Neuromuscular adaptations to training, injury and passive interventions: Implications for running economy

Sports Medicine

Volumn 39, Issue 11, 2009, Pages 903-921

  Bonacci, Jason ^a,b   Chapman, Andrew ^a,b,c,d   Blanch, Peter ^b   Vicenzino, Bill ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b AUSTRALIAN INSTITUTE OF SPORT   (Australia)

^c SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^d MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATHLETE; CYCLING; ECONOMIC ASPECT; ELECTROMYOGRAPHY; ENDURANCE SPORT; EXERCISE; GASTROCNEMIUS MUSCLE; HUMAN; JUMPING; LEG MUSCLE; MUSCLE CONTRACTION; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCULOSKELETAL INJURY; NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION; ORTHOSIS; PERONEUS MUSCLE; PHYSIOLOGICAL STRESS; REVIEW; RUNNING; SHOE; SOLEUS MUSCLE; STANDING; STRETCHING; TIBIALIS ANTERIOR MUSCLE; TRIATHLON;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ATHLETIC INJURIES; BIOMECHANICS; EXERCISE TOLERANCE; HUMANS; MUSCLE STRENGTH; MUSCLE, SKELETAL; MUSCULOSKELETAL DISEASES; ORTHOTIC DEVICES; PHYSICAL ENDURANCE; RESISTANCE TRAINING; RUNNING; SHOES;

EID: 70350044996     PISSN: 01121642     EISSN: 11792035     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/11317850-000000000-00000     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Bentley D, Newell J, Bishop D. Incremental exercise test design and analysis: implications for performance diagnostics in endurance athletes. Sports Med 2007; 37: 575-586
2. Conley DL, Krahenbuhl GS. Running economy and dis-tance running performance of highly trained athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1980; 12: 357-360
3. Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, et al. Factors affect-ing running economy in trained distance runners. Sports Med 2004; 34: 465-485
4. Costill DL, Thomason H, Roberts E. Fractional utilization of the aerobic capacity during distance running. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1973; 5: 248-252
5. Di Prampero PE, Capelli C, Pagliaro P, et al. Energetics of best performances in middle-distance running. J Appl Physiol 1993; 74: 2318-2324
6. Weston AR, MbamboZ,Myburgh KH. Running economy of African and Caucasian distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2000; 32: 1130-1134
7. Morgan DW, Craib M. Physiological aspects of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1992; 24: 456-461
8. Burdet E, Osu R, Franklin DW, et al. The central nervous system stabilizes unstable dynamics by learning optimal impedance. Nature 2001; 414: 446-449
9. Osu R, Franklin DW, Kato H, et al. Short-and long-term changes in joint co-contraction associated with motor learning as revealed from surface EMG. J Neurophysiol 2002; 88: 991-1004
10. Schneider K, Zernicke RF, Schmidt RA, et al. Changes in limb dynamics during the practice of rapid arm movements. J Biomech 1989; 22: 805-817 (Pubitemid 20087381)
11. Thoroughman KA, Shadmehr R. Electromyographic correlates of learning an internal model of reaching movements. J Neurosci 1999; 19: 8573-8588
12. Hodges PW, Moseley GL, Gabrielsson A, et al. Experi-mental muscle pain changes feedforward postural responses of the trunk muscles. Exp Brain Res 2003; 151: 262-271
13. Mellor R, Hodges PW. Motor unit synchronization is reduced in anterior knee pain. J Pain 2005; 6: 550-558
14. Hertel J, Sloss BR, Earl JE. Effect of orthotics on quad-riceps and gluteus medius electromyographic activity during selected exercises. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005; 86: 26-30
15. Mundermann A, Wakeling JM, Nigg BM, et al. Foot orthoses affect frequency components of muscle activity in the lower extremity. Gait Posture 2006; 23: 295-302
16. Nawoczenski DA, Ludewig PM. Electromyographic ef-fects of foot orthotics on selected lower extremity muscles during running. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 540-544
17. Nigg BM, Stefanyshyn D, Cole G, et al. The effect of ma-terial characteristics of shoe soles on muscle activation and energy aspects during running. J Biomech 2003; 36: 569-575
18. van Gent RN, Siem D, van Middelkoop M, et al. Incidence and determinants of lower extremity running injuries in long distance runners: a systematic review. Br J Sports Med 2007; 41: 469-480
19. Gosling CM, Gabbe BJ, Forbes AB. Triathlon related musculoskeletal injuries: the status of injury prevention knowledge. J Sci Med Sport 2007; 11: 396-406
20. Hakkinen K,Komi PV. Electromyographic changes during strength training and detraining. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15: 455-460
21. Narici M, Roi G, Landoni L, et al. Changes in force, cross-sectional area and neural activation during strength training and detraining of the human quadriceps. Eur J Appl Physiol 1989; 59: 310-319
22. Bransford DR, Howley ET. Oxygen cost of running in trained and untrained men and women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1977; 9: 41-44
23. Dolgener F. Oxygen cost of walking and running in un-trained, sprint trained and endurance trained females. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 1982; 22: 60-65
24. Johnston RE, Quinn TJ, Kertzer R, et al. Strength training in female distance runners: impact on running economy. J Strength Cond Res 1997; 11: 224-229 (Pubitemid 127689036)
25. Jung AP. The impact of resistance training on distance running performance. Sports Med 2003; 33: 539-552
26. Paavolainen L, Hakkinen K, Hamalainen I, et al. Explosive-strength training improves 5-km running time by improving running economy and muscle power. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1527-1533
27. Anderson T. Biomechanics and running economy. Sports Med 1996; 22: 76-89
28. Millet GY, Lepers R. Alterations of neuromuscular func-tion after prolonged running, cycling and skiing exercises. Sports Med 2004; 32: 105-116 (Pubitemid 38283128)
29. Lambert EV, St Clair Gibson A, Noakes T. Complex sys-tems model of fatigue: integrative homoeostatic control of peripheral physiological systems during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med 2005; 39: 52-62
30. Noakes T. The central governor model of exercise regula-tion applied to the marathon. Sports Med 2007; 37: 374-377
31. Noakes TD. Physiological models to understand exercise fatigue and the adaptations that predict or enhance athletic performance. Scan J Med Sci Sports 2000; 10: 123-145
32. St Clair Gibson A, Noakes TD. Evidence for complex system integration and dynamic neural regulation of skeletal muscle recruitment during exercise in humans. Br J Sports Med 2004; 38: 797-806
33. Milner TE. Accuracy of internal dynamics models in limb movements depends on stability. Exp Brain Res 2004; 159: 172-184
34. Broderick MP, Newell KM. Coordination patterns in ball bouncing as a function of skill. J Mot Behav 1999; 31: 165-188
35. McLean B. Neuromuscular and kinematic correlates of performance in cyclists [dissertation]. Brisbane (QLD): The University of Queensland, 1987
36. Mohr TM, Allison JD, Patterson R. Electromyographic analysis of the lower extremity during pedaling. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1981; 2: 163-170
37. Mann RA, Moran GT, Dougherty SE. Comparative elec-tromyography of the lower limb in jogging, running and sprinting. Am J Sports Med 1986; 14: 503-510
38. Reber L, Perry J, Pink M. Muscular control of the ankle in running. Am J Sports Med 1993; 21: 805-810
39. Chapman AR, Vicenzino B, Blanch P, et al. Patterns of leg muscle recruitment vary between novice and highly trained cyclists. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2008; 18: 359-371
40. Chapman A, Vicenzino B, Blanch P, et al. Leg muscle re-cruitment during cycling is less developed in triathletes than cyclists despite matched cycling training loads. Exp Brain Res 2007; 181: 503-518
41. Chapman A, Vicenzino B, Blanch P, et al. Is running less skilled in triathletes than runners matched for running training history? Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 557-565
42. Brashers-Krug T, Shadmehr R, Bizzi E. Consolidation in human motor memory. Nature 1996; 382: 252-255
43. Shadmehr R, Brashers-Krug T. Functional stages in the formation of human long-term motor memory. J Neurosci 1997; 17: 409-419
44. Shadmehr R, Holcomb HH. Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. Science 1997; 277: 821-825
45. Welch RB, Bridgeman B, Anand S, et al. Alternating prism exposure causes dual adaptation and generalization to a novel displacement. Percept Psychophys 1993; 54: 195-204
46. Karniel A, Mussa-Ivaldi F. Does the motor control system use multiple models and context switching to cope with a variable environment? Exp Brain Res 2002; 143: 520-524
47. Laursen PB, Shing CM, Tennant SC, et al. A comparison of the cycling performance of cyclists and triathletes. J Sports Sci 2003; 21: 411-418
48. Noakes TD. Implications of exercise testing for prediction of athletic performance: a contemporary perspective. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 319-330
49. Paavolainen LM, Nummela AT, Rusko HK. Neuromus-cular characteristics and muscle power as determinants of 5-km running performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 124-130
50. Paavolainen L, Nummela A, Rusko H, et al. Neuromus-cular characteristics and fatigue during 10 km running. Int J Sports Med 1999; 20: 516-521
51. Nummela AT, Heath KA, Paavolainen LM, et al. Fatigue during a 5-km running time trial. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 738-745
52. Dalleau G, Belli A, Bourdin M, et al. The spring-mass model and the energy cost of treadmill running. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 77: 257-263
53. Franklin D, Burdet E, Osu R, et al. Functional significance of stiffness in adaptation of multijoint arm movements to stable and unstable dynamics. Exp Brain Res 2003; 151: 145-157
54. Avela J, Komi PV. Reduced stretch reflex sensitivity and muscle stiffness after long-lasting stretch-shortening cycle exercise in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 1998; 78: 403-410 (Pubitemid 28466757)
55. Heise G, Shinohara M, Binks L. Biarticular leg muscles and links to running economy. Int J Sports Med 2008; 29: 688-691
56. Kyrolainen H, Belli A, Komi PV. Biomechanical factors affecting running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2001; 33: 1330-1337
57. Nicol C, Avela J, Komi PV. The stretch-shortening cycle: a model to study naturally occurring neuromuscular fatigue. Sports Med 2006; 36: 977-999
58. Gollhofer A, Kyrolainen H. Neuromuscular control of the human leg extensor muscles in jump exercises under various stretch-load conditions. Int J Sports Med 1991; 12: 34-40
59. Abe D, Muraki S, Yanagawa K, et al. Changes in EMG characteristics and metabolic energy cost during 90-min prolonged running. Gait Posture 2007; 26: 607-610
60. Daniels JT. A physiologist's view of running economy. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 332-338
61. Cowan SM, Bennell KL, Hodges PW, et al. Delayed onset of electromyographic activity of vastus medialis obli-quus relative to vastus lateralis in subjects with patello-femoral pain syndrome. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2001; 82: 183-189
62. Cowan SM, Hodges PW, Bennell KL, et al. Altered vastii recruitment when people with patellofemoral pain syndrome complete a postural task. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2002; 83: 989-995
63. Grimston SK, Nigg BM, Fisher V, et al. External loads throughout a 45 minute run in stress fracture and non-stress fracture runners [abstract]. J Biomech 1994; 27: 668
64. Robinson RL, Nee RJ. Analysis of hip strength in females seeking physical therapy treatment for unilateral patello-femoral pain syndrome. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2007; 37: 232-238
65. Morgan DW, Baldini FD, Martin PE. Day-to-day stability in running economy and step length among well-trained runners [abstract]. Int J Sports Med 1987; 8: 242
66. Morgan DW, Craib MW, Krahenbuhl GS, et al. Daily variability in running economy among well-trained male and female distance runners. Res Q Exerc Sport 1994; 65: 72-77
67. Morgan DW, Martin PE, Krahenbuhl GS, et al. Variability in running economy and mechanics among trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 378-383
68. Pereira MA, Freedson PS. Intraindividual variation of running economy in highly trained and moderately trained males. Int J Sports Med 1997; 18: 118-124
69. Pereira MA, Freedson PS, Maliszewski AF. Intra-individual variation during inclined steady-rate treadmill running. Res Q Exerc Sport 1994; 65: 184-188
70. Saunders PU, Pyne DB, Telford RD, et al. Reliability and variability of running economy in elite distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2004; 36: 1972-1976
71. Williams TJ, Krahenbuhl GS, Morgan DW. Daily varia-tion in running economy of moderately trained male runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1991; 23: 944-948
72. Sale DG. Neural adaptation to resistance training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: S135-45
73. Kraemer WJ, Fleck SJ, Evans W. Strength and power training: physiological mechanisms of adaptation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1996; 24: 363-398
74. Sale DG. Influence of exercise and training on motor unit activation. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 1987; 15: 95-152
75. Carroll TJ, Riek S, Carson RG. Neural adaptations to re-sistance training: implications for movement control. Sports Med 2001; 31: 829-840
76. Millet GP, Jaouen B, Borrani F, et al. Effects of con-current endurance and strength training on running economy and VO(2) kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2002; 34: 1351-1359
77. Støren O, Helgerud J, Stoa EM, et al. Maximal strength training improves running economy in distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008; 40: 1087-1092
78. Turner AM, Owings M, Schwane JA. Improvement in running economy after 6 weeks of plyometric training. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17: 60-67
79. Spurrs R, Murphy A, Watsford M. The effect of plyometric training on distance running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 89: 1-7
80. Saunders PU, Telford RD, Pyne DB, et al. Short-term plyometric training improves running economy in highly trained middle and long distance runners. J Strength Cond Res 2006; 20: 947-954
81. Alexander RM. The spring in your step: the role of elastic mechanisms in human running. In: de Groot G, Hollander AP, Huijing PA, et al. editors. Biomechanics XI-A. Amsterdam: Free University Press, 1987: 17-25
82. Cavagna GA, Dusman B, Margaria R. Positive work done by a previously stretched muscle. J Appl Physiol 1968; 24: 21-32
83. Cavagna GA, Saibene FP, Margaria R. Mechanical work in running. J Appl Physiol 1964; 19: 249-256
84. Wilson GJ, Wood GA, Elliott BC. Optimal stiffness of series elastic component in a stretch-shorten cycle activity. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70: 825-833
85. Alexander RM. Energy-saving mechanisms in walking and running. J Exp Biol 1991; 160: 55-69
86. Hoff J, Helgerud J, Wisloff U. Maximal strength training improves work economy in trained female cross-country skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 870-877
87. Østeras H, Helgerud J, Hoff J. Maximal strength-training effects on force-velocity and force-power relationships explain increases in aerobic performance in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol 2002; 88: 255-263
88. Mikkola JS, Rusko HK, Nummela AR, et al. Concurrent endurance and explosive type strength training increases activation and fast force production of leg extensor muscles in endurance athletes. J Strength Cond Res 2007; 21: 613-620
89. Halbertsma JPK, Mulder I, Goeken LNH, et al. Repeated passive stretching: acute effect on the passive muscle moment and extensibility of short hamstrings. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1999; 80: 407-414
90. Halbertsma JPK, van Bolhuis AI, Goeken LNH. Sport stretching: effect on passive muscle stiffness of short hamstrings. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1996; 77: 688-692
91. Shrier I. Does stretching improve performance: a sys-tematic and critical review of the literature. Clin J Sports Med 2004; 14: 267-273
92. Witvrouw E, Mahieu N, Danneels L, et al. Stretching and injury prevention: an obscure relationship. Sports Med 2004; 34: 443-449
93. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Fukunaga T. Effect of stretching training on the viscoelastic properties of human tendon structures in vivo. J Appl Physiol 2002; 92: 595-601
94. Kubo K, Kanehisa H, Kawakami Y, et al. Influence of static stretching on viscoelastic properties of human tendon structures in vivo. J Appl Physiol 2001; 90: 520-527
95. Avela J, Kyrolainen H, Komi P. Altered reflex sensitivity after repeated and prolonged passive muscle stretching. J Appl Physiol 1999; 86: 1283-1291
96. Behm D, Button D, Butt J. Factors affecting force loss with prolonged stretching. Can J Appl Phys 2001; 26: 261-272
97. Cramer JT, Housh TJ, Weir JP, et al. The acute effects of static stretching on peak torque, mean power output, electromyography, and mechanomyography. Eur J Appl Physiol 2005; 93: 530-539
98. Fowles JR, Sale DG, MacDougall JD. Reduced strength after passive stretch of the human plantarflexors. J Appl Physiol 2000; 89: 1179-1188
99. Herda T, Ryan E, Smith A, et al. Acute effects of passive stretching versus vibration on the neuromuscular function of the plantarflexors. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2008; early view: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2008.00787.x
100. Cramer J, Housh T, Johnson G, et al. An acute bout of static stretching does not affect maximal eccentric isokinetic peak torque, the joint angle at peak torque, mean power, electromyography, or mechanomyography. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2007; 37: 130-139
101. Herda TJ, Cramer JT, Ryan ED, et al. Acute effects of static versus dynamic stretching on isometric peak torque, electromyography, and mechanomyography of the biceps femoris muscle. J Strength Cond Res 2008; 22: 809-817
102. Gleim GW, Stachenfeld NS, Nicholas JA. The influence of flexibility on the economy of walking and jogging. J Orthop Res 1990; 8: 814-823
103. Craib MW, Mitchell VA, Fields KB, et al. The association between flexibility and running economy in sub-elite male distance runners. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1996; 28: 737-743
104. Godges JJ, MacRae PG, Engelke KA. Effects of exercise on hip range of motion, trunk muscle performance, and gait economy. Phys Ther 1993; 73: 468-477
105. Nelson AG, Kokkonen J, Eldredge C, et al. Chronic stretching and running economy. Scan J Med Sci Sports 2001; 11: 260-265
106. Godges JJ, MacRae H, Longdon C, et al. The effects of two stretching procedures on hip range of motion and gait economy. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1989; 10: 350-357
107. Davis D, Ashby P, McCale K, et al. The effectiveness of 3 stretching techniques on hamstring flexibility using consistent stretching parameters. J Strength Cond Res 2005; 19: 27-32
108. Guezennec CY, Vallier JM, Bigard AX, et al. Increase in energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon. Eur J Appl Physiol 1996; 73: 440-445
109. Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Berthelot M, et al. Variability in energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 1996; 572-579
110. Kreider RB, Boone T, Thompson WR, et al. Cardiovas-cular and thermal responses of triathlon performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1988; 20: 385-390
111. Danner T, Plowman SA. Running economy following an intense cycling bout in female duathletes and triathletes. Women Sport Phys Act J 1995; 4: 29-39
112. Hausswirth C, Bigard AX, Guezennec CY. Relationships between running mechanics and energy cost of running at the end of a triathlon and a marathon. Int J Sports Med 1997; 330-339
113. Hue O, Gallais DL, Chollet D, et al. The influence of prior cycling on biomechanical and cardiorespiratory response profiles during running in triathletes. Eur J Appl Physiol 1997; 77: 98-105
114. Millet GP, Millet GY, Hofmann MD, et al. Alterations in running economy and mechanics after maximal cycling in triathletes: influence of performance level. Int J Sports Med 2000; 21: 127-132
115. Millet GP, Vleck VE. Physiological and biomechanical adaptations to the cycle to run transition in Olympic triathlon: review and practical recommendations for training. Br J Sports Med 2000; 34: 384-390
116. Chapman AR, Vicenzino B, Blanch P, et al. Does cycling effect motor coordination of the leg during running in elite triathletes? J Sci Med Sport 2008; 11: 371-380
117. Quigley EJ, Richards JG. The effects of cycling on running mechanics. J Appl Biomech 1996; 12: 470-479
118. Hausswirth C, Brisswalter J, Vallier JM, et al. Evolution of electromyographic signal, running economy, and perceived exertion during different prolonged exercises. Int J Sports Med 2000; 429-436
119. Heiden T, Burnett A. The effect of cycling on muscle acti-vation in the running leg of an Olympic distance triathlon. Sports Biomech 2003; 2: 35-49
120. Bentley DJ, Millet GP, Vleck VE, et al. Specific aspects of contemporary triathlon: implications for physiological analysis and performance. Sports Med 2002; 32: 345-359
121. Suriano R, Vercruyssen F, Bishop D, et al. Variable power output during cycling improves subsequent treadmill run time to exhaustion. J Sci Med Sport 2007; 10: 244-251
122. Bernard T, Vercruyssen F, Mazure C, et al. Constant ver-sus variable-intensity during cycling: effects on subsequent running performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2007; 99: 103-111
123. Lepers R, Theurel J, Hausswirth C, et al. Neuromuscular fatigue following constant versus variable-intensity endurance cycling in triathletes. J Sci Med Sport 2008; 11: 381-389
124. Reinschmidt C, Nigg BM. Current issues in the design of running and court shoes. Sportverletz Sportschaden 2000; 14: 71-81
125. Stefanyshyn DJ, Nigg BM. Energy aspects associated with sport shoes. Sportverletz Sportschaden 2000; 14: 82-89
126. Nigg BM, Nurse MA, Stefanyshyn D. Shoe inserts and orthotics for sport and physical activities. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1999; 31: 421-428
127. Tomaro J, Burdett RG. The effects of foot orthotics on the EMG activity of selected leg muscles during gait. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1993; 18: 532-536
128. Catlin MJ. Effect of shoe weight on energy cost of running [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1979; 11: 80
129. Ralston HJ. Energy expenditure. In: Inman VT, Ralston HJ, Todd F, editors. Human walking. Baltimore (MD): Williams and Wilkins, 1981: 62-77
130. Soule RG, Goldman RF. Energy cost of loads carried on the head, hands, or feet. J Appl Physiol 1969; 27: 687-690
131. Frederick EC, Howley ET, Powers SK. Lower oxygen de-mands of running in soft-soled shoes. Res Q Exerc Sport 1986; 57: 174-177
132. Burkett LN, Kohrt WM, Buchbinder R. Effects of shoes and foot orthotics on VO2 and selected frontal plane knee kinematics. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1985; 17: 158-163
133. Clement D, Taunton J, Wiley JP, et al. The effect of cor-rective orthotic devices on oxygen uptake during running. In: Bachl N, Prokop L, Suckert, R, editors. Current topics in sports medicine. Proceedings of the World Congress of Sports Medicine; 1982; Vienna: 648-655
134. Hayes J, Smith L, Santopietro F. The effects of orthotics on the aerobic demands of running [abstract]. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1983; 15: 169
135. Egermann M, Brocai D, Lill CA, et al. Analysis of injuries in long-distance triathletes. Int J Sports Med 2003; 271-276
136. Rauh MJ, Margherita AJ, Rice SG, et al. High school cross country running injuries: a longitudinal study. Clin J Sport Med 2000; 10: 110-116
137. Vanmechelen W. Running injuries: a review of the epide-miologic literature. Sports Med 1992; 14: 320-335
138. Hoeberigs JH. Factors related to the incidence of running injuries. Sports Med 1992; 13: 408-422
139. Ireland ML, Willson JD, Ballantyne BT, et al. Hip strength in females with and without patellofemoral pain. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 2003; 33: 671-676
140. Madeley LT, Munteanu SE, Bonanno DR. Endurance of the ankle joint plantar flexor muscles in athletes with medial tibial stress syndrome: a case-control study. J Sci Med Sport 2007; 10: 356-362
141. Branch TP, Hunter R, Donath M. Dynamic EMG analysis of anterior cruciate deficient legs with and without bracing during cutting. Am J Sports Med 1989; 17: 35-41
142. Swanik CB, Lephart SM, Giraldo JL, et al. Reactive muscle firing of anterior cruciate ligament-injured females during functional activities. J Athl Train 1999; 34: 121-129
143. Gussoni M, Margonato V, Ventura R, et al. Energy cost of walking with hip joint impairment. Phys Ther 1990; 70: 295-301
144. McBeath AA, Bahrke MS, Balke B. Walking efficiency before and after total hip replacement as determined by oxygen consumption. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1980; 62: 807-810
145. Pugh LG. The oxygen intake and energy cost of walking before and after unilateral hip replacement, with some observations on the use of crutches. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1973; 55-B: 742-745
146. Waters R, Perry J, Conaty P, et al. The energy cost of walking with arthritis of the hip and knee. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1987; 214: 278-284
147. McHugh MP, Spitz AL, Lorei MP, et al. Effect of anterior cruciate ligament deficiency on economy of walking and jogging. J Orthop Res 1994; 12: 592-597
148. Byrne C, Twist C, Eston R. Neuromuscular function after exercise-induced muscle damage: theoretical and applied implications. Sports Med 2007; 34: 49-69
149. Paschalis V, Koutedakis Y, Baltzopoulos V, et al. The ef-fects of muscle damage on running economy in healthy males. Int J Sports Med 2005; 26: 827-831
150. Scott KE, Rozenek R, Russo AC, et al. Effects of delayed onset muscle soreness on selected physiological responses to submaximal running. J Strength Cond Res 2003; 17: 652-658
151. Hamill J, Freedson PS, Clarkson PM, et al. Muscle soreness during running: biomechanical and physiological considerations. Int J Sport Biomech 1991; 7: 125-137
152. Braun WA, Dutto DJ. The effects of a single bout of downhill running and ensuing delayed onset of muscle soreness on running economy performed 48h later. Eur J Appl Physiol 2003; 90: 29-34