Salt and sugar: their effects on blood pressure

Pflugers Archiv European Journal of Physiology

Volumn 467, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 577-586

  He, Feng J ^a   MacGregor, Graham A ^a  

^a QUEEN MARY UNIVERSITY OF LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Added sugar consumption; Blood pressure; Cardiovascular risk; Salt intake

Indexed keywords

SODIUM; SODIUM CHLORIDE; SUGAR; SALT INTAKE; SUGAR INTAKE;

BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR MORTALITY; COST CONTROL; EXTRACELLULAR SPACE; FOOD INTAKE; HUMAN; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); OBESITY; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PRIORITY JOURNAL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SALT INTAKE; SODIUM BLOOD LEVEL; SOFT DRINK; ADVERSE EFFECTS; ANIMAL; HYPERTENSION; METABOLISM; SUGAR INTAKE;

ANIMALS; BLOOD PRESSURE; DIETARY SUCROSE; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; SODIUM CHLORIDE, DIETARY;

EID: 84925489101     PISSN: 00316768     EISSN: 14322013     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00424-014-1677-x     Document Type: Review

References (92)

1. Aburto NJ, Ziolkovska A, Hooper L, Elliott P, Cappuccio FP, Meerpohl JJ (2013) Effect of lower sodium intake on health: systematic review and meta-analyses. BMJ 346:f1326. doi:10.1136/bmj.f1326
2. Anderson CA, Appel LJ, Okuda N et al (2010) Dietary sources of sodium in China, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States, women and men aged 40 to 59 years: the INTERMAP study. J Am Diet Assoc 110:736–745
3. Appel LJ, Moore TJ, Obarzanek E et al (1997) A clinical trial of the effects of dietary patterns on blood pressure. DASH Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 336:1117–1124
4. Asaria P, Chisholm D, Mathers C, Ezzati M, Beaglehole R (2007) Chronic disease prevention: health effects and financial costs of strategies to reduce salt intake and control tobacco use. Lancet 370:2044–2053
5. Beaglehole R, Bonita R, Horton R et al (2011) Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. Lancet 377:1438–1447
6. Bibbins-Domingo K, Chertow GM, Coxson PG et al (2010) Projected effect of dietary salt reductions on future cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 362:590–599
7. Brinsden HC, He FJ, Jenner KH, MacGregor GA (2013) Surveys of the salt content in UK bread: progress made and further reductions possible. BMJ Open 3:e002936
8. Bulpitt CJ, Shipley MJ, Semmence A (1981) Blood pressure and plasma sodium and potassium. Clin Sci (Lond) 61(Suppl 7):85s–87s
9. Campbell NR, Lackland DT, Niebylski ML, Nilsson PM (2014) Is reducing dietary sodium controversial? Is it the conduct of studies with flawed research methods that is controversial? A perspective from the World Hypertension League Executive. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). doi:10.1111/jch.12437
10. CASH Consensus Action on Salt and Health. www.actiononsalt.org.uk/
11. Chen L, Caballero B, Mitchell DC et al (2010) Reducing consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is associated with reduced blood pressure: a prospective study among United States adults. Circulation 121:2398–2406. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.911164
12. Cobb LKAC, Elliott P, Hu FB, Liu K, Neaton JD, Whelton PK, Woodward M, Appel LJ (2014) Methodological issues in cohort studies that relate sodium intake to cardiovascular disease outcomes: a science advisory from the American Heart Association. Circulation 129:1173–1186. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000015
13. Cook NR (2014) Sodium and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 371:2134. doi:10.1056/NEJMc1412113#SA1
14. Dahl LK, Heine M, Thompson K (1972) Genetic influence of renal homografts on the blood pressure of rats from different strains. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 140:852–856
15. Dahl LK, Heine M, Thompson K (1974) Genetic influence of the kidneys on blood pressure. Evidence from chronic renal homografts in rats with opposite predispositions to hypertension. Circ Res 40:94–101
16. de Wardener HE, He FJ, MacGregor GA (2004) Plasma sodium and hypertension. Kidney Int 66:2454–2466
17. Dickinson KM, Clifton PM, Keogh JB (2014) A reduction of 3 g/day from a usual 9 g/day salt diet improves endothelial function and decreases endothelin-1 in a randomised cross-over study in normotensive overweight and obese subjects. Atherosclerosis 233:32–38. doi:10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2013.11.078
18. Dickinson KM, Clifton PM, Keogh JB (2011) Endothelial function is impaired after a high-salt meal in healthy subjects. Am J Clin Nutr 93:500–505
19. Dickinson KM, Keogh JB, Clifton PM (2009) Effects of a low-salt diet on flow-mediated dilatation in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 89:485–490
20. DiNicolantonio JJ, Di Pasquale P, Taylor RS, Hackam DG. Low sodium versus normal sodium diets in systolic heart failure: systematic review and meta-analysis. Retraction notice. Heart 2013, http://heart.bmj.com/content/early/2013/03/12/heartjnl-2012-302337.short?rss=1. Accessed 30 Jul 2014. doi:10.1136/heartjnl-2012-302337
21. DoH Department of Health: assessment of dietary sodium levels among adults (aged 19–64) in England, 2011. http://transparency.dh.gov.uk/2012/06/21/sodium-levels-among-adults/. Accessed 25 June 2012
22. Elliott P, Stamler J (2002) Evidence on salt and blood pressure is consistent and persuasive. Int J Epidemiol 31:316–319
23. Elliott P, Stamler J, Nichols R et al (1996) Intersalt revisited: further analyses of 24 hour sodium excretion and blood pressure within and across populations. BMJ 312:1249–1253
24. Forte JG, Miguel JM, Miguel MJ, de Padua F, Rose G (1989) Salt and blood pressure: a community trial. J Hum Hypertens 3:179–184
25. Friedman SM (1990) The relation of cell volume, cell sodium and the transmembrane sodium gradient to blood pressure. J Hypertens 8:67–73
26. Friedman SM, McIndoe RA, Tanaka M (1990) The relation of blood sodium concentration to blood pressure in the rat. J Hypertens 8:61–66
27. Graudal N, Jurgens G, Baslund B, Alderman MH (2014) Compared with usual sodium intake, low- and excessive-sodium diets are associated with increased mortality: a meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. doi:10.1093/ajh/hpu028
28. Grimes CA, Riddell LJ, Campbell KJ, Nowson CA (2013) Dietary salt intake, sugar-sweetened beverage consumption, and obesity risk. Pediatrics 131:14–21. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1628
29. Grimes CA, Wright JD, Liu K, Nowson CA, Loria CM (2013) Dietary sodium intake is associated with total fluid and sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in US children and adolescents aged 2–18 y: NHANES 2005–2008. Am J Clin Nutr 98:189–196. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.051508
30. Gu J, Anand V, Shek E et al (1998) Sodium induces hypertrophy of cultured myocardial myoblasts and vascular smooth muscle cells. Hypertension 31:1083–1087
31. Guyton AC (1991) Blood pressure control—special role of the kidneys and body fluids. Science 252:1813–1816
32. He FJ, Appel LJ, Cappuccio FP, de Wardener HE, Macgregor GA (2011) Does reducing salt intake increase cardiovascular mortality? Kidney Int 80:696–698
33. He FJ, Brinsden HC, MacGregor GA (2014) Salt reduction in the United Kingdom: a successful experiment in public health. J Hum Hypertens 28:345–352. doi:10.1038/jhh.2013.105
34. He FJ, Li J, MacGregor GA (2013) Effect of longer term modest salt reduction on blood pressure: Cochrane systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised trials. BMJ 346:f1325. doi:10.1136/bmj.f1325
35. He FJ, MacGregor GA (2010) Reducing population salt intake worldwide: from evidence to implementation. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 52:363–382
36. He FJ, MacGregor GA (2011) Salt reduction lowers cardiovascular risk: meta-analysis of outcome trials. Lancet 378:380–382
37. He FJ, MacGregor GA (2006) Importance of salt in determining blood pressure in children: meta-analysis of controlled trials. Hypertension 48:861–869
38. He FJ, MacGregor GA (2002) Effect of modest salt reduction on blood pressure: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Implications for public health. J Hum Hypertens 16:761–770
39. He FJ, MacGregor GA (2003) How far should salt intake be reduced? Hypertension 42:1093–1099
40. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, de Wardener HE, MacGregor GA (2005) Plasma sodium: ignored and underestimated. Hypertension 45:98–102
41. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA (1998) Importance of the renin system in determining blood pressure fall with salt restriction in black and white hypertensives. Hypertension 32:820–824
42. He FJ, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, MacGregor GA (2001) Effect of salt intake on renal excretion of water in humans. Hypertension 38:317–320
43. He FJ, Marrero NM, MacGregor GA (2008) Salt intake is related to soft drink consumption in children and adolescents: a link to obesity? Hypertension 51:629–634
44. He FJ, Pombo-Rodrigues S, MacGregor GA (2014) Salt reduction in England from 2003 to 2011: its relationship to blood pressure, stroke and ischaemic heart disease mortality. BMJ Open 4:e004549. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004549
45. Intersalt (1988) Intersalt Cooperative Research Group. Intersalt: an international study of electrolyte excretion and blood pressure. Results for 24 hour urinary sodium and potassium excretion. BMJ 297:319–328
46. Jayalath VH, Sievenpiper JL, de Souza RJ et al (2014) Total fructose intake and risk of hypertension: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohorts. J Am Coll Nutr 33:328–339. doi:10.1080/07315724.2014.916237
47. Joffres MR, Campbell NR, Manns B, Tu K (2007) Estimate of the benefits of a population-based reduction in dietary sodium additives on hypertension and its related health care costs in Canada. Can J Cardiol 23:437–443
48. Karppanen H, Mervaala E (2006) Sodium intake and hypertension. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 49:59–75
49. Khaw KT, Bingham S, Welch A et al (2004) Blood pressure and urinary sodium in men and women: the Norfolk Cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC-Norfolk). Am J Clin Nutr 80:1397–1403
50. Komiya I, Yamada T, Takasu N et al (1997) An abnormal sodium metabolism in Japanese patients with essential hypertension, judged by serum sodium distribution, renal function and the renin-aldosterone system. J Hypertens 15:65–72
51. Laatikainen T, Pietinen P, Valsta L, Sundvall J, Reinivuo H, Tuomilehto J (2006) Sodium in the Finnish diet: 20-year trends in urinary sodium excretion among the adult population. Eur J Clin Nutr 60:965–970
52. Lago RM, Pencina MJ, Wang TJ et al (2008) Interindividual variation in serum sodium and longitudinal blood pressure tracking in the Framingham Heart Study. J Hypertens 26:2121–2125
53. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R (2002) Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 360:1903–1913
54. Li J, White J, Guo L et al (2009) Salt inactivates endothelial nitric oxide synthase in endothelial cells. J Nutr 139:447–451
55. MacGregor GA, de Wardener HE (1998) Salt, diet and health. Cambridge University Press
56. MacGregor GA, Hashem KM (2014) Action on sugar—lessons from UK salt reduction programme. Lancet 383:929–931. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60200-2
57. MacGregor GA, Markandu ND, Sagnella GA, Singer DR, Cappuccio FP (1989) Double-blind study of three sodium intakes and long-term effects of sodium restriction in essential hypertension. Lancet 334:1244–1247
58. Malik AH, Akram Y, Shetty S, Malik SS, Yanchou Njike V (2014) Impact of sugar-sweetened beverages on blood pressure. Am J Cardiol 113:1574–1580. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2014.01.437
59. Mozaffarian D, Fahimi S, Singh GM et al (2014) Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med 371:624–634. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1304127
60. Murray CJ, Lauer JA, Hutubessy RC et al (2003) Effectiveness and costs of interventions to lower systolic blood pressure and cholesterol: a global and regional analysis on reduction of cardiovascular-disease risk. Lancet 361:717–725
61. NICE National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (NICE). Guidance on the prevention of cardiovascular disease at the population level. http://guidance.nice.org.uk/PH25
62. O’Donnell M, Mente A, Rangarajan S et al (2014) Urinary sodium and potassium excretion, mortality, and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 371:612–623. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1311889
63. Oberleithner H, Riethmuller C, Schillers H, MacGregor GA, de Wardener HE, Hausberg M (2007) Plasma sodium stiffens vascular endothelium and reduces nitric oxide release. PNAS 104:16281–16286
64. Palar K, Sturm R (2009) Potential societal savings from reduced sodium consumption in the U.S. adult population. Am J Health Promot 24:49–57
65. Pietinen P, Valsta LM, Hirvonen T, Sinkko H (2008) Labelling the salt content in foods: a useful tool in reducing sodium intake in Finland. Public Health Nutr 11:335–340
66. Poulter NR, Khaw KT, Hopwood BE et al (1990) The Kenyan Luo migration study: observations on the initiation of a rise in blood pressure. BMJ 300:967–972
67. Sacks FM, Svetkey LP, Vollmer WM et al (2001) Effects on blood pressure of reduced dietary sodium and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. DASH-Sodium Collaborative Research Group. N Engl J Med 344:3–10
68. Sasaki N (1979) The salt factor in apoplexy and hypertension: epidemiological studies in Japan. In: Yamori Y (ed) Prophylactic approach to hypertensive diseases. Raven, New York, pp 467–474
69. Selmer RM, Kristiansen IS, Haglerod A et al (2000) Cost and health consequences of reducing the population intake of salt. J Epidemiol Community Health 54:697–702
70. Smith-Spangler CM, Juusola JL, Enns EA, Owens DK, Garber AM (2010) Population strategies to decrease sodium intake and the burden of cardiovascular disease: a cost-effectiveness analysis. Ann Intern Med 152(481–7):W170–W173
71. Staessen J, Bulpitt CJ, Fagard R, Joossens JV, Lijnen P, Amery A (1988) Salt intake and blood pressure in the general population: a controlled intervention trial in two towns. J Hypertens 6:965–973
72. Stolarz-Skrzypek K, Kuznetsova T, Thijs L et al (2011) Fatal and nonfatal outcomes, incidence of hypertension, and blood pressure changes in relation to urinary sodium excretion. JAMA 305:1777–1785
73. Strazzullo P, D’Elia L, Kandala NB, Cappuccio FP (2009) Salt intake, stroke, and cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ 339:b4567. doi:10.1136/bmj.b4567
74. Suckling RJ, He FJ, Markandu ND, MacGregor GA (2012) Dietary salt influences postprandial plasma sodium concentration and systolic blood pressure. Kidney Int 81:407–411
75. Suckling RJ, Swift P, Markandu N, He F, MacGregor GA (2013) Altering plasma sodium concentration rapidly changes blood pressure during haemodialysis. Nephrol Dial Transplant 28:2181–2186
76. Takahashi Y, Sasaki S, Okubo S, Hayashi M, Tsugane S (2006) Blood pressure change in a free-living population-based dietary modification study in Japan. J Hypertens 24:451–458
77. Taylor RS, Ashton KE, Moxham T, Hooper L, Ebrahim S (2013) WITHDRAWN: reduced dietary salt for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 9, CD009217. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub2, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009217.pub2/abstract (Accessed 9 Apr 2014)
78. Te Morenga LA, Howatson AJ, Jones RM, Mann J (2014) Dietary sugars and cardiometabolic risk: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of the effects on blood pressure and lipids. Am J Clin Nutr 100:65–79. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.081521
79. Tian HG, Guo ZY, Hu G et al (1995) Changes in sodium intake and blood pressure in a community-based intervention project in China. J Hum Hypertens 9:959–968
80. Tuomilehto J, Puska P, Nissinen A et al (1984) Community-based prevention of hypertension in North Karelia, Finland. Ann Clin Res 16(Suppl 43):18–27
81. Tzemos N, Lim PO, Wong S, Struthers AD, MacDonald TM (2008) Adverse cardiovascular effects of acute salt loading in young normotensive individuals. Hypertension 51:1525–1530
82. USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans (2010) http://www.cnpp.usda.gov/DietaryGuidelines. Accessed 29 Sep 2014
83. Vollmer WM, Sacks FM, Ard J et al (2001) Effects of diet and sodium intake on blood pressure: subgroup analysis of the DASH-sodium trial. Ann Intern Med 135:1019–1028
84. Wannamethee G, Whincup PH, Shaper AG, Lever AF (1994) Serum sodium concentration and risk of stroke in middle-aged males. J Hypertens 12:971–979
85. WASH World Action on Salt and Health. http://www.worldactiononsalt.com
86. Webster J, Trieu K, Dunford E, Hawkes C (2014) Target salt 2025: a global overview of national programs to encourage the food industry to reduce salt in foods. Nutrients 6:3274–3287. doi:10.3390/nu6083274
87. Whelton PK, Appel LJ, Sacco RL et al (2012) Sodium, blood pressure, and cardiovascular disease: further evidence supporting the American Heart Association sodium reduction recommendations. Circulation 126:2880–2889. doi:10.1161/CIR.0b013e318279acbf
88. Whelton PK, He J, Appel LJ et al (2002) Primary prevention of hypertension: clinical and public health advisory from The National High Blood Pressure Education Program. JAMA 288:1882–1888
89. WHO First global ministerial conference on healthy lifestyles and noncommunicable disease control, 28–29 April 2011, Moscow. http://www.who.int/nmh/events/moscow_ncds_2011/en/. Accessed 10 June 2013
90. WHO. WHO issues new guidance on dietary salt and potassium, 31 January 2013. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/notes/2013/salt_potassium_20130131/en/. Accessed 10 May 2013
91. Winkler JT (2012) Obesity exposé offers slim pickings. BMJ 345:e4465
92. Zhou BF, Stamler J, Dennis B et al (2003) Nutrient intakes of middle-aged men and women in China, Japan, United Kingdom, and United States in the late 1990s: the INTERMAP study. J Hum Hypertens 17:623–630