Strategies to Improve Running Economy

Sports Medicine

Volumn 45, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 37-56

  Barnes, Kyle R ^a,b   Kilding, Andrew E ^a  

^a AUCKLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (New Zealand)

^b GRAND VALLEY STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; BIOMECHANICS; ENDURANCE; ENERGY METABOLISM; HUMAN; NUTRITION; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PHYSICAL EDUCATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PROCEDURES; RUNNING; WARM UP;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; BIOMECHANICAL PHENOMENA; ENERGY METABOLISM; HUMANS; OXYGEN CONSUMPTION; PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; RUNNING; SPORTS NUTRITIONAL PHYSIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA; WARM-UP EXERCISE;

EID: 84920068757     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: 11792035     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40279-014-0246-y     Document Type: Review

References (183)

1. di Prampero PE. The energy cost of human locomotion on land and in water. Int J Sports Med. 1986;7(2):55–72.
2. di Prampero PE, Atchou G, Bruckner JC, et al. The energetics of endurance running. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1986;55(3):259–66.
3. Foster C, Lucia A. Running economy: the forgotten factor in elite performance. Sports Med. 2007;37(4–5):316–9.
4. Pollock ML. Submaximal and maximal working capacity of elite distance runners. Part I: Cardiorespiratory aspects. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1977;301:310–22.
5. Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med Sci Sports. 1973;5(4):248–52.
6. Bailey SP, Pate RR. Feasibility of improving running economy. Sports Med. 1991;12(4):228–36.
7. Daniels JT. Physiological characteristics of champion male athletes. Res Q. 1974;45(4):342–8.
8. Daniels JT. A physiologist’s view of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;17(3):332–8.
9. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS. Running economy and distance running performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1980;12(5):357–60.
10. Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, et al. Factors affecting running economy in trained distance runners. Sports Med. 2004;34(7):465–85.
11. Bransford DR, Howley ET. Oxygen cost of running in trained and untrained men and women. Med Sci Sports. 1977;9(1):41–4.
12. 2 among young runners 10 to 18 years of age. Med Sci Sports. 1978;10(3):200–3.
13. Dolgener F. Oxygen cost of walking and running in untrained, sprint trained, and endurance trained females. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 1982;22(1):60–5.
14. Beneke R, Hutler M. The effect of training on running economy and performance in recreational athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2005;37(10):1794–9.
15. Saunders PU, Cox AJ, Hopkins WG, et al. Physiological measures tracking seasonal changes in peak running speed. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2010;5(2):230–8.
16. Tucker R, Santos-Concejero J, Collins M. The genetic basis for elite running performance. Br J Sports Med. 2013;47(9):545–9.
17. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS, Burkett LE, et al. Following Steve Scott: physiological changes accompanying training. Physician Sportsmed. 1984;12(1):103–6.
18. Costill DL. The relationship between selected physiological variables and distance running performance. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 1967;7(2):61–6.
19. Daniels JT, Daniels N. Running economy of elite male and elite female runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24(4):483–9.
20. di Prampero PE, Capelli C, Pagliaro P, et al. Energetics of best performances in middle-distance running. J Appl Physiol. 1993;74(5):2318–24.
21. Jones AM. The physiology of the women’s world record holder for the women’s marathon. Int J Sports Sci Coach. 2006;1(2):101–15.
22. Guglielmo LG, Greco CC, Denadai BS. Effects of strength training on running economy. Int J Sports Med. 2009;30(1):27–32.
23. Johnston R, Quinn T, Kertzer R, et al. Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economy. J Strength Cond Res. 1997;11(4):224–9.
24. Paavolainen LM, Hakkinen K, Hamalainen I, et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(5):1527–33.
25. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, et al. Short-term plyometric training improves running economy in highly trained middle and long distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2006;20(4):947–54.
26. Sedano S, Marin PJ, Cuadrado G, et al. Concurrent training in elite male runners: the influence of strength versus muscular endurance training on performance outcomes. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;27(9):2433–43.
27. Spurrs RW, Murphy AJ, Watsford ML. The effect of plyometric training on distance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;89(1):1–7.
28. Storen O, Helgerud J, Stoa EM, et al. Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2008;40(6):1087–92.
29. Taipale RS, Mikkola J, Nummela A, et al. Strength training in endurance runners. Int J Sports Med. 2009;31(7):468–76.
30. Taipale RS, Mikkola J, Salo T, et al. Mixed maximal and explosive strength training in recreational endurance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2013;28(3):689–99.
31. Turner AM, Owings M, Schwane JA. Improvement in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric training. J Strength Cond Res. 2003;17(1):60–7.
32. 2max: effects on aerobic performance and overtraining markers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(1):156–63.
33. 2 max: effects on aerobic physiological indexes and running performance. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2006;31(6):737–43.
34. Enoksen E, Shalfawi SA, Tonnessen E. The effect of high- vs. low-intensity training on aerobic capacity in well-trained male middle-distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(3):812–8.
35. Franch J, Madsen K, Djurhuus MS, et al. Improved running economy following intensified training correlates with reduced ventilatory demands. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1998;30(8):1250–6.
36. Sjodin B, Jacobs I, Svedenhag J. Changes in onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) and muscle enzymes after training at OBLA. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1982;49(1):45–57.
37. Burtscher M, Gatterer H, Faulhaber M, et al. Effects of intermittent hypoxia on running economy. Int J Sports Med. 2010;31(9):644–50.
38. Katayama K, Matsuo H, Ishida K, et al. Intermittent hypoxia improves endurance performance and submaximal exercise efficiency. High Alt Med Biol. 2003;4(3):291–304.
39. Katayama K, Sato K, Matsuo H, et al. Effect of intermittent hypoxia on oxygen uptake during submaximal exercise in endurance athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004;92(1–2):75–83.
40. Levine BD, Stray-Gundersen J. “Living high-training low”: effect of moderate-altitude acclimatization with low-altitude training on performance. J Appl Physiol. 1997;83(1):102–12.
41. Neya M, Enoki T, Kumai Y, et al. The effects of nightly normobaric hypoxia and high intensity training under intermittent normobaric hypoxia on running economy and hemoglobin mass. J Appl Physiol. 2007;103(3):828–34.
42. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, et al. Improved running economy in elite runners after 20 days of simulated moderate-altitude exposure. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(3):931–7.
43. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, et al. Improved running economy and increased hemoglobin mass in elite runners after extended moderate altitude exposure. J Sci Med Sport. 2009;12(1):67–72.
44. Schmitt L, Millet G, Robach P, et al. Influence of “living high-training low” on aerobic performance and economy of work in elite athletes. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2006;97(5):627–36.
45. Craib MW, Mitchell VA, Fields KB, et al. The association between flexibility and running economy in sub-elite male distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(6):737–43.
46. Gleim GW, Stachenfeld NS, Nicholas JA. The influence of flexibility on the economy of walking and jogging. J Orthop Res. 1990;8(6):814–23.
47. Godges JJ, Macrae H, Longdon C, et al. The effects of two stretching procedures on hip range of motion and gait economy. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 1989;10(9):350–7.
48. Hunter GR, Katsoulis K, McCarthy JP, et al. Tendon length and joint flexibility are related to running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011;43(8):1492–9.
49. Jones AM. Running economy is negatively related to sit-and-reach test performance in international-standard distance runners. Int J Sports Med. 2002;23(1):40–3.
50. Mojock CD, Kim JS, Eccles DW, et al. The effects of static stretching on running economy and endurance performance in female distance runners during treadmill running. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(8):2170–6.
51. Beis LY, Polyviou T, Malkova D, et al. The effects of creatine and glycerol hyperhydration on running economy in well trained endurance runners. J Int Soc Sports Nutr. 2011;8(1):24.
52. Birnbaum LJ, Herbst JD. Physiologic effects of caffeine on cross-country runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2004;18(3):463–5.
53. Jones AM. Dietary nitrate: the new magic bullet? Sports Sci Exch. 2013;26(110):1–5.
54. 2 cost of walking and running: a placebo-controlled study. J Appl Physiol. 2011;110(3):591–600.
55. Whitehead MT, Martin TD, Scheett TP, et al. Running economy and maximal oxygen consumption after 4 weeks of oral Echinacea supplementation. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(7):1928–33.
56. Holloszy JO, Rennie MJ, Hickson RC, et al. Physiological consequences of the biochemical adaptations to endurance exercise. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1977;301:440–50.
57. Assumpcao Cde O, Lima LC, Oliveira FB, et al. Exercise-induced muscle damage and running economy in humans. Sci World J. 2013;2013 Article ID 189149.
58. Gore CJ, Hahn AG, Aughey RJ, et al. Live high: train low increases muscle buffer capacity and submaximal cycling efficiency. Acta Physiol Scand. 2001;173(3):275–86.
59. Burtscher M, Nachbauer W, Baumgartl P, et al. Benefits of training at moderate altitude versus sea level training in amateur runners. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1996;74(6):558–63.
60. Green HJ. Altitude acclimatization, training and performance. J Sci Med Sport. 2000;3(3):299–312.
61. Morgan DW, Bransford DR, Costill DL, et al. Variation in the aerobic demand of running among trained and untrained subjects. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1995;27(3):404–9.
62. Nelson RC, Gregor RJ. Biomechanics of distance running: a longitudinal study. Res Q. 1976;47(3):417–28.
63. 2 max and running performance with training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1978;39(4):249–54.
64. 2max during a cross-country season. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 1984;24(4):321–6.
65. Lake MJ, Cavanagh PR. Short-term training effects on running kinematics and running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1990;22 (Suppl.):S22.
66. Conley DG, Krahenbuhl G, Burkett LN. Training for aerobic capacity and running economy. Physician Sportsmed. 1981;9:107–15.
67. Patton JF, Vogel JA. Cross-sectional and longitudinal evaluations of an endurance training program. Med Sci Sports. 1977;9(2):100–3.
68. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptakes and blood lactate levels in elite male middle- and long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med. 1984;5(5):255–61.
69. Mayhew JL, Piper FC, Etheridge GL. Oxygen cost and energy requirement of running in trained and untrained males and females. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 1979;19(1):39–44.
70. Midgley AW, McNaughton LR, Jones AM. Training to enhance the physiological determinants of long-distance running performance: can valid recommendations be given to runners and coaches based on current scientific knowledge? Sports Med. 2007;37(10):857–80.
71. Daniels JT. Running with Jim Ryun: a five-year study. Physician Sportsmed. 1974;2(September):62–7.
72. Jones AM. A five year physiological case study of an Olympic runner. Br J Sports Med. 1998;32(1):39–43.
73. Ingham SA, Fudge BW, Pringle JS. Training distribution, physiological profile, and performance for a male international 1,500-m runner. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2012;7(2):193–5.
74. Pate RR, Macera CA, Bailey SP, et al. Physiological, anthropometric, and training correlates of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1992;24(10):1128–33.
75. Laursen PB. Training for intense exercise performance: high-intensity or high-volume training? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2010;20(Suppl 2):1–10.
76. Jones AM, Carter H. The effect of endurance training on parameters of aerobic fitness. Sports Med. 2000;29(6):373–86.
77. Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, et al. Effects of different uphill interval-training programs on running economy and performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(6):639–47.
78. Laffite LP, Mille-Hamard L, Koralsztein JP, et al. The effects of interval training on oxygen pulse and performance in supra-threshold runs. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2003;111(3):202–10.
79. Slawinski J, Demarle A, Koralsztein JP, et al. Effect of supra-lactate threshold training on the relationship between mechanical stride descriptors and aerobic energy cost in trained runners. Arch Physiol Biochem. 2001;109(2):110–6.
80. 2max and performance in athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(6):892–6.
81. Yoshida T, Udo M, Chida M, et al. Specificity of physiological adaptation to endurance training in distance runners and competitive walkers. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1990;61(3–4):197–201.
82. Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS. Factors affecting running economy. Sports Med. 1989;7(5):310–30.
83. Brisswalter J, Legros P. Variability in energy cost of running during one training season in high level runners. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 1994;34(2):135–40.
84. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Physiological characteristics of elite male runners in and off-season. Can J Appl Sport Sci. 1985;10(3):127–33.
85. Lake MJ, Cavanagh PR. Six weeks of training does not change running mechanics or improve running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(7):860–9.
86. Kurz MJ, Berg K, Latin R, et al. The relationship of training methods in NCAA division 1 cross-country runners and 10,000-meter performance. J Strength Cond Res. 2000;14(2):196–201.
87. Billat LV. Interval training for performance: a scientific and empirical practice. Special recommendations for middle- and long-distance running. Part I: aerobic interval training. Sports Med. 2001;31(1):13–31.
88. Max in well-trained distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;27(6):1549–59.
89. Houston ME, Thomson JA. The response of endurance-adapted adults to intense anaerobic training. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1977;36(3):207–13.
90. Hickson RC, Dvorak BA, Gorostiaga EM, et al. Potential for strength and endurance training to amplify endurance performance. J Appl Physiol. 1988;65(5):2285–90.
91. Taipale RS, Mikkola J, Vesterinen V, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations during combined strength and endurance training in endurance runners: maximal versus explosive strength training or a mix of both. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(2):325–35.
92. Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, et al. Effects of resistance training on running economy and cross-country performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(12):2322–31.
93. Berryman N, Maurel D, Bosquet L. Effect of plyometric vs. dynamic weight training on the energy cost of running. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(7):1818–25.
94. Albracht K, Arampatzis A. Exercise-induced changes in triceps surae tendon stiffness and muscle strength affect running economy in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2013;113(6):1605–15.
95. Francesca PM, Giulia DI, Stefania C, et al. Concurrent strength and endurance training effects on running economy in master endurance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;27(8):2295–303.
96. 2 kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002;34(8):1351–9.
97. Kyrolainen H, Belli A, Komi PV. Biomechanical factors affecting running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(8):1330–7.
98. Paavolainen LM, Nummela A, Rusko H, et al. Neuromuscular characteristics and fatigue during 10 km running. Int J Sports Med. 1999;20(8):516–21.
99. Paavolainen LM, Nummela AT, Rusko HK. Neuromuscular characteristics and muscle power as determinants of 5-km running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(1):124–30.
100. Sale DG. Neural adaptation to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1988;20(5 Suppl):S135–45.
101. Cheng CF, Cheng KH, Lee YM, et al. Improvement in running economy after 8 weeks of whole-body vibration training. J Strength Cond Res. 2012;26(12):3349–57.
102. Staron RS, Karapondo DL, Kraemer WJ, et al. Skeletal muscle adaptations during early phase of heavy-resistance training in men and women. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(3):1247–55.
103. Staron RS, Leonardi MJ, Karapondo DL, et al. Strength and skeletal muscle adaptations in heavy-resistance-trained women after detraining and retraining. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70(2):631–40.
104. Moritani T, deVries HA. Neural factors versus hypertrophy in the time course of muscle strength gain. Am J Phys Med. 1979;58(3):115–30.
105. Hakkinen K. Neuromuscular adaptation during strength-training, aging, detraining, and immobilization. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med. 1994;6:161–98.
106. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Evans WJ. Strength and power training: physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1996;24:363–97.
107. Hayes PR, French DN, Thomas K. The effect of muscular endurance on running economy. J Strength Cond Res. 2011;25(9):2464–9.
108. Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, et al. Effects of resistance training on running economy and cross-country performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013;45(12):2322–31.
109. Anderson T. Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med. 1996;22(2):76–89.
110. Staron RS, Malicky ES, Leonardi MJ, et al. Muscle hypertrophy and fast fiber type conversions in heavy resistance-trained women. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1990;60(1):71–9.
111. Coyle EF, Martin WH 3rd, Bloomfield SA, et al. Effects of detraining on responses to submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1985;59(3):853–9.
112. Doma K, Deakin GB. The effects of strength training and endurance training order on running economy and performance. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2013;38(6):651–6.
113. Hoff J, Helgerud J, Wisloff U. Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1999;31(6):870–7.
114. Jung AP. The impact of resistance training on distance running performance. Sports Med. 2003;33(7):539–52.
115. Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, Margaria R. Mechanical work in running. J Appl Physiol. 1964;19:249–56.
116. Hakkinen K, Komi PV, Alen M. Effect of explosive type strength training on isometric force- and relaxation-time, electromyographic and muscle fibre characteristics of leg extensor muscles. Acta Physiol Scand. 1985;125(4):587–600.
117. Cavanagh PR, Kram R. Mechanical and muscular factors affecting the efficiency of human movement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1985;17(3):326–31.
118. Dalleau G, Belli A, Bourdin M, et al. The spring-mass model and the energy cost of treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1998;77(3):257–63.
119. Hamilton RJ, Paton CD, Hopkins WG. Effect of high-intensity resistance training on performance of competitive distance runners. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2006;1(1):40–9.
120. Mikkola J, Rusko H, Nummela A, et al. Concurrent endurance and explosive type strength training improves neuromuscular and anaerobic characteristics in young distance runners. Int J Sports Med. 2007;28(7):602–11.
121. Barnes KR, Hopkins WG, McGuigan MR, et al. Warm-up with a weighted vest improves running performance via leg stiffness and running economy. J Sci Med Sport. 2014: [Epub ahead of print].
122. Paton CD, Hopkins WG. Effects of high-intensity training on performance and physiology of endurance athletes. Sportscience. 2004;8:25–40.
123. Hoff J, Gran A, Helgerud J. Maximal strength training improves aerobic endurance performance. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2002;12(5):288–95.
124. Osteras H, Helgerud J, Hoff J. Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002;88(3):255–63.
125. Mikkola JS, Rusko HK, Nummela AT, et al. Concurrent endurance and explosive type strength training increases activation and fast force production of leg extensor muscles in endurance athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(2):613–20.
126. Paton CD. Effects of shoe cleat position on physiology and performance of competitive cyclists. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009;4(4):517–23.
127. Bastiaans JJ, van Diemen AB, Veneberg T, et al. The effects of replacing a portion of endurance training by explosive strength training on performance in trained cyclists. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2001;86(1):79–84.
128. Bonetti DL, Hopkins WG. Sea-level exercise performance following adaptation to hypoxia: a meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2009;39(2):107–27.
129. Robertson EY, Saunders PU, Pyne DB, et al. Reproducibility of performance changes to simulated live high/train low altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2010;42(2):394–401.
130. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DD, et al. Improved race performance in elite middle-distance runners after cumulative altitude exposure. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2009;4(1):134–8.
131. Stray-Gundersen J, Chapman RF, Levine BD. “Living high-training low” altitude training improves sea level performance in male and female elite runners. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(3):1113–20.
132. Saltin B, Larsen H, Terrados N, et al. Aerobic exercise capacity at sea level and at altitude in Kenyan boys, junior and senior runners compared with Scandinavian runners. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1995;5(4):209–21.
133. Weston AR, Karamizrak O, Smith A, et al. African runners exhibit greater fatigue resistance, lower lactate accumulation, and higher oxidative enzyme activity. J Appl Physiol. 1999;86(3):915–23.
134. Helgerud J. Maximal oxygen uptake, anaerobic threshold and running economy in women and men with similar performances level in marathons. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1994;68(2):155–61.
135. Helgerud J, Ingjer F, Stromme SB. Sex differences in performance-matched marathon runners. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1990;61(5–6):433–9.
136. Helgerud J, Storen O, Hoff J. Are there differences in running economy at different velocities for well-trained distance runners? Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;108(6):1099–105.
137. Sunde A, Storen O, Bjerkaas M, et al. Maximal strength training improves cycling economy in competitive cyclists. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(8):2157–65.
138. Svedenhag J. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptake during running: how should body mass be accounted for? Scand J Med Sci Sports. 1995;5(4):175–80.
139. Åstrand P-O. Textbook of work physiology: physiological bases of exercise. 4th ed. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2003.
140. Bergh U, Sjodin B, Forsberg A, et al. The relationship between body mass and oxygen uptake during running in humans. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1991;23(2):205–11.
141. Heil DP. Body mass scaling of peak oxygen uptake in 20- to 79-year-old adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1997;29(12):1602–8.
142. 2 for differences in body size. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(2):259–65.
143. 2-to-body size relationship among children and adults. J Appl Physiol. 1995;79(3):958–67.
144. Svedenhag J, Sjodin B. Body-mass-modified running economy and step length in elite male middle- and long-distance runners. Int J Sports Med. 1994;15(6):305–10.
145. Brothers MD, Doan BK, Zupan MF, et al. Hematological and physiological adaptations following 46 weeks of moderate altitude residence. High Alt Med Biol. 2010;11(3):199–208.
146. Lundby C, Calbet JA, Sander M, et al. Exercise economy does not change after acclimatization to moderate to very high altitude. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2007;17(3):281–91.
147. Hochachka PW, Stanley C, Matheson GO, et al. Metabolic and work efficiencies during exercise in Andean natives. J Appl Physiol. 1991;70(4):1720–30.
148. Marconi C, Marzorati M, Sciuto D, et al. Economy of locomotion in high-altitude Tibetan migrants exposed to normoxia. J Physiol. 2005;569(Pt 2):667–75.
149. Weston AR, Mbambo Z, Myburgh KH. Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2000;32(6):1130–4.
150. Bailey DM, Davies B, Romer L, et al. Implications of moderate altitude training for sea-level endurance in elite distance runners. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1998;78(4):360–8.
151. Richalet JP, Gore CJ. Live and/or sleep high:train low, using normobaric hypoxia. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2008;18(Suppl 1):29–37.
152. Julian CG, Gore CJ, Wilber RL, et al. Intermittent normobaric hypoxia does not alter performance or erythropoietic markers in highly trained distance runners. J Appl Physiol. 2004;96(5):1800–7.
153. Robertson EY, Saunders PU, Pyne DB, et al. Effectiveness of intermittent training in hypoxia combined with live high/train low. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2010;110(2):379–87.
154. Telford RD, Graham K, Sutton J. Medium altitude training and sea level performance (abstract). Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1996;28(5 Suppl.):S124.
155. Truijens MJ, Rodriguez FA, Townsend NE, et al. The effect of intermittent hypobaric hypoxic exposure and sea level training on submaximal economy in well-trained swimmers and runners. J Appl Physiol. 2008;104(2):328–37.
156. Green HJ, Roy B, Grant S, et al. Increases in submaximal cycling efficiency mediated by altitude acclimatization. J Appl Physiol. 2000;89(3):1189–97.
157. Roberts AC, Reeves JT, Butterfield GE, et al. Altitude and beta-blockade augment glucose utilization during submaximal exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1996;80(2):605–15.
158. Gore CJ, Clark SA, Saunders PU. Nonhematological mechanisms of improved sea-level performance after hypoxic exposure. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(9):1600–9.
159. Katayama K, Sato K, Hotta N, et al. Intermittent hypoxia does not increase exercise ventilation at simulated moderate altitude. Int J Sports Med. 2007;28(6):480–7.
160. Svedenhag J. Running Economy. In: Bangsbo J, Larsen H, editors. Running and science. Copenhagen: Munksgaard; 2000. p. 85–105.
161. Pinnington HC, Lloyd DG, Besier TF, et al. Kinematic and electromyography analysis of submaximal differences running on a firm surface compared with soft, dry sand. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2005;94(3):242–53.
162. Trehearn TL, Buresh RJ. Sit-and-reach flexibility and running economy of men and women collegiate distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2009;23(1):158–62.
163. Barnes KR, McGuigan MR, Kilding AE. Lower-body determinants of running economy in male and female distance runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2014;28(5):1289–97.
164. Nelson AG, Kokkonen J, Eldredge C, et al. Chronic stretching and running economy. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2001;11(5):260–5.
165. Beaudoin CM, Whatley Blum J. Flexibility and running economy in female collegiate track athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fit. 2005;45(3):295–300.
166. Godges JJ, MacRae PG, Engelke KA. Effects of exercise on hip range of motion, trunk muscle performance, and gait economy. Phys Ther. 1993;73(7):468–77.
167. Shrier I. Does stretching improve performance? A systematic and critical review of the literature. Clin J Sport Med. 2004;14(5):267–73.
168. Bonacci J, Chapman A, Blanch P, et al. Neuromuscular adaptations to training, injury and passive interventions: implications for running economy. Sports Med. 2009;39(11):903–21.
169. Stellingwerff T. Contemporary nutrition approaches to optimize elite marathon performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2013;8(5):573–8.
170. 2 consumption during exercise. Med Sport Sci. 2012;59:29–35.
171. Jones AM, Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ. Influence of dietary nitrate supplementation on exercise tolerance and performance. Nestle Nutrition Institute Workshop Series; 2013, vol 75. p. 27–40.
172. 2 cost of moderate-intensity exercise and enhances high-intensity exercise tolerance. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(5):1394–403.
173. Larsen FJ, Schiffer TA, Borniquel S, et al. Dietary inorganic nitrate improves mitochondrial efficiency in humans. Cell Metab. 2011;13(2):149–59.
174. Bailey SJ, Fulford J, Vanhatalo A, et al. Dietary nitrate supplementation enhances muscle contractile efficiency during knee-extensor exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2010;109(1):135–48.
175. 2 cost of low-intensity exercise and enhances tolerance to high-intensity exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol. 2009;107(4):1144–55.
176. Larsen FJ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO, et al. Effects of dietary nitrate on oxygen cost during exercise. Acta Physiol Scand. 2007;191(1):59–66.
177. Larsen FJ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO, et al. Dietary nitrate reduces maximal oxygen consumption while maintaining work performance in maximal exercise. Free Radical Biol Med. 2010;48(2):342–7.
178. Vanhatalo A, Bailey SJ, Blackwell JR, et al. Acute and chronic effects of dietary nitrate supplementation on blood pressure and the physiological responses to moderate-intensity and incremental exercise. Am J Physiol. 2010;299(4):R1121–31.
179. Fulford J, Winyard PG, Vanhatalo A, et al. Influence of dietary nitrate supplementation on human skeletal muscle metabolism and force production during maximum voluntary contractions. Eur J Physiol. 2013;465(4):517–28.
180. Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, et al. Reliability and variability of running economy in elite distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004;36(11):1972–6.
181. Smith TP, Coombes JS, Geraghty DP. Optimising high-intensity treadmill training using the running speed at maximal O(2) uptake and the time for which this can be maintained. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2003;89(3–4):337–43.
182. Ferrauti A, Bergermann M, Fernandez-Fernandez J. Effects of a concurrent strength and endurance training on running performance and running economy in recreational marathon runners. J Strength Cond Res. 2010;24(10):2770–8.
183. Mikkola J, Vesterinen V, Taipale R, et al. Effect of resistance training regimens on treadmill running and neuromuscular performance in recreational endurance runners. J Sports Sci. 2011;29(13):1359–71.