Ferrand RA. Perinatally acquired HIV infection in adolescents from sub-Saharan Africa: a review of emerging challenges. Lancet Infect Dis. 2014;14:627-39.
207. Attia S, Egger M, Müller M, Zwahlen M, Low N. Sexual transmission of HIV according to viral load and antiretroviral therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis. AIDS Lond Engl. 2009;23:1397-404.
208. Bangsberg DR, Acosta EP, Gupta R, Guzman D, Riley ED, Harrigan PR, et al. Adherence-resistance relationships for protease and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors explained by virological fitness. AIDS Lond Engl. 2006; 20:223-31.
209. Wright MJ,Woo E, Foley J, et al. Antiretroviral adherence and the nature of HIV-associated verbal memory impairment. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 2011;23:324-31.
210. Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, Castellon SA, Durvasula RS, Lam MN, et al. Medication adherence in HIV-infected adults: effect of patient age, cognitive status, and substance abuse. AIDS. 2004;18(Suppl 1):S19-25.
211. Simoni JM, Frick PA, Pantalone DW, Turner BJ. Antiretroviral adherence interventions: a review of current literature and ongoing studies. Top HIV Med. 2003;11:185-98.
212. Scanlon ML, Vreeman RC. Current strategies for improving access and adherence to antiretroviral therapies in resource-limited settings. HIVAIDS. 2013;5:1-17.
213. Simoni JM, Pearson CR, Pantalone DW, Marks G, Crepaz N. Efficacy of interventions in improving highly active antiretroviral therapy adherence and HIV-1 RNA viral load. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;43:S23-35.
214. Rueda S, Park-Wyllie LY, Bayoumi AM, Tynan AM, Antoniou TA, Rourke SB, et al. Patient support and education for promoting adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy for HIV/AIDS. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3: CD001442.
215. Amico KR, Harman JJ, Johnson BT. Efficacy of antiretroviral therapy adherence interventions: a research synthesis of trials, 1996 to 2004. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2006;41:285-97.
216. Van Winghem J, Telfer B, Reid T, Ouko J, Mutunga A, Jama Z, et al. Implementation of a comprehensive program including psycho-social and treatment literacy activities to improve adherence to HIV care and treatment for a pediatric population in Kenya. BMC Pediatr. 2008;8:52.
217. Kenu E, Obo-Akwa A, Nuamah GB, Brefo A, Sam M, Lartey M. Knowledge and disclosure of HIV status among adolescents and young adults attending an adolescent HIV clinic in Accra, Ghana. BMC Res Notes. 2014;7:844. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1756-0500-7-844
218. Workneh G, Scherzer L, Kirk B, Draper HR, Anabwani G,Wanless RS, et al. Evaluation of the effectiveness of an outreach clinical mentoring programme in support of paediatric HIV care scale-up in Botswana. AIDS Care. 2013;25:11-9.
219. Dowse R, Barford K, Browne SH. Simple, illustrated medicines information improves ARV knowledge and patient self-efficacy in limited literacy South African HIV patients. AIDS Care. 2014;26:1400-6.
220. Kunutsor S, Walley J, Muchuro S, Katabira E, Balidawa H, Namagala E, et al. Improving adherence to antiretroviral therapy in sub-Saharan African HIV-positive populations: an enhanced adherence package. AIDS Care. 2012; 24:1308-15.
221. Navarra A-M, Neu N, Toussi S, Nelson J, Larson EL. Health literacy and adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected youth. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care. 2014;25:203-13.
222. Garvie PA, Lensing S, Rai SN. Efficacy of a pill-swallowing training intervention to improve antiretroviral medication adherence in pediatric patients with HIV/AIDS. Pediatrics. 2007;119:e893-9.
223. MacPherson P, Munthali C, Ferguson J, Armstrong A, Kranzer K, Ferrand RA, et al. Service delivery interventions to improve adolescents' linkage, retention and adherence to antiretroviral therapy and HIV care. Trop Med Int Health. 2015;20:1015-32. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12517
224. Greifinger R, Dick B. Provision of psychosocial support for young people living with HIV: voices from the field. SAHARA J. 2011;8:33-41.
225. Crozatti MTL, França-Junior I, Rodrigues R, Carneiro Ferrão Mdo S, Brigido LF, Della Negra M, et al. Antiretroviral treatment adherence in childhood and adolescence: multidisciplinary team as an associated factor in Brazil. AIDS Care. 2013;25:1462-9.
226. Garvie PA, Lawford J, Flynn PM, Gaur AH, Belzer M, McSherry GD, et al. Development of a directly observed therapy adherence intervention for adolescents with human immunodeficiency virus-1: application of focus group methodology to inform design, feasibility, and acceptability. J Adolesc Health Off Publ Soc Adolesc Med. 2009;44:124-32.
227. Lester RT, Ritvo P, Mills EJ, et al. Effects of a mobile phone short message service on antiretroviral treatment adherence in Kenya (WelTel Kenya1): a randomised trial. Lancet. 2010;376:1838-45.
228. Pop-Eleches C, Thirumurthy H, Habyarimana JP, et al. Mobile phone technologies improve adherence to antiretroviral treatment in a resource-limited setting: a randomized controlled trial of text message reminders. AIDS Lond Engl. 2011;25:825-34.
229. Sarna A, Luchters S, Geibel S, Chersich MF, Munyao P, Kaai S, et al. Shortand long-term efficacy of modified directly observed antiretroviral treatment in Mombasa, Kenya: a randomized trial. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008; 48:611-9.
230. Pearson CR, Micek MA, Simoni JM, Hoff PD, Matediana E, Martin DP, et al. Randomized control trial of peer-delivered, modified directly observed therapy for HAART in Mozambique. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2007;46: 238-44.
231. Nachega JB, Chaisson RE, Goliath R, Efron A, Chaudhary MA, Ram M, et al. Randomized controlled trial of trained patient-nominated treatment supporters providing partial directly observed antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. 2010;24:1273-80.
232. Idoko JA, Agbaji O, Agaba P, et al. Direct observation therapy-highly active antiretroviral therapy in a resource-limited setting: the use of community treatment support can be effective. Int J STD AIDS. 2007;18:760-3.
233. Taiwo BOM, Idoko JAM, Welty LJ, Otoh I, Job GR, Iyaji PG, et al. Assessing the viorologic and adherence benefits of patient-selected HIV treatment partners in a resource-limited setting. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2010;54: 85-92.
234. Bärnighausen T, Chaiyachati K, Chimbindi N, Peoples A, Haberer J, Newell M-L. Interventions to increase antiretroviral adherence in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review of evaluation studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2011;11:942-51.
235. Chang LW, Kagaayi J, Nakigozi G, Packer AH, Serwadda D, Quinn TC, et al. Responding to the human resource crisis: peer health workers, mobile phones, and HIV care in Rakai, Uganda. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2008;22:173-4.
236. Stubbs BA, Micek MA, Pfeiffer JT, Montoya P, Gloyd S. Treatment partners and adherence to HAART in Central Mozambique. AIDS Care. 2009;21:1412-9.
237. Kabore I, Bloem J, Etheredge G, et al. The effect of community-based support services on clinical efficacy and health-related quality of life in HIV/ AIDS patients in resource-limited settings in sub-Saharan Africa. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2010;24:581-94.
238. Cantrell RA, Sinkala M, Megazinni K, et al. A pilot study of food supplementation to improve adherence to antiretroviral therapy among food-insecure adults in Lusaka, Zambia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49: 190-5.
239. Ssewamala FM, Nabunya P, Ilic V, Mukasa MN, Ddamulira C. Relationship between family economic resources, psychosocial well-being, and educational preferences of AIDS-orphaned children in southern uganda: baseline findings. Glob Soc Welf Res Policy Pract. 2015;22:75-86.
240. Thompson MA, Mugavero MJ, Amico KR, et al. Guidelines for improving entry into and retention in care and antiretroviral adherence for persons with HIV: evidence-based recommendations from an International Association of Physicians in AIDS care panel. Ann Intern Med. 2012;156:817-33, W-284-94.
241. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in pediatric HIV infection. AIDSinfo; 2014 [2014 Dec 5]. Available from: http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/
242. Elkington KS, Bauermeister JA, Robbins RN, Gromadzka O, Abrams EJ, Wiznia A, et al. Individual and contextual factors of sexual risk behavior in youth perinatally infected with HIV. AIDS Patient Care STDs. 2012;26:411-22.
243. Musiime V, Kizito H, Ssali F, Namusoke A, Mugisha M, Kityo C, et al. An adolescent peer support group improves adherence to antiretroviral therapy and reduces self-stigma among HIV-infected adolescents at joint clinical research centre (JCRC), Kampala. In: 4th IAS Conference on HIV Pathogenesis, Treatment and Prevention Abstract no CDB446 [Internet]. Australia: International AIDS Society; 2007 [cited 2014 Dec 7]. Available from: http://www.iasociety.org/Abstracts/A200701970.aspx
244. Bhana A, Mellins CA, Petersen I, et al. The VUKA family program: piloting a family-based psychosocial intervention to promote health and mental health among HIV infected early adolescents in South Africa. AIDS Care. 2014;26: 1-11.
245. Fatti G, Shaikh N, Eley B, Grimwood A. Improved virological suppression in children on antiretroviral treatment receiving community-based adherence support: a multicentre cohort study from South Africa. AIDS Care. 2014;26: 448-53.
246. Mavhu W, Berwick J, Chirawu P, et al. Enhancing psychosocial support for HIV positive adolescents in Harare, Zimbabwe. PLoS One. 2013;8:e70254. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0070254