Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Volumn 23, Issue 10, 2014, Pages 863-875

  Dörrie, Nora ^a   Föcker, Manuel ^a   Freunscht, Inga ^a   Hebebrand, Johannes ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ESSEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders; Fetal alcohol syndrome; Prenatal alcohol exposure

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; DIAGNOSIS; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; ETIOLOGY; FEMALE; FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDERS; HUMAN; MENTAL DISORDERS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE;

ALCOHOL DRINKING; ANIMALS; FEMALE; FETAL ALCOHOL SPECTRUM DISORDERS; HUMANS; MATERNAL EXPOSURE; MENTAL DISORDERS; PREGNANCY; PRENATAL EXPOSURE DELAYED EFFECTS;

EID: 84921757166     PISSN: 10188827     EISSN: 1435165X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00787-014-0571-6     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Feldman HS, Jones KL, Lindsay S et al (2012) Prenatal alcohol exposure patterns and alcohol-related birth defects and growth deficiencies: a prospective study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 36:670–676
2. Paintner A, Williams AD, Burd L (2012) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders—implications for child neurology, part 2: diagnosis and management. J Child Neurol 27(3):355–356
3. Lewis SJ, Zuccolo L, Davey Smith G et al (2012) Fetal alcohol exposure and IQ at age 8: evidence from a population-based birth-cohort study. PLoS One 7:e49407
4. Kelly Y, Sacker A, Gray R et al (2012) Light drinking during pregnancy: still no increased risk for socioemotional difficulties or cognitive deficits at 5 years of age. J Epidemiol Community Health 66:41–48
5. Sood B, Delaney-Black V, Covington C et al (2001) Prenatal alcohol exposure and childhood behavior at age 6 to 7 years: I. Dose–response effect. Pediatrics 108:e34–e34
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (2009) Alcohol use among pregnant and nonpregnant women of childbearing age—United States, 1991–2005. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 58:529–532
7. O’Leary CM (2004) Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, and developmental outcomes. J Paediatr Child Health 40:2–7
8. Astley SJ (2004) Diagnostic guide for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders the 4-digit diagnostic code. http://depts.washington.edu/fasdpn/pdfs/guide2004.pdf
9. Hoyme HE, May PA, Kalberg WO et al (2005) A practical clinical approach to diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: clarification of the 1996 institute of medicine criteria. Pediatrics 115:39–47
10. Chudley AE, Conry J, Cook JL et al (2005) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder: Canadian guidelines for diagnosis. Spectrum 172(5 Suppl):S1–S21
11. Stratton K, Howe C, Battaglia F (1996) Fetal alcohol syndrome: diagnosis, epidemiology, prevention, and treatment. National Academy Press, Washington, DC
12. Watkins RE, Elliott EJ, Wilkins A et al (2013) Recommendations from a consensus development workshop on the diagnosis of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Australia. BMC Pediatr 13:156
13. Astley SJ (2006) Comparison of the 4-digit diagnostic code and the Hoyme diagnostic guidelines for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Pediatrics 118:1532–1545
14. Landgraf M, Nothacker M, Heinen F (2013) Diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): German guideline version 2013. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 1–10
15. World Health Organization (1993) The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders: diagnostic criteria for research. World Health Organization, Geneva
16. American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. DSM-IV-TR: 4th edn. Text Revision, Washington, DC
17. American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. American Psychiatric, Washington, DC
18. May P, Blankenship J, Marais AS et al (2013) Approaching the prevalence of the full spectrum of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in a South African population-based study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:818–830
19. May P, Gossage JP, Kalberg WO et al (2009) Prevalence and epidemiologic characteristics of FASD from various research methods with an emphasis on recent in-school studies. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:176–192
20. May P, Fiorentino D, Coriale G et al (2011) Prevalence of children with severe fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in communities near Rome, Italy: new estimated rates are higher than previous estimates. Int J Environ Res Public Health 8:2331–2351
21. Kvigne VL, Leonardson GR, Neff-Smith M et al (2004) Characteristics of children who have full or incomplete fetal alcohol syndrome. J Pediatr 145:635–640
22. Lange S, Shield K, Rehm J, Popova S (2013) Prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in child care settings: a meta-analysis. Pediatrics 132:e980–e995
23. Alvik A, Aalen OO, Lindemann R (2013) Early fetal binge alcohol exposure predicts high behavioral symptom scores in 5.5-year-old children. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:1954–1962
24. May PA, Gossage JP, Marais A-S et al (2008) Maternal risk factors for fetal alcohol syndrome and partial fetal alcohol syndrome in South Africa: a third study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 32:738–753
25. Coyne KL, de Costa CM, Heazlewood RJ, Newman HC (2008) Pregnancy characteristics of women giving birth to children with fetal alcohol syndrome in far North Queensland. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 48:240–247
26. May PA, Gossage JP (2001) Estimating the prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome. A summary. Alcohol Res Health 25:159–167
27. Ballard MS, Sun M, Ko J (2012) Vitamin A, folate, and choline as a possible preventive intervention to fetal alcohol syndrome. Med Hypotheses 78:489–493
28. Esper LA, Furtado EF (2014) Identifying maternal risk factors associated with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a systematic review. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry
29. Calvigioni D, Hurd YL, Harkany T, Keimpema E (2014) Neuronal substrates and functional consequences of prenatal cannabis exposure. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry. doi:10.1007/s00787-014-0550-y
30. Odendaal HJ, Steyn DW, Elliott A, Burd L (2009) Combined effects of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption on perinatal outcome. Gynecol Obstet Invest 67:1–8
31. Tiesler CMT, Heinrich J (2014) Prenatal nicotine exposure and child behavioural problems. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry
32. May PA, Tabachnick BG, Gossage JP et al (2013) Maternal factors predicting cognitive and behavioral characteristics of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Dev Behav Pediatr 34:314–322
33. Alati R, Davey Smith G, Lewis SJ, Sayal K, Draper ES, Golding J, Fraser R, Gray R (2013) Effect of prenatal alcohol exposure on childhood academic outcomes: contrasting maternal and paternal associations in the ALSPAC study. PLoS One 8(10):e74844
34. Sulik KK, Johnston MC, Webb MA (1981) Fetal alcohol syndrome: embryogenesis in a mouse model. Science 214:936–938
35. Middaugh LD, Boggan WO (1991) Postnatal growth deficits in prenatal ethanol-exposed mice: characteristics and critical periods. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 15:919–926
36. Chen X, Coles CD, Lynch ME, Hu X (2012) Understanding specific effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on brain structure in young adults. Hum Brain Mapp 33:1663–1676
37. Bell SH, Stade B, Reynolds JN et al (2010) The remarkably high prevalence of epilepsy and seizure history in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:1084–1089
38. Chasnoff IJ, Wells AM, Telford E et al (2010) Neurodevelopmental functioning in children with FAS, pFAS, and ARND. J Dev Behav Pediatr 31:192–201
39. Spohr H-L, Willms J, Steinhausen H-C (2007) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in young adulthood. J Pediatr 150(175–9):179
40. Astley SJ (2010) Profile of the first 1,400 patients receiving diagnostic evaluations for fetal alcohol spectrum disorder at the Washington State Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Diagnostic & Prevention Network. Can J Clin Pharmacol 17:e132–e164
41. Dou X, Wilkemeyer MF, Menkari CE et al (2013) Mitogen-activated protein kinase modulates ethanol inhibition of cell adhesion mediated by the L1 neural cell adhesion molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:5683–5688
42. Patten AR, Brocardo PS, Christie BR (2013) Omega-3 supplementation can restore glutathione levels and prevent oxidative damage caused by prenatal ethanol exposure. J Nutr Biochem 24:760–769
43. Ikonomidou C (2000) Ethanol-induced apoptotic neurodegeneration and fetal alcohol syndrome. Science 287:1056–1060
44. Light KE, Belcher SM, Pierce DR (2002) Time course and manner of Purkinje neuron death following a single ethanol exposure on postnatal day 4 in the developing rat. Neuroscience 114:327–337
45. Zhou FC, Sari Y, Powrozek TA (2005) Fetal alcohol exposure reduces serotonin innervation and compromises development of the forebrain along the serotonergic pathway. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 29:141–149
46. Gundogan F, Elwood G, Longato L et al (2008) Impaired placentation in fetal alcohol syndrome. Placenta 29:148–157
47. Gareri J, Brien J, Reynolds J, Koren G (2009) Potential role of the placenta in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Paediatr Drugs 11:26–29
48. Kane CJM, Phelan KD, Drew PD (2012) Neuroimmune mechanisms in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Dev Neurobiol 72:1302–1316
49. Perkins A, Lehmann C, Lawrence RC, Kelly SJ (2013) Alcohol exposure during development: impact on the epigenome. Int J Dev Neurosci 31:391–397
50. Luo J (2012) Mechanisms of ethanol-induced death of cerebellar granule cells. Cerebellum 11:145–154
51. Archibald SL, Fennema-Notestine C, Gamst A et al (2001) Brain dysmorphology in individuals with severe prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Med Child Neurol 43:148–154
52. Astley SJ, Richards T, Aylward EH et al (2009) Magnetic resonance spectroscopy outcomes from a comprehensive magnetic resonance study of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Magn Reson Imaging 27:760–778
53. O’Hare ED, Kan E, Yoshii J et al (2005) Mapping cerebellar vermal morphology and cognitive correlates in prenatal alcohol exposure. Neuroreport 16:1285–1290
54. Sowell ER, Mattson SN, Thompson PM et al (2001) Mapping callosal morphology and cognitive correlates: effects of heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurology 57:235–244
55. Yang Y, Phillips OR, Kan E et al (2012) Callosal thickness reductions relate to facial dysmorphology in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 36:798–806
56. Dodge NC, Jacobson JL, Molteno CD et al (2009) Prenatal alcohol exposure and interhemispheric transfer of tactile information: Detroit and Cape Town findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1628–1637
57. Bookstein FL, Streissguth AP, Sampson PD et al (2002) Corpus callosum shape and neuropsychological deficits in adult males with heavy fetal alcohol exposure. Neuroimage 15:233–251
58. Fryer SL, Schweinsburg BC, Bjorkquist OA et al (2009) Characterization of white matter microstructure in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:514–521
59. Wozniak JR, Muetzel RL, Mueller BA et al (2009) Microstructural corpus callosum anomalies in children with prenatal alcohol exposure: an extension of previous diffusion tensor imaging findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1825–1835
60. Opris I, Santos L, Gerhardt GA et al (2013) Prefrontal cortical microcircuits bind perception to executive control. Sci Rep 3:2285. doi:10.1038/srep02285
61. Clark CM, Li D, Conry J et al (2000) Structural and functional brain integrity of fetal alcohol syndrome in non-retarded cases. Pediatrics 105:1096–1099
62. Roussotte FF, Sulik KK, Mattson SN et al (2012) Regional brain volume reductions relate to facial dysmorphology and neurocognitive function in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Hum Brain Mapp 33:920–937
63. Nardelli A, Lebel C, Rasmussen C et al (2011) Extensive deep gray matter volume reductions in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 35:1404–1417
64. Coles CD, Goldstein FC, Lynch ME et al (2011) Memory and brain volume in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Brain Cogn 75:67–77
65. Willoughby KA, Sheard ED, Nash K, Rovet J (2008) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on hippocampal volume, verbal learning, and verbal and spatial recall in late childhood. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 14:1022–1033
66. Spadoni AD, Bazinet AD, Fryer SL et al (2009) BOLD response during spatial working memory in youth with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:2067–2076
67. Malisza KL, Buss JL, Bolster RB et al (2012) Comparison of spatial working memory in children with prenatal alcohol exposure and those diagnosed with ADHD: a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. J Neurodev Disord 4:12. doi:10.1186/1866-1955-4-12
68. Mattson SN, Roesch SC, Fagerlund A et al (2010) Toward a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:1640–1650
69. Mattson SN, Roesch SC, Glass L et al (2013) Further development of a neurobehavioral profile of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 37:517–528
70. Aragón AS, Kalberg WO, Buckley D et al (2008) Neuropsychological study of FASD in a sample of American Indian children: processing simple versus complex information. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 32:2136–2148
71. Coles CD, Platzman KA, Raskind-Hood CL et al (1997) A comparison of children affected by prenatal alcohol exposure and attention deficit, hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 21:150–161
72. Brown RT, Coles CD, Smith IE et al (1991) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure at school age. II. Attention and behavior. Neurotoxicol Teratol 13:369–376
73. Bhatara V, Loudenberg R, Ellis R (2006) Association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and gestational alcohol exposure: an exploratory study. J Atten Disord 9:515–522
74. Fryer SL, McGee CL, Matt GE et al (2007) Evaluation of psychopathological conditions in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Pediatrics 119:e733–e741
75. Glass L, Ware AL, Crocker N et al (2013) Neuropsychological deficits associated with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure are not exacerbated by ADHD. Neuropsychology 27(6):713–724
76. Coles CD, Lynch ME, Kable JA et al (2010) Verbal and nonverbal memory in adults prenatally exposed to alcohol. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 34:897–906
77. Jacobson JL, Dodge NC, Burden MJ et al (2011) Number processing in adolescents with prenatal alcohol exposure and ADHD: differences in the neurobehavioral phenotype. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 35:431–442
78. Crocker N, Vaurio L, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2009) Comparison of adaptive behavior in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:2015–2023
79. Kodituwakku PW, Kalberg W, May PA (2001) The effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on executive functioning. Alcohol Res Health 25:192–198
80. Grant T, Huggins J, Connor P et al (2004) A pilot community intervention for young women with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Community Ment Health J 40:499–511
81. Löser H (2000) Alkohol und Schwangerschaft: Embryopathie und Alkoholeffekte. Ther Umschau 57:1–7
82. Greenbaum RL, Stevens SA, Nash K et al (2009) Social cognitive and emotion processing abilities of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33:1656–1670
83. Freunscht I (2007) Ab 18 fällt man durch das Raster Emotionale, soziale und berufliche Entwicklung junger Erwachsener mit Fetalem Alkoholsyndrom (FAS). Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster
84. O’Connor MJ, Paley B (2009) Psychiatric conditions associated with prenatal alcohol exposure. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:225–234
85. Coggins TE, Timler GR, Olswang LB (2007) A state of double jeopardy: impact of prenatal alcohol exposure and adverse environments on the social communicative abilities of school-age children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Lang Speech Hear Serv Sch 38:117–127
86. Willford JA, Richardson GA, Leech SL, Day NL (2004) Verbal and visuospatial learning and memory function in children with moderate prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 28:497–507
87. Autti-Rämö I, Fagerlund A, Ervalahti N et al (2006) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in Finland: clinical delineation of 77 older children and adolescents. Am J Med Genet A 140:137–143
88. McGee CL, Bjorkquist OA, Riley EP, Mattson SN (2010) Impaired language performance in young children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Neurotoxicol Teratol 31(2):71–75
89. Mattson SN, Crocker N, Nguyen TT (2011) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: neuropsychological and behavioral features. Neuropsychol Rev 21:81–101
90. Domellöf E, Fagard J, Jacquet A-Y, Rönnqvist L (2011) Goal-directed arm movements in children with fetal alcohol syndrome: a kinematic approach. Eur J Neurol 18:312–320
91. Connor PD, Sampson PD, Streissguth AP et al (2006) Effects of prenatal alcohol exposure on fine motor coordination and balance: a study of two adult samples. Neuropsychologia 44:744–751
92. O’Hare ED, Lu LH, Houston SM et al (2009) Altered frontal-parietal functioning during verbal working memory in children and adolescents with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Hum Brain Mapp 30:3200–3208
93. Hamilton DA, Kodituwakku P, Sutherland RJ, Savage DD (2003) Children with fetal alcohol syndrome are impaired at place learning but not cued-navigation in a virtual Morris water task. Behav Brain Res 143:85–94
94. Mattson SN, Roebuck TM (2002) Acquisition and retention of verbal and nonverbal information in children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 26:875–882
95. Kaemingk KL, Mulvaney S, Halverson PT (2003) Learning following prenatal alcohol exposure: performance on verbal and visual multitrial tasks. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 18:33–47
96. O’Leary CM, Nassar N, Kurinczuk JJ et al (2010) Prenatal alcohol exposure and risk of birth defects. Pediatrics 126:e843–e850
97. Chen ML, Olson HC, Picciano JF et al (2012) Sleep problems in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Clin Sleep Med 8:421–429
98. Åse F, Ilona A-R, Mirjam K et al (2012) Adaptive behaviour in children and adolescents with foetal alcohol spectrum disorders: a comparison with specific learning disability and typical development. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 21:221–231
99. Larkby CA, Goldschmidt L, Hanusa BH, Day NL (2011) Prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with conduct disorder in adolescence: findings from a birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 50:262–271
100. Disney ER, Iacono W, McGue M et al (2008) Strengthening the case: prenatal alcohol exposure is associated with increased risk for conduct disorder. Pediatrics 122:e1225–e1230
101. Alex K, Feldmann R (2012) Children and adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): better social and emotional integration after early diagnosis. Klin Padiatr 224:66–71
102. Streissguth AP, Bookstein FL, Barr HM et al (2004) Risk factors for adverse life outcomes in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. J Dev Behav Pediatr 25:228–238
103. Clark E, Lutke J, Minnes P, Ouellette-Kuntz H (2004) Secondary disabilities among adults with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder in British Columbia. J FAS Int 2:1–12
104. Olson HC, Feldman JJ, Streissguth AP et al (1998) Neuropsychological deficits in adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome: clinical findings. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22:1998–2012
105. Freunscht I, Feldmann R (2010) Young adults with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): social, emotional and occupational development. Klin Padiatr 223(1):33–37
106. Spohr H-L, Steinhausen H-C (2008) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and their persisting sequelae in adult life. Dtsch Arztebl Int 105:693–698
107. Fast DK, Conry J (2009) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and the criminal justice system. Dev Disabil Res Rev 15:250–257
108. Walloch JE, Burger PH, Kornhuber J (2011) What is known about the outcome as adults for children with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)/fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)? Fortschr Neurol Psychiatr 80(6):320–326
109. Alati R, Al Mamun A, Williams GM et al (2006) In utero alcohol exposure and prediction of alcohol disorders in early adulthood: a birth cohort study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 63:1009–1016
110. Youngentob SL, Glendinning JI (2009) Fetal ethanol exposure increases ethanol intake by making it smell and taste better. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106:5359–5364
111. Foltran F, Gregori D, Franchin L et al (2011) Effect of alcohol consumption in prenatal life, childhood, and adolescence on child development. Nutr Rev 69:642–659
112. Room R, Babor T, Rehm J (2005) Alcohol and public health. Lancet 365:519–530
113. Arnold K, Burke M, Decker A, Herzberg E, Maher M, Motz K, Nandu H, O´Donnel L, Pirmohamed A, Ybarra M (2013) Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: knowledge and screening practices of university hospital medical students and residents. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol 20(1):e18–25
114. Hutton HE, Chander G, Green PP et al (2014) A novel integration effort to reduce the risk for alcohol-exposed pregnancy among women attending urban STD clinics. Public Health Rep 129:56–62
115. Burns E, Gray R, Smith LA (2010) Brief screening questionnaires to identify problem drinking during pregnancy: a systematic review. Addiction 105:601–614
116. O’Connor MJ, Whaley SE (2007) Brief intervention for alcohol use by pregnant women. Am J Public Health 97:252–258
117. Morini L, Marchei E, Tarani L et al (2013) Testing ethylglucuronide in maternal hair and nails for the assessment of fetal exposure to alcohol: comparison with meconium testing. Ther Drug Monit 35:402–407
118. Gifford AE, Farkas KJ, Jackson LW et al (2010) Assessment of benefits of a universal screen for maternal alcohol use during pregnancy. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 88:838–846
119. Abel EL, Hannigan JH (1995) Maternal risk factors in fetal alcohol syndrome: provocative and permissive influences. Neurotoxicol Teratol 17:445–462
120. Wozniak JR, Fuglestad AJ, Eckerle JK et al (2013) Choline supplementation in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders has high feasibility and tolerability. Nutr Res 33:897–904
121. Oesterheld JR, Kofoed L, Tervo R et al (1998) Effectiveness of methylphenidate in Native American children with fetal alcohol syndrome and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled pilot study. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 8:39–48
122. Snyder J, Nanson J, Snyder R, Block G (1997) A study of stimulant medication in children with FAS. In: Streissguth A, Kanter J (eds) Overcoming and preventing secondary disabilities in fetal alcohol syndrome and fetal alcohol effects. University of Washington Press, Seattle
123. Coe J, Sidders J, Riley K et al (2001) A survey of medication responses in children and adolescents with fetal alcohol syndrome. Ment Heal Asp Dev Disabil 4:148–155
124. Doig J, McLennan JD, Gibbard W, Ben (2008) Medication effects on symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol 18:365–71
125. O’Malley KD, Koplin B, Dohner VA (2000) Psychostimulant clinical response in fetal alcohol syndrome. Can J Psychiatry 45:90–91
126. Lock TM (2012) A study of the efficacy of atomoxetine in treating the inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity in children with fetal alcohol syndrome or effects. http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00417794
127. Kodituwakku PW, Kodituwakku EL (2011) From research to practice: an integrative framework for the development of interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 21:204–223
128. Kable J, Coles CD, Taddeo E (2007) Socio-cognitive habilitation using the math interactive learning experience program for alcohol-affected children. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 31:1425–1434
129. Adnams CM, Sorour P, Kalberg WO et al (2007) Language and literacy outcomes from a pilot intervention study for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders in South Africa. Alcohol 41:403–414
130. ®. Am J Occup Ther 66:24–34
131. Loomes C, Rasmussen C, Pei J et al (2008) The effect of rehearsal training on working memory span of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Res Dev Disabil 29:113–124
132. Coles CD, Strickland DC, Padgett L, Bellmoff L (2007) Games that “work”: using computer games to teach alcohol-affected children about fire and street safety. Res Dev Disabil 28:518–530
133. O’Connor MJ, Frankel F, Paley B et al (2006) A controlled social skills training for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. J Consult Clin Psychol 74:639–648
134. Bertrand J (2009) Interventions for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs): overview of findings for five innovative research projects. Res Dev Disabil 30:986–1006
135. Schonfeld AM, Paley B, Frankel F, O’Connor MJ (2009) Behavioral regulation as a predictor of response to children’s friendship training in children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Clin Neuropsychol 23:428–445
136. Lemoine P, Harousseau H, Borteyru JP, Menuet JC (1968) Les enfants des parents alcooliques: anomalies observees apropos de 127 cas. Ouest Med 21:476–482