Not so Sweet Revenge: Unanticipated Consequences of High-Intensity Sweeteners

Behavior Analyst

Volumn 38, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 1-17

  Swithers, Susan E ^a  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Artificial sweeteners; Classical conditioning; Health; Obesity

Indexed keywords

EID: 84929668498     PISSN: 07386729     EISSN: 21968918     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40614-015-0028-3     Document Type: Review

References (64)

1. Abou-Donia, M. B., El-Masry, E. M., Abdel-Rahman, A. A., McLendon, R. E., & Schiffman, S. S. (2008). Splenda alters gut microflora and increases intestinal p-glycoprotein and cytochrome p-450 in male rats. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part A, 71(21), 1415-1429. doi: 10.1080/15287390802328630.
2. Bernstein, A. M., de Koning, L., Flint, A. J., Rexrode, K. M., & Willett, W. C. (2012). Soda consumption and the risk of stroke in men and women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 95(5), 1190-1199. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.030205.
3. Bhupathiraju, S. N., Pan, A., Malik, V. S., Manson, J. E., Willett, W. C., van Dam, R. M., & Hu, F. B. (2013). Caffeinated and caffeine-free beverages and risk of type 2 diabetes. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(1), 155-166. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.048603.
4. Bills, C. H., Dopheide, M., Pineno, O., & Schachtman, T. R. (2006). Effects of an extinguished CS on competition with another CS. Behavioural Processes, 72(1), 14-22. doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2005.11.009.
5. Calorie Control Council. (2014). Trends and statistics. Retrieved November 19, 2014, 2014, from (http://www.caloriecontrol.org/press-room/trends-and-statistics).
6. Calton, J. L., Mitchell, K. G., & Schachtman, T. R. (1996). Conditioned inhibition produced by extinction of a conditioned stimulus. Learning and Motivation, 27(4), 335-361.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014). Leading causes of death. Retrieved December 10, 2014, 2014, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm
8. Chandon, P. (2012). How package design and packaged-based marketing claims lead to overeating. Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy. doi: 10.1093/aepp/pp s028.
9. Cohen, L., Curhan, G., & Forman, J. (2012). Association of sweetened beverage intake with incident hypertension. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 27(9), 1127-1134. doi: 10.1007/s11606-012-2069-6.
10. Davidson, T. L., & Swithers, S. E. (2004). A Pavlovian approach to the problem of obesity. International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders: Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 28(7), 933-935. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0802660.
11. Davidson, T. L., Martin, A. A., Clark, K., & Swithers, S. E. (2011). Intake of high-intensity sweeteners alters the ability of sweet taste to signal caloric consequences: implications for the learned control of energy and body weight regulation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (Hove), 64(7), 1430-1441. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2011.552729.
12. de Koning, L., Malik, V. S., Rimm, E. B., Willett, W. C., & Hu, F. B. (2011). Sugar-sweetened and artificially sweetened beverage consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes in men. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(6), 1321-1327. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.007922.
13. De Koning, L., Malik, V. S., Kellogg, M. D., Rimm, E. B., Willett, W. C., & Hu, F. B. (2012). Sweetened beverage consumption, incident coronary heart disease, and biomarkers of risk in men. Circulation, 125(14), 1735-1741. doi: 10.1161/circulationaha.111.067017. S1731.
14. Dhingra, R., Sullivan, L., Jacques, P. F., Wang, T. J., Fox, C. S., Meigs, J. B., & Vasan, R. S. (2007). Soft drink consumption and risk of developing cardiometabolic risk factors and the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged adults in the community. Circulation, 116(5), 480-488. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.689935.
15. Duffey, K. J., Steffen, L. M., Van Horn, L., Jacobs, D. R., Jr., & Popkin, B. M. (2012). Dietary patterns matter: diet beverages and cardiometabolic risks in the longitudinal coronary artery risk development in young adults (CARDIA) study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 95(4), 909-915. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.111.026682.
16. Fagherazzi, G., Vilier, A., Saes Sartorelli, D., Lajous, M., Balkau, B., & Clavel-Chapelon, F. (2013). Consumption of artificially and sugar-sweetened beverages and incident type 2 diabetes in the etude epidemiologique aupres des femmes de la mutuelle generale de l'Education nationale-european prospective investigation into cancer and nutrition cohort. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(3), 517-523. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.050997.
17. Fitch, C., & Keim, K. S. (2012). Position of the academy of nutrition and dietetics: use of nutritive and nonnutritive sweeteners. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(5), 739-758. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.03.009.
18. Flegal, K. M., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., & Ogden, C. L. (2012). Prevalence of obesity and trends in the distribution of body mass index among US adults, 1999-2010. Journal of the American Medical Association, 307(5), 491-497. doi: 10.1001/jama.2012.39.
19. Fung, T. T., Malik, V., Rexrode, K. M., Manson, J. E., Willett, W. C., & Hu, F. B. (2009). Sweetened beverage consumption and risk of coronary heart disease in women. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(4), 1037-1042. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.27140.
20. Garcia, J., Kimeldorf, D. J., & Koelling, R. A. (1955). Conditioned aversion to saccharin resulting from exposure to gamma radiation. Science (New York, N.Y.), 122(3160), 157-158.
21. Gardener, H., Rundek, T., Markert, M., Wright, C. B., Elkind, M. S., & Sacco, R. L. (2012). Diet soft drink consumption is associated with an increased risk of vascular events in the northern Manhattan study. Journal of General Internal Medicine. doi: 10.1007/s11606-011-1968-2.
22. Gardner, C., Wylie-Rosett, J., Gidding, S. S., Steffen, L. M., Johnson, R. K., Reader, D., & Lichtenstein, A. H. (2012). Nonnutritive sweeteners: current use and health perspectives: a scientific statement from the American heart association and the American diabetes association. Circulation, 126(4), 509-519. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0b013e31825c42ee.
23. Green, E., & Murphy, C. (2012). Altered processing of sweet taste in the brain of diet soda drinkers. Physiology & Behavior, 107(4), 560-567. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.05.006.
24. Health, A. C. o. S. a. (2007). Health group says new study on soda is grasping at straws. Retrieved 11/24/2014, 2014, from http://acsh.org/2007/07/health-group-says-new-study-on-soda-is-grasping-at-straws/
25. Hu, F. B. (2013). Resolved: there is sufficient scientific evidence that decreasing sugar-sweetened beverage consumption will reduce the prevalence of obesity and obesity-related diseases. Obesity Reviews: An Official Journal of the International Association for the Study of Obesity, 14(8), 606-619. doi: 10.1111/obr.12040.
26. LeBlanc, J., & Cabanac, M. (1989). Cephalic postprandial thermogenesis in human subjects. Physiology & Behavior, 46(3), 479-482.
27. LeBlanc, J., Cabanac, M., & Samson, P. (1984). Reduced postprandial heat production with gavage as compared with meal feeding in human subjects. The American Journal of Physiology, 246(1 Pt 1), E95-E101.
28. Livingstone, M. B., & Black, A. E. (2003). Markers of the validity of reported energy intake. The Journal of Nutrition, 133(3), 895S-920S.
29. Lutsey, P. L., Steffen, L. M., & Stevens, J. (2008). Dietary intake and the development of the metabolic syndrome: the atherosclerosis risk in communities study. Circulation, 117(6), 754-761. doi: 10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.716159.
30. Mattes, R. D., & Popkin, B. M. (2009). Nonnutritive sweetener consumption in humans: effects on appetite and food intake and their putative mechanisms. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(1), 1-14. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2008.26792.
31. McDowell, M. A., Fryar, C. D., Ogden, C. L., & Flegal, K. M. (2008). Anthropometric reference data for children and adults: United States, 2003-2006. National Health Statistics Reports (Vol. 10). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics.
32. National Center for Health Statistics (2012). Health E-Stats September. Retrieved May 28, 2013, from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/ obesity-adult-09-10/obesity-adult-09-10.pdf
33. Nettleton, J. A., Polak, J. F., Tracy, R., Burke, G. L., & Jacobs, D. R., Jr. (2009). Dietary patterns and incident cardiovascular disease in the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 90(3), 647-654. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.27597.
34. Ng, S. W., Slining, M. M., & Popkin, B. M. (2012). Use of caloric and noncaloric sweeteners in US consumer packaged foods, 2005-2009. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112(11), 1828-1834. doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.07.009. e1821-1826.
35. Ng, M., Fleming, T., Robinson, M., Thomson, B., Graetz, N., Margono, C., & Gakidou, E. (2014). Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the global burden of disease study 2013. Lancet, 384(9945), 766-781. doi: 10.1016/s0140-6736(14)60460-8.
36. Ogden, C. L., Fryar, C. D., Carroll, M. D., & Flegal, K. M. (2004). Mean body weight, height, and body mass index, United States 1960-2002. Advance Data from Vital and Health Statistics (Vol. 347). Hyattsville, Maryland: National Center for Health Statistics.
37. Palmnas, M. S., Cowan, T. E., Bomhof, M. R., Su, J., Reimer, R. A., Vogel, H. J., & Shearer, J. (2014). Low-dose aspartame consumption differentially affects gut microbiota-host metabolic interactions in the diet-induced obese rat. PLoS ONE, 9(10), e109841. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109841.
38. Pavlov, I. P., & Anrep, G. V. E. (1960). Conditioned reflexes: an investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex; Translated [from the Russian] and edited by GV Anrep: Dover Publications.
39. Piernas, C., Tate, D. F., Wang, X., & Popkin, B. M. (2013). Does diet-beverage intake affect dietary consumption patterns? results from the choose healthy options consciously everyday (CHOICE) randomized clinical trial. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 97(3), 604-611. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.048405.
40. Romaguera, D., Norat, T., Wark, P. A., Vergnaud, A. C., Schulze, M. B., van Woudenbergh, G. J.,. Wareham, N. J. (2013). Consumption of sweet beverages and type 2 diabetes incidence in European adults: results from EPIC-InterAct. Diabetologia.
41. Rudenga, K. J., & Small, D. M. (2012). Amygdala response to sucrose consumption is inversely related to artificial sweetener use. Appetite, 58(2), 504-507. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2011.12.001.
42. Sakurai, M., Nakamura, K., Miura, K., Takamura, T., Yoshita, K., Nagasawa, S. Y., & Nakagawa, H. (2013). Sugar-sweetened beverage and diet soda consumption and the 7-year risk for type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle-aged Japanese men. European Journal of Nutrition. doi: 10.1007/s00394-013-0523-9.
43. Sclafani, A. (1997). Learned controls of ingestive behaviour. Appetite, 29(2), 153-158. doi: 10.1006/appe.1997.0120.
44. Sivertsen, J., Rosenmeier, J., Holst, J. J., & Vilsboll, T. (2012). The effect of glucagon-like peptide 1 on cardiovascular risk. Nature Reviews Cardiology, 9(4), 209-222. doi: 10.1038/nrcardio.2011.211.
45. Suez, J., Korem, T., Zeevi, D., Zilberman-Schapira, G., Thaiss, C. A., Maza, O., & Elinav, E. (2014). Artificial sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota. Nature, 514(7521), 181-186. doi: 10.1038/nature13793.
46. Swithers, S. E. (2013). Artificial sweeteners produce the counterintuitive effect of inducing metabolic derangements. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, 24(9), 431-441. doi: 10.1016/j.tem.2013.05.005.
47. Swithers, S. E., & Davidson, T. L. (2005). Obesity: outwitting the wisdom of the body? Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports, 5(3), 159-162.
48. Swithers, S. E., & Davidson, T. L. (2008). A role for sweet taste: calorie predictive relations in energy regulation by rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 122(1), 161-173. doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.122.1.161.
49. Swithers, S. E., Doerflinger, A., & Davidson, T. L. (2006). Consistent relationships between sensory properties of savory snack foods and calories influence food intake in rats. International Journal of Obesity (2005), 30(11), 1685-1692. doi: 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803329.
50. Swithers, S. E., Baker, C. R., & Davidson, T. L. (2009). General and persistent effects of high-intensity sweeteners on body weight gain and caloric compensation in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 123(4), 772-780. doi: 10.1037/a0016139.
51. Swithers, S. E., Martin, A. A., Clark, K. M., Laboy, A. F., & Davidson, T. L. (2010a). Body weight gain in rats consuming sweetened liquids. Effects of caffeine and diet composition. Appetite, 55(3), 528-533. doi: 10.1016/j.appet.2010.08.021.
52. Swithers, S. E., Martin, A. A., & Davidson, T. L. (2010b). High-intensity sweeteners and energy balance. Physiology & Behavior, 100(1), 55-62. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.12.021.
53. Swithers, S. E., Ogden, S. B., & Davidson, T. L. (2011). Fat substitutes promote weight gain in rats consuming high-fat diets. Behavioral Neuroscience, 125(4), 512-518. doi: 10.1037/a0024404.
54. Swithers, S. E., Laboy, A. F., Clark, K., Cooper, S., & Davidson, T. L. (2012a). Experience with the high-intensity sweetener saccharin impairs glucose homeostasis and GLP-1 release in rats. Behavioural Brain Research, 233(1), 1-14. doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.04.024.
55. Swithers, S. E., Ogden, S. B., Laboy, A. F., & Davidson, T. L. (2012b). Saccharin pre-exposure enhances appetitive flavor learning in pre-weanling rats. Developmental Psychobiology, 54(8), 818-824. doi: 10.1002/dev.21047.
56. Swithers, S. E., Sample, C. H., & Davidson, T. L. (2013a). Adverse effects of high-intensity sweeteners on energy intake and weight control in male and obesity-prone female rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 127(2), 262-274. doi: 10.1037/a0031717.
57. Swithers, S. E., Sample, C. H., & Katz, D. P. (2013b). Influence of ovarian and non-ovarian estrogens on weight gain in response to disruption of sweet taste - calorie relations in female rats. Hormones and Behavior, 63(1), 40-48. doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.11.003.
58. Sylvetsky, A. C., Welsh, J. A., Brown, R. J., & Vos, M. B. (2012). Low-calorie sweetener consumption is increasing in the United States. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(3), 640-646. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.034751.
59. Sylvetsky, A. C., Greenberg, M., Zhao, X., & Rother, K. I. (2014). What parents think about giving nonnutritive sweeteners to their children: a pilot study. International Journal of Pediatrics, 2014, 819872. doi: 10.1155/2014/819872.
60. Teff, K. L. (2011). How neural mediation of anticipatory and compensatory insulin release helps us tolerate food. Physiology & Behavior, 103(1), 44-50. doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.01.012.
61. USDA Economic Research Service. (2008). Beverages: per capita consumption. Retrieved October 26, 2008, from http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/foodconsumption/spreadsheets/beverage.xls.
62. Yang, Q. (2010). Gain weight by "going diet?" Artificial sweeteners and the neurobiology of sugar cravings: Neuroscience 2010. The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 83(2), 101-108.
63. Young, L. R., & Nestle, M. (2002). The contribution of expanding portion sizes to the US obesity epidemic. American Journal of Public Health, 92(2), 246-249.
64. Young, L. R., & Nestle, M. (2007). Portion sizes and obesity: responses of fast-food companies. Journal of Public Health Policy, 28(2), 238-248. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.jphp.3200127.