Individual differences in distractibility: An update and a model

PsyCh Journal

Volumn 3, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 42-57

  Sörqvist, Patrik ^a,b   Rönnberg, Jerker ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GÄVLE   (Sweden)

^b LINKÖPING UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Distraction; Individual differences; Noise; Selective attention; Sound; Working memory capacity

Indexed keywords

EID: 84925697110     PISSN: 20460252     EISSN: 20460260     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/pchj.47     Document Type: Article

References (130)

1. Andrés, P., Parmentier, F. B. R., & Escera, C. (2006). The effect of age on involuntary capture of attention by irrelevant sounds: A test of the frontal hypothesis of aging. Neuropsychologia, 44, 2564-2568. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.05.005
2. Baddeley, A. D. (1978). The trouble with levels: A reexamination of Craik and Lockhart's framework for memory research. Psychological Review, 85, 139-152. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.85.3.139
3. Baddeley, A. D., & Larsen, J. D. (2007). The phonological loop: Some answers and some questions. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 512-518. doi:10.1080/17470210601147663
4. Bauer, L. O., & Bayles, R. L. (1990). Precortical filtering and selective attention: An evoked potential analysis. Biological Psychology, 30, 21-33. doi:10.1016/0301-0511(90)90088-E
5. Beaman, C. P. (2004). The irrelevant sound phenomenon revisited: What role for working memory capacity? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 1106-1118. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.5.1106
6. Beaman, P. (2005). Irrelevant sound effects amongst younger and older adults: Objective findings and subjective insights. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 17, 241-265. doi:10.1080/09541440440000023
7. Bell, R., Buchner, A., & Mund, I. (2008). Age-related differences in irrelevant-speech effects. Psychology and Aging, 23, 377-391. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.2.377
8. Benoni, H., & Tsal, Y. (2013). Conceptual and methodological concerns in the theory of perceptual load. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 522. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00522
9. Boman, E., Enmarker, I., & Hygge, S. (2005). Strength of noise effects on memory as a function of noise source and age. Noise and Health, 7, 11-26. doi:10.4103/1463-1741.31636
10. Bosch, T., Mathiassen, S. E., Hallman, D., de Looze, M. P., Lyskov, E., Visser, B., & van Dieën, J. H. (2012). Temporal strategy and performance during a fatiguing short-cycle repetitive task. Ergonomics, 55, 863-873. doi:10.1080/00140139.2012.682739
11. Braver, T. S., Cohen, J. D., Nystrom, L. E., Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., & Noll, D. C. (1997). A parametric study of prefrontal cortex involvement in human working memory. NeuroImage, 5, 49-62. doi:10.1006/nimg.1996.0247
12. Brown, H. I. (1993). A theory-laden observation can test the theory. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 44, 555-559. doi:10.1093/bjps/44.3.555
13. Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000). Imaging cognition II: An empirical review of 275 PET and fMRI studies. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 12, 1-47. doi:10.1162/08989290051137585
14. Cao, X., Li, Z., Metcalfe, H. M., Yang, T., Tan, S., Wang, Y., ... Chan, R. C. K. (2013). The nature and extent of working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. PsyCh Journal, 2, 175-182. doi:10.1002/pchj.30
15. Christopher, G., & MacDonald, J. (2005). The impact of clinical depression on working memory. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 10, 379-399. doi:10.1080/13546800444000128
16. Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., & Bunting, M. F. (2001). The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: The importance of working memory capacity. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 8, 331-335. doi:10.3758/BF03196169
17. Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user's guide. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 12, 769-786. doi:10.3758/BF03196772
18. Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684. doi:10.1016/S0022-5371(72)80001-X
19. de Boer, J., & Thornton, A. R. D. (2007). Effect of subject task on contralateral suppression of click evoked otoacoustic emissions. Hearing Research, 233, 117-123. doi:10.1016/j.heares.2007.08.002
20. de Fockert, J. W. (2013). Beyond perceptual load and dilution: A review of the role of working memory in selective attention. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 287. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00287
21. D'Esposito, M. (2007). From cognitive to neural models of working memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 362, 761-772. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2086
22. D'Esposito, M., Detre, J. A., Alsop, D. C., Shin, R. K., Atlas, S., & Grossman, M. (1995). The neural basis of the central executive system of working memory. Nature, 378, 279-281. doi:10.1038/378279a0
23. Diemand-Yauman, C., Oppenheimer, D. M., & Vaughan, E. B. (2011). Fortune favors the bold (and the italicized): Effects of disfluency on educational outcomes. Cognition, 118, 111-115. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2010.09.012
24. Dobbs, S., Furnham, A., & McClelland, A. (2011). The effect of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 307-313. doi:10.1002/acp.1692
25. Doyle, M., & Furnham, A. (2012). The distracting effects of music on the cognitive test performance of creative and non-creative individuals. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 7, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2011.09.002
26. Ellermeier, W., & Zimmer, K. (1997). Individual differences in susceptibility to the "irrelevant speech effect." Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 102, 2191-2199. doi:10.1121/1.419596
27. Elliott, E., Barrilleaux, K., & Cowan, N. (2006). Individual differences in the ability to avoid distracting sounds. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 18, 90-108. doi:10.1080/09541440500216044
28. Elliott, E. M. (2002). The irrelevant-speech effect and children: Theoretical implications of developmental change. Memory and Cognition, 30, 478-487. doi:10.3758/BF03194948
29. Elliott, E. M., Bhagat, S. P., & Lynn, S. D. (2007). Can children with (central) auditory processing disorders ignore irrelevant sounds? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 506-517. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.06.005
30. Elliott, E. M., & Briganti, A. M. (2012). Investigating the role of attentional resources in the irrelevant speech effect. Acta Psychologica, 140, 64-74. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.02.009
31. Elliott, E. M., & Cowan, N. (2005). Coherence of the irrelevant-sound effect: Individual profiles of short-term memory and susceptibility to task-irrelevant materials. Memory and Cognition, 33, 664-675. doi:10.3758/BF03195333
32. Elliott, E. M., Hughes, R. W., Macken, W. J., Briganti, A. M., & Kytola, K. L. (2012, November). Role of serial order in auditory distraction in children and adults. Poster presented at the Annual meeting of the Psychonomic Society, Minneapolis, MN.
33. Engle, R. W. (2002). Working memory capacity as executive attention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 19-23. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00160
34. Eysenck, M. W., & Derakshan, N. (2011). New perspectives in attentional control theory. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 955-960. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.019
35. Foo, C., Rudner, M., Rönnberg, J., & Lunner, T. (2007). Recognition of speech in noise with new hearing instrument compression release settings requires explicit cognitive storage and processing capacity. Journal of the American Academy of Audiology, 18, 618-631. doi:10.3766/jaaa.18.7.8
36. Forster, S., & Lavie, N. (2009). Harnessing the wandering mind: The role of perceptual load. Cognition, 111, 345-355. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2009.02.006
37. Furnham, A., & Strbac, L. (2002). Music is as distracting as noise: The differential distraction of background music and noise on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Ergonomics, 45, 203-217. doi:10.1080/00140130210121932
38. Furnham, A., Trew, S., & Sneade, I. (1999). The distracting effects of vocal and instrumental music on the cognitive test performance of introverts and extraverts. Personality and Individual Differences, 27, 381-392. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00249-9
39. Gathercole, S. E., Pickering, S. J., Ambridge, B., & Wearing, H. (2004). The structure of working memory from 4 to 15 years of age. Developmental Psychology, 40, 177-190. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.40.2.177
40. Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 1298-1300. doi:10.1038/nn1543
41. Gazzaley, A., & Nobre, A. C. (2011). Top-down modulation: Bridging selective attention and working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 129-135. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.014
42. Giard, M.-H., Collet, L., Bouchet, P., & Pernier, J. (1994). Auditory selective attention in the human cochlea. Brain Research, 633, 353-356. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(94)91561-X
43. Guerreiro, M. J. S., Murphy, D. R., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2013). Making sense of age-related distractibility: The critical role of sensory modality. Acta Psychologica, 142, 184-194. doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2012.11.007
44. Guerreiro, M. J. S., & Van Gerven, P. W. M. (2011). Now you see it, now you don't: Evidence for age-dependent and age-independent cross-modal distraction. Psychology and Aging, 26, 415-426. doi:10.1037/a0021507
45. Gumenyuk, V., Korzyukov, O., Escera, C., Hämäläinen, M., Huotilainen, M., Häyrinen, T., ... Alho, K. (2005). Electrophysiological evidence of enhanced distractibility in ADHD children. Neuroscience Letters, 374, 212-217. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.10.081
46. Hahn, U., & Oaksford, M. (2007). The rationality of informal argumentation: A Bayesian approach to reasoning fallacies. Psychological Review, 114, 704-732. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.3.704
47. Halin, N., Marsh, J. E., Haga, A., Holmgren, M., & Sörqvist, P. (2013). Effects of speech on proofreading: Can task-engagement manipulations shield against distraction? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. Advance online publication. doi:10.1037/xap0000002
48. He, J., Becic, E., Lee, Y.-C., & McCarley, J. S. (2011). Mind wandering behind the wheel: Performance and oculomotor correlates. Human Factors, 53, 13-21. doi:10.1177/0018720810391530
49. Hopfinger, J. B., Buonocore, M. H., & Mangun, G. R. (2000). The neural mechanisms of top-down attentional control. Nature Neuroscience, 3, 284-291. doi:10.1038/72999
50. Hua, H., Karlsson, J., Widén, S., Möller, C., & Lyxell, B. (2013). Quality of life, effort and disturbance perceived in noise: A comparison between employees with aided hearing impairment and normal hearing. International Journal of Audiology, 52, 642-649. doi:10.3109/14992027.2013.803611
51. Hughes, R. W., Hurlstone, M. J., Marsh, J. E., Vachon, F., & Jones, D. M. (2013). Cognitive control of auditory distraction: Impact of task difficulty, foreknowledge, and working memory capacity supports duplex-mechanism account. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 39, 539-553. doi:10.1037/a0029064
52. Hughes, R. W., Vachon, F., & Jones, D. M. (2007). Disruption of short-term memory by changing and deviant sounds: Support for a duplex-mechanism account of auditory distraction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33, 1050-1061. doi:10.1037/0278-7393.33.6.1050
53. Hygge, S., Evans, G. W., & Bullinger, M. (2002). A prospective study of some effects of aircraft noise on cognitive performance in schoolchildren. Psychological Science, 13, 469-474. doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00483
54. Ilkowska, M., & Engle, R. W. (2010). Trait and state differences in working memory capacity. In A. Gruszka, G. Matthews, & B. Szymura (Eds.), Handbook of individual differences in cognition: Attention, memory, and executive control (pp. 295-320). New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1210-7_18
55. Jahncke, J., & Halin, N. (2012). Performance, fatigue and stress in open-plan offices: The effects of noise and restoration on hearing impaired and normal hearing individuals. Noise and Health, 14, 260-272. doi:10.4103/1463-1741.102966
56. Jin, Y., Liu, X., Li, K., & Lan, Y. (2013). Effect of working memory load on filtering novel distracters in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 45, 961-969. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1041.2013.00961
57. Johansson, C. R. (1983). Effects of low intensity, continuous and intermittent noise on mental performance and writing pressure of children with different intelligence and personality characteristics. Ergonomics, 26, 275-288. doi:10.1080/00140138308963341
58. Jones, D. M., Hughes, R. W., & Macken, W. J. (2007). The phonological store abandoned. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 505-511. doi:10.1080/17470210601147598
59. Kane, M. J., Bleckley, M. K., Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (2001). A controlled-attention view of working-memory capacity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 169-183. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.130.2.169
60. Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when: An experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18, 614-621. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01948.x
61. Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002). The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention, and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 9, 637-671. doi:10.3758/BF03196323
62. Kim, S.-Y., Kim, M.-S., & Chun, M. M. (2005). Concurrent working memory load can reduce distraction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 16524-16529. doi:10.1073/pnas.0505454102
63. Klatte, M., Bergström, K., & Lachmann, T. (2013). Does noise affect learning? A short review on noise effects on cognitive performance in children. Frontiers in Developmental Psychology, 4, 578. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00578
64. Klemen, J., Büchel, C., Bühler, M., Menz, M. M., & Rose, M. (2010). Auditory working memory load impairs visual ventral stream processing: Toward a unified model of attentional load. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22, 437-446. doi:10.1162/jocn.2009.21204
65. Koelewijn, T., Zekveld, A. A., Festen, J. M., Rönnberg, J., & Kramer, S. E. (2012). Processing load induced by informational masking is related to linguistic abilities. International Journal of Otolaryngology, 2012, 865731. doi:10.1155/2012/865731
66. Lavie, N. (2010). Attention, distraction, and cognitive control under load. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 143-148. doi:10.1177/0963721410370295
67. Lavie, N., Hirst, A., de Fockert, J. W., & Viding, E. (2004). Load theory of selective attention and cognitive control. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 339-354. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.3.339
68. Lederer, A., Tegelbeckers, J., Schares, L., Bonath, B., Flechtner, H.-H., & Krauel, K. (2013, June). The influence of auditory novelty on the attentional performance in children with ADHD. Poster presented at the 4th World Congress on ADHD, Milan, Italy.
69. Lee, J., & Park, S. (2005). Working memory impairments in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 599-611. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.114.4.599
70. Lepistö, T., Soininen, M., Čeponiene˙, R., Almqvist, F., Näätänen, R., & Aronen, E. T. (2004). Auditory event-related potential indices of increased distractibility in children with major depression. Clinical Neurophysiology, 115, 620-627. doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2003.10.020
71. Ljung, R., Sorqvist, P., & Hygge, S. (2009). Effects of road traffic noise and irrelevant speech on children's reading and mathematical performance. Noise and Health, 11, 194-198. doi:10.4103/1463-1741.56212
72. Lustig, C., Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (2008). Inhibitory deficit theory: Recent developments in a "new view." In D. S. Gorfein & C. M. MacLeod (Eds.), Inhibition in cognition (pp. 145-162). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
73. Lyxell, B., & Rönnberg, J. (1989). Information-processing skill and speech-reading. British Journal of Audiology, 23, 339-347. doi:10.3109/03005368909076523
74. Macdonald, J. S. P., & Lavie, N. (2011). Visual perceptual load induces inattentional deafness. Attention, Perception, and Psychophysics, 73, 1780-1789. doi:10.3758/s13414-011-0144-4
75. Macken, W. J., Phelps, F. G., & Jones, D. M. (2009). What causes auditory distraction? Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 16, 139-144. doi:10.3758/PBR.16.1.139
76. Marsh, R. L., Cook, G. I., Meeks, J. T., Clark-Foos, A., & Hicks, J. L. (2007). Memory for intention-related material presented in a to-be-ignored channel. Memory and Cognition, 35, 1197-1204. doi:10.3758/BF03193593
77. Martinussen, R., Hayden, J., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 377-384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73
78. Meric, C., & Collet, L. (1992). Visual attention and evoked otoacoustic emissions: A slight but real effect. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 12, 233-235. doi:10.1016/0167-8760(92)90061-F
79. Michie, P. T., LePage, E. L., Solowij, N., Haller, M., & Terry, L. (1996). Evoked otoacoustic emissions and auditory selective attention. Hearing Research, 98, 54-67. doi:10.1016/0378-5955(96)00059-7
80. Miyahara, M., & Goshiki, T. (2004). Individual differences in the irrelevant speech effect. Psychologia, 47, 178-190. doi:10.2117/psysoc.2004.178
81. Muenssinger, J., Sting, K. T., Matuz, T., Binder, G., Ehehalt, S., & Preissl, H. (2013). Auditory habituation to simple tones: Reduced evidence for habituation in children compared to adults. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 377. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00377
82. Navon, D. (1984). Resources-a theoretical soup stone? Psychological Review, 91, 216-234. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.2.216
83. Ng, E. H. N., Classon, E., Larsby, B., Arlinger, S., Lunner, T., Rudner, M., & Rönnberg, J. (2013). Dynamic relation between working memory capacity and speech recognition in noise during the first six months of hearing aid use. Manuscript submitted for publication.
84. Ng, E. H. N., Rudner, M., Lunner, T., Pedersen, M. S., & Rönnberg, J. (2013). Effects of noise and working memory capacity on memory processing of speech for hearing-aid users. International Journal of Audiology, 52, 433-441. doi:10.3109/14992027.2013.776181
85. Nöstl, A., Marsh, J. E., & Sörqvist, P. (2012). Expectations modulate the magnitude of attentional capture by auditory events. PLoS ONE, 7, e48569. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0048569
86. Parmentier, F. B. R., & Andrés, P. (2010). The involuntary capture of attention by sound: Novelty and postnovelty distraction in young and older adults. Experimental Psychology, 57, 68-76. doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000009
87. Parmentier, F. B. R., Elsley, J. V., Andrés, P., & Barceló, F. (2011). Why are auditory novels distracting? Contrasting the roles of novelty, violation of expectation and stimulus change. Cognition, 119, 374-380. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.02.001
88. Pelletier, M.-F., Hodgetts, H. M., Lafleur, M. F., Vincent, A., & Tremblay, S. (2013). Vulnerability to the irrelevant sound effect in adult ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1087054713492563
89. Perham, N., & Sykora, M. (2012). Disliked music can be better for performance than liked music. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 26, 550-555. doi:10.1002/acp.2826
90. Perham, N., & Vizard, J. (2011). Can preference for background music mediate the irrelevant sound effect? Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25, 625-631. doi:10.1002/acp.1731
91. Regenbogen, C., De Vos, M., Debener, S., Turetsky, B. I., Mößnang, C., Finkelmeyer, A., ... Kellermann, T. (2012). Auditory processing under cross-modal visual load investigated with simultaneous EEG-fMRI. PLoS ONE, 7, e52267. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052267
92. Reilly, J. L., Harris, M. S. H., Khine, T. T., Keshavan, M. S., & Sweeney, J. A. (2007). Reduced attentional engagement contributes to deficits in prefrontal inhibitory control in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 776-783. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.009
93. Rönnberg, J., Lunner, T., Zekveld, A., Sörqvist, P., Danielsson, H., Lyxell, B., ... Rudner, M. (2013). The ease of language understanding (ELU) model: Theoretical, empirical, and clinical advances. Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience, 7, 31. doi:10.3389/fnsys.2013.00031
94. Rönnberg, J., Rudner, M., Foo, C., & Lunner, T. (2008). Cognition counts: A working memory system for ease of language understanding (ELU). International Journal of Audiology, 47, S99-S105. doi:10.1080/14992020802301167
95. Rönnberg, J., Rudner, M., & Ingvar, M. (2004). Neural correlates of working memory for sign language. Cognitive Brain Research, 20, 165-182. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.03.002
96. Rudner, M., Foo, C., Rönnberg, J., & Lunner, T. (2009). Cognition and aided speech recognition in noise: Specific role for cognitive factors following nine-week experience with adjusted compression settings in hearing aids. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50, 405-418. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2009.00745.x
97. Ruhnau, P., Wetzel, N., Widmann, A., & Schröger, E. (2010). The modulation of auditory novelty processing by working memory load in school age children and adults: A combined behavioral and event-related potential study. BMC Neuroscience, 11, 126. doi:10.1186/1471-2202-11-126
98. SanMiguel, I., Corral, M.-J., & Escera, C. (2008). When loading working memory reduces distraction: Behavioral and electrophysiological evidence from an auditory-visual distraction paradigm. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 20, 1131-1145. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20078
99. Schlittmeier, S. J., Hellbrück, J., & Klatte, M. (2008). Does irrelevant music cause an irrelevant sound effect for auditory items? European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 20, 252-271. doi:10.1080/09541440701427838
100. Shelton, J. T., Elliott, E. M., Matthew, R. A., Hill, B. D., & Gouvier, W. D. (2010). The relationships of working memory, secondary memory, and general fluid intelligence: Working memory is special. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 813-820. doi:10.1037/a0019046
101. Shogenji, T. (2000). Self-dependent justification without circularity. British Journal of Philosophy of Science, 51, 287-298. doi:10.1093/bjps/51.2.287
102. Sikström, S., & Söderlund, G. (2007). Stimulus-dependent dopamine release in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychological Review, 114, 1047-1075. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.4.1047
103. Smith, A. (2012). An update on noise and performance: Comment on Szalma and Hancock (2011). Psychological Bulletin, 138, 1262-1268. doi:10.1037/a0028867
104. Smith, A., Waters, B., & Jones, H. (2010). Effects of prior exposure to office noise and music on aspects of working memory. Noise and Health, 12, 235-243. doi:10.4103/1463-1741.70502
105. Smith, P. A. (2010). Ageing, auditory distraction, and grammaticality judgement. Aphasiology, 24, 1342-1353. doi:10.1080/02687030903490533
106. Smucny, J., Rojas, D. C., Eichman, L. C., & Tregellas, J. R. (2013). Neural effects of auditory distraction on visual attention in schizophrenia. PLoS ONE, 8, e60606. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060606
107. Söderlund, G. B. W., Sikström, S., Loftesnes, J. M., & Sonuga-Barke, E. J. (2010). The effects of background white noise on memory performance in inattentive school children. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 6, 55. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-55
108. Sörqvist, P. (2010a). Effects of aircraft noise and speech on prose memory: What role for working memory capacity? Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 112-118. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.11.004
109. Sörqvist, P. (2010b). High working memory capacity attenuates the deviation effect but not the changing-state effect: Further support for the duplex-mechanism account of auditory distraction. Memory and Cognition, 38, 651-658. doi:10.3758/MC.38.5.651
110. Sörqvist, P. (2010c). The role of working memory capacity in auditory distraction: A review. Noise and Health, 12, 217-224. doi:10.4103/1463-1741.70500
111. Sörqvist, P., Halin, N., & Hygge, S. (2010). Individual differences in susceptibility to the effects of speech on reading comprehension. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 24, 67-76. doi:10.1002/acp.1543
112. Sörqvist, P., Ljungberg, J. K., & Ljung, R. (2010). A sub-process view of working memory capacity: Evidence from effects of speech on prose memory. Memory, 18, 310-326. doi:10.1080/09658211003601530
113. Sörqvist, P., Marsh, J. E., & Nöstl, A. (2013). High working memory capacity does not always attenuate distraction: Bayesian evidence in support of the null hypothesis. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 20, 897-904. doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0419-y
114. Sörqvist, P., Nöstl, A., & Halin, N. (2012a). Disruption of writing processes by the semanticity of background speech. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 53, 97-102. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2011.00936.x
115. Sörqvist, P., Nöstl, A., & Halin, N. (2012b). Working memory capacity modulates habituation rate: Evidence from a cross-modal auditory distraction paradigm. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 19, 245-250. doi:10.3758/s13423-011-0203-9
116. Sörqvist, P., & Rönnberg, J. (2012). Episodic long-term memory of spoken discourse masked by speech: What is the role for working memory capacity? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 210-218. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2011/10-0353)
117. Sörqvist, P., Stenfelt, S., & Rönnberg, J. (2012). Working memory capacity and visual-verbal cognitive load modulate auditory-sensory gating in the brainstem: Toward a unified view of attention. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 24, 2147-2154. doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00275
118. Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312. doi:10.1016/0959-4752(94)90003-5
119. Szalma, J. L., & Hancock, P. A. (2011). Noise effects on human performance: A meta-analytic synthesis. Psychological Bulletin, 137, 682-707. doi:10.1037/a0023987
120. Tsuchida, Y., Katayama, J., & Murohashi, H. (2012). Working memory capacity affects the interference control of distractors at auditory gating. Neuroscience Letters, 516, 62-66. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.03.057
121. Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007). The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory. Psychological Review, 114, 104-132. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.114.1.104
122. Van Gerven, P. W. M., & Murphy, D. R. (2010). Aging and distraction by irrelevant speech: Does emotional valence matter? Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 65B, 667-670. doi:10.1093/geronb/gbq048
123. Wiley, J., & Jarosz, A. F. (2012). Working memory capacity, attentional focus, and problem solving. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22, 258-262. doi:10.1177/0963721412447622
124. Woldorff, M. G., Gallen, C. C., Hampson, S. A., Hillyard, S. A., Pantev, C., Sobel, D., & Bloom, F. E. (1993). Modulation of early sensory processing in human auditory cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 90, 8722-8726. doi:10.1073/pnas.90.18.8722
125. Yurgil, K. A., & Golob, E. J. (2013). Cortical potentials in an auditory oddball task reflect individual differences in working memory capacity. Psychophysiology, 50, 1263-1274. doi:10.1111/psyp.12140
126. Zanto, T. P., Rubens, M. T., Thangavel, A., & Gazzaley, A. (2011). Causal role of the prefrontal cortex in top-down modulation of visual processing and working memory. Nature Neuroscience, 14, 656-661. doi:10.1038/nn.2773
127. Zekveld, A. A., Rudner, M., Johnsrude, I. S., Festen, J. M., van Beek, J. H., & Rönnberg, J. (2011). The influence of semantically related and unrelated text cues on the intelligibility of sentences in noise. Ear and Hearing, 32, 16-25. doi:10.1097/AUD.0b013e318228036a
128. Zekveld, A. A., Rudner, M., Johnsrude, I. S., & Rönnberg, J. (2013). The effects of working memory capacity and semantic cues on the intelligibility of speech in noise. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 134, 2225-2234. doi:10.1121/1.4817926
129. Zentall, S. S., & Shaw, J. H. (1980). Effects of classroom noise on performance and activity of second-grade hyperactive and control children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 830-840. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.72.6.830
130. Zhang, P., Chen, X., Yuan, P., Zhang, D., & He, S. (2006). The effect of visuospatial attentional load on the processing of irrelevant acoustic distractors. NeuroImage, 33, 715-724. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.07.015