Effects of tree cutting and fire on understory vegetation in mixed conifer forests

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 335, Issue , 2015, Pages 281-299

  Abella, Scott R ^a   Springer, Judith D ^b  

^a Natural Resource Conservation LLC   (United States)

^b NORTHERN ARIZONA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Fuel reduction; Groundlayer; Non native species; Silviculture; Western North America; Wildfire

Indexed keywords

BIODIVERSITY; CONSERVATION; FIRES; VEGETATION;

FUEL REDUCTION; GROUNDLAYER; NON-NATIVE SPECIES; SILVICULTURE; WESTERN NORTH AMERICA; WILDFIRE;

FORESTRY;

BIODIVERSITY; CLEARCUTTING; CONIFEROUS FOREST; FIRE MANAGEMENT; FOREST FIRE; HABITAT CONSERVATION; MIXED FOREST; PLANT COMMUNITY; SHIFTING CULTIVATION; UNDERSTORY; WILDFIRE;

BIOMASS; DENSITY; FOREST MANAGEMENT; FORESTS; PLANTS;

BRITISH COLUMBIA; CANADA; UNITED STATES;

CONIFEROPHYTA;

EID: 84911127120     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2014.09.009     Document Type: Review

References (157)

1. Abella S.R., Covington W.W. Monitoring an Arizona ponderosa pine restoration: sampling efficiency and multivariate analysis of understory vegetation. Restor. Ecol. 2004, 12:359-367.
2. Abella, S.R., Fornwalt, P.J., 2014. Ten years of vegetation assembly after a North American mega-fire. Global Change Biol. (in press).
3. Abella S.R., Springer J.D. Planting trials in northern Arizona ponderosa pine forests. Ecol. Restor. 2009, 27:290-299.
4. Abella S.R., Springer J.D. Soil seed banks in a mature coniferous forest landscape: dominance of native perennials and low spatial variability. Seed Sci. Res. 2012, 22:207-217.
5. Abella S.R., Springer J.D., Covington W.W. Seed banks of an Arizona Pinus ponderosa landscape: responses to environmental gradients and fire cues. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:552-567.
6. Abella S.R., Hurja J.C., Merkler D.J., Denton C.W., Brewer D.G. Overstory-understory relationships along forest type and environmental gradients in the Spring Mountains of southern Nevada, USA. Folia Geobot. 2012, 47:119-134.
7. Abella S.R. Effectiveness of exotic plant treatments on National Park Service lands in the United States. Invasive Plant Sci. Manage. 2014, 7:147-163.
8. Agee J.K., Lolley M.R. Thinning and prescribed fire effects on fuels and potential fire behavior in an eastern Cascades forest, Washington, USA. Fire Ecol. 2006, 2:142-158.
9. Agee J.K. Fire ecology of Pacific Northwest forests 1993, Island Press, Washington, DC, 493 pp.
10. Anderson R.S., Jass R.B., Toney J.L., Allen C.D., Cisneros-Dozal L.M., Hess M., Heikoop J., Fessenden J. Development of the mixed conifer forest in northern New Mexico and its relationship to Holocene environmental change. Quatern. Res. 2008, 69:263-275.
11. Archibold O.W. Seed banks and vegetation processes in coniferous forests. pp. 107-122. Ecology of Soil Seed Banks 1989, 462. Academic Press, New York. M.A. Leck, V.T. Parker, R.L. Simpson (Eds.).
12. Ares A., Neill A.R., Puettmann K.J. Understory abundance, species diversity and functional attribute response to thinning in coniferous stands. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:1104-1113.
13. Ayers D.M., Bedunah D.J., Harrington M.G. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a shelterwood harvest and prescribed burn in western Montana. West. J. Appl. For. 1999, 14:137-143.
14. Baker W.L., Veblen T.T., Sherriff R.L. Fire, fuels and restoration of ponderosa pine-Douglas fire forests in the Rocky Mountains, USA. J. Biogeogr. 2007, 34:251-269.
15. Bakker J.D., Moore M.M. Controls on vegetation structure in southwestern ponderosa pine forests, 1941 and 2004. Ecology 2007, 88:2305-2319.
16. Barbier S., Gosselin F., Balandier P. Influence of tree species on understory vegetation diversity and mechanisms involved - a critical review for temperate and boreal forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 254:1-15.
17. Barbour M., Kelley E., Maloney P., Rizzo D., Royce E., Fites-Kaufmann J. Present and past old-growth forests of the Lake Tahoe Basin, Sierra Nevada, USA. J. Veg. Sci. 2002, 13:461-472.
18. Battaglia, M.A., Shepperd, W.D., 2007. Ponderosa pine, mixed conifer, and spruce-fir forests. pp. 7-37. In Hood, S.M., Miller, M. (Eds.), Fire Ecology and Management of the Major Ecosystems of Southern Utah. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-202. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 110 pp.
19. Battles J.J., Shlisky A.J., Barrett R.H., Heald R.C., Allen-Diaz B.H. The effects of forest management on plant species diversity in a Sierran conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 2001, 146:211-222.
20. Bêche L.A., Stephens S.L., Resh V.H. Effects of prescribed fire on a Sierra Nevada (California, USA) stream and its riparian zone. For. Ecol. Manage. 2005, 218:37-59.
21. Bedunah, D.J., Harrington, M.G., Ayers, D.M., 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. pp. 256-259. In: McArthur, E.D., Ostler, W.K., Wambolt, C.L. (compilers), Proceedings: Shrubland Ecotones; 1998 Augst 12-14, Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 299 pp.
22. Bigelow S.W., North M.P. Microclimate effects of fuels-reduction and group-selection silviculture: implications for fire behavior in Sierran mixed-conifer forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 2012, 264:51-59.
23. Bossuyt B., Hermy M. Influence of land use history on seed banks in European temperate forest ecosystems: a review. Ecography 2001, 24:225-238.
24. Bradley, A.F., Noste, N.V., Fischer, W.C., 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. General Technical Report INT-287. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 128 pp.
25. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Mines and Lands The state of British Columbia's forests 2010, Forest Practices and Investment Branch, Victoria, British Columbia, 308 pp.
26. Brockway D.G., Gatewood R.G., Paris R.B. Restoring grassland savannas from degraded pinyon-juniper woodlands: effects of mechanical overstory reduction and slash treatment alternatives. J. Environ. Manage. 2002, 64:179-197.
27. Chiono L.A., O'Hara K.L., De Lasaux M.J., Nader G.A., Stephens S.L. Development of vegetation and surface fuels following fire hazard reduction treatment. Forests 2012, 3:700-712.
28. Clary, W.P. 1975. Range management and its ecological basis in the ponderosa pine type of Arizona: the status of our knowledge. Research Paper RM-158. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 35 pp.
29. Clayton J.L., Kennedy D.A. Nutrient losses from timber harvest in the Idaho batholith. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 1985, 49:1041-1049.
30. Cocke A.E., Fulé P.Z., Crouse J.E. Forest change on a steep mountain gradient after extended fire exclusion: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona, USA. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 42:814-823.
31. Collins B.M., Moghaddas J.J., Stephens S.L. Initial changes in forest structure and understory plant communities following fuel reduction activities in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 2007, 239:102-111.
32. Conard S.G., Radosevich S.R. Postfire succession in white fir (Abies concolor) vegetation of the northern Sierra Nevada. Madroño 1982, 29:42-56.
33. Coop J.D., Barker K.J., Knight A.D., Pecharich J.S. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) stand dynamics and understory plant community changes over 46 years near Crested Butte, Colorado, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2014, 318:1-12.
34. Covington W.W., Everett R.L., Steele R., Irwin L.L., Daer T.A., Auclair A.N.D. Historical and anticipated changes in forest ecosystems of the inland west of the United States. J. Sust. For. 1994, 2:13-63.
35. Cram D.S., Baker T.T., Fernald A.G., Madrid A., Rummer B. Mechanical thinning impacts on runoff, infiltration, and sediment yield following fuel reduction treatments in a southwestern dry mixed conifer forest. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2007, 62:359-366.
36. Crane, M.F., Habeck, J.R., Fischer, W.C., 1983. Early postfire revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. Research Paper INT-RP-319. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT, USA.
37. Crotteau J.S., Varner J.M., Ritchie M.W. Post-fire regeneration across a fire severity gradient in the southern Cascades. For. Ecol. Manage. 2013, 287:103-112.
38. Dambrine E., Dupouey J.L., Laüt L., Humbert L., Thinon M., Beaufils T., Richard H. Present forest biodiversity patterns in France related to former Roman agriculture. Ecology 2007, 88:1430-1439.
39. Dodson E.K., Fiedler C.E. Impacts of restoration treatments on alien plant invasion in Pinus ponderosa forests, Montana, USA. J. Appl. Ecol. 2006, 43:887-897.
40. Dodson E.K., Peterson D.W. Dry coniferous forest restoration and understory plant diversity: the importance of community heterogeneity and scale of observation. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:1702-1707.
41. Dodson E.K., Metlen K.L., Fiedler C.E. Common and uncommon understory species differentially respond to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests, Montana. Restor. Ecol. 2007, 15:696-708.
42. Dodson E.K., Peterson D.W., Harrod R.J. Understory vegetation response to thinning and burning restoration treatments in dry conifer forests of the eastern Cascades, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 255:3130-3140.
43. Donato D.C., Fontaine J.B., Robinson W.D., Kauffman J.B., Law B.E. Vegetation responses to a short interval between high-severity wildfires in a mixed-evergreen forest. J. Ecol. 2009, 97:142-154.
44. Ducherer K., Bai Y., Thompson D., Broersma K. Dynamic responses of a British Columbian forest-grassland interface to prescribed burning. West. North Am. Nat. 2009, 69:75-87.
45. Ducherer K., Bai Y., Thompson D., Broersma K. Thinning of a ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forest in south-central BC: impacts on understorey vegetation. J. Ecosyst. Manage. 2013, 14:1-15.
46. Duguid M.C., Ashton M.S. A meta-analysis of the effect of forest management for timber on understory plant species diversity in temperate forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 2013, 303:81-90.
47. Falk D.A., Heyerdahl E.K., Brown P.M., Farris C., Fulé P.Z., McKenzie D., Swetnam T.W., Taylor A.H., Van Horne M.L. Multi-scale controls of historical forest-fire regimes: new insights from fire-scar networks. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2011, 9:446-454.
48. Ffolliott, P.F., Gottfried, G.J., 1989. Production and utilization of herbaceous plants in small clearcuts in an Arizona mixed conifer forest. Research Note RM-494. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 5 pp.
49. Fiedler C.E., Dodson E.K., Metlen K.L. Exotic plant response to forest disturbance in the western United States. pp. 93-112. Invasive Plant Ecology 2013, 302. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. S. Jose, H.P. Singh, D.R. Batish, K.K. Kohli (Eds.).
50. Fischer, W.C., Clayton, B.D., 1983. Fire ecology of Montana forest habitat types east of the Continental Divide. General Technical Report INT-141. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 83 pp.
51. Fites-Kaufman, Rundel P., Stephenson N., Weixelman D.A. Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges. pp. 456-501. Terrestrial Vegetation of California 2007, 712. University of California Press, Berkeley. M.G. Barbour, T. Keeler-Wolf, A.A. Schoenherr (Eds.).
52. Fonda R.W., Binney E.P. Vegetation response to prescribed fire in Douglas-fir forests, Olympic National Park. Northwest Sci. 2011, 85:30-40.
53. Fornwalt P.J., Kaufmann M.R. Understorey plant community dynamics following a large, mixed severity wildfire in a Pinus ponderosa-Pseudotsuga menziesii forest, Colorado, USA. J. Veg. Sci. 2014, 25:805-818.
54. Fornwalt P.J., Rhoades C.C. Rehabilitating slash pile burn scars in upper montane forests of the Colorado Front Range. Nat. Areas J. 2011, 31:177-182.
55. Freeman J.P., Stohlgren T.J., Hunter M.E., Omi P.N., Martinson E.J., Chong G.W., Brown C.S. Rapid assessment of postfire plant invasions in coniferous forests of the western United States. Ecol. Appl. 2007, 17:1656-1665.
56. Fulé P.Z., Crouse J.E., Heinlein T.A., Moore M.M., Covington W.W., Verkamp G. Mixed-severity fire regime in a high-elevation forest: Grand Canyon, Arizona. Landscape Ecol. 2003, 18:465-486.
57. Fulé P.Z., Korb J.E., Wu R. Changes in forest structure of a mixed conifer forest, southwestern Colorado, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2009, 258:1200-1210.
58. Fulé P.Z., Crouse J.E., Roccaforte J.P., Kalies E.L. Do thinning and/or burning treatments in western USA ponderosa or Jeffrey pine-dominated forests help restore natural fire behavior?. For. Ecol. Manage. 2012, 269:68-81.
59. Gilliam F.S. The ecological significance of the herbaceous layer in temperate forest ecosystems. Bioscience 2007, 57:845-858.
60. Gordon, F.A., 1976. Spring burning in an aspen-conifer stand for maintenance of moose habitat, West Boulder River, Montana. In: Proceedings Annual 14th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council Fire & Land Management Symposium. Missoula, MN. Tall Timbers Research Inc., Tallahassee, FL. pp. 501-538.
61. Gruell, G.E., 1983. Fire and vegetative trends in the Northern Rockies: interpretations from 1871-1982 photographs. General Technical Report INT-158. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 117 pp.
62. Gruell G.E. Fire in Sierra Nevada Forests: A Photographic Interpretation of Ecological Change since 1849 2001, Mountain Press Publishing, Missoula, MT.
63. Gundale M.J., Metlen K.L., Fiedler C.E., DeLuca T.H. Nitrogen spatial heterogeneity influences diversity following restoration in a ponderosa pine forest, Montana. Ecol. Appl. 2006, 16:479-489.
64. Hagmann R.K., Franklin J.F., Johnson K.N. Historical structure and composition of ponderosa pine and mixed-conifer forests in south-central Oregon. For. Ecol. Manage. 2013, 304:492-504.
65. Halpern C.B., Lutz J.A. Canopy closure exerts weak controls on understory dynamics: a 30-year study of overstory-understory interactions. Ecol. Monogr. 2013, 83:221-237.
66. Hardman A., McCune B. Bryoid layer response to soil disturbance by fuel reduction treatments in a dry conifer forest. Bryologist 2010, 113:235-245.
67. Harrison F. Getting started with meta-analysis. Methods Ecol. Evol. 2011, 2:1-10.
68. Harrod R.J., Halpern C.B. Effects of experimental burning on individual performance and population structure of two rare plants of north-central Washington. Restor. Ecol. 2009, 17:215-225.
69. Hart S.A., Chen H.Y.H. Understory vegetation dynamics of North American boreal forests. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2006, 25:381-397.
70. Hedrick, D.W., Young, J.A., McArthur, J.A.B., Keniston, R.F., 1968. Effects of forest and grazing practices on mixed coniferous forests of northeastern Oregon. Technical Bulletin 103. Agricultural Experiment Station, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 24 pp.
71. Heinlein T.A., Moore M.M., Fulé P.Z., Covington W.W. Fire history and stand structure of two ponderosa pine-mixed conifer sites: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona, USA. Int. J. Wildland Fire 2005, 14:307-320.
72. Hessburg P.F., Agee J.K. An environmental narrative of Inland Northwest United States forests, 1800-2000. For. Ecol. Manage. 2003, 178:23-59.
73. Heyerdahl E.K., Lertzman K., Young C.M. Mixed-severity fire regimes in dry forests of southern interior British Columbia, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 2012, 42:88-98.
74. Honnay O., Bossuyt B., Verheyen K., Butaye J., Jacquemyn H., Hermy M. Ecological perspectives for the restoration of plant communities in European temperate forests. Biodivers. Conserv. 2002, 11:213-242.
75. Huffman D.W., Laughlin D.C., Pearson K.M., Pandey S. Effects of vertebrate herbivores and shrub characteristics on arthropod assemblages in a northern Arizona forest ecosystem. For. Ecol. Manage. 2009, 258:616-625.
76. Huisinga K.D., Laughlin D.C., Fulé P.Z., Springer J.D., McGlone C.M. Effects of an intense prescribed fire on understory vegetation in a mixed conifer forest. J. Torrey Bot. Soc. 2005, 132:590-601.
77. Hurteau M., North M. Mixed-conifer understory response to climate change, nitrogen, and fire. Glob. Change Biol. 2008, 14:1543-1552.
78. Jain, T.B., Battaglia, M.A., Han, H., Graham, R.T., Keyes, C.R., Fried, J.S., Sandquist, J.E., 2012. A comprehensive guide to fuel management practices for dry mixed conifer forests in the northwestern United States. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-292. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 331 pp.
79. Jones, J.R., 1974. Silviculture of southwestern mixed conifers and aspen: the status of our knowledge. Research Paper RM-122. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 44 pp.
80. Kalies E.L., Chambers C.L., Covington W.W. Wildlife responses to thinning and burning treatments in southwestern conifer forests: a meta-analysis. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 259:333-342.
81. Kane J.M., Varner J.M., Knapp E.E., Powers R.F. Understory vegetation response to mechanical mastication and other fuels treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Appl. Veg. Sci. 2010, 13:207-220.
82. Kauffman J.B., Martin R.E. Sprouting shrub response to different seasons and fuel consumption levels of prescribed fire in Sierra Nevada mixed conifer ecosystems. Forest Sci. 1990, 36:748-764.
83. Kauffman J.B., Martin R.E. Factors influencing the scarification and germination of three montane Sierra Nevada shrubs. Northwest Sci. 1991, 65:180-187.
84. Kaufmann, M.R., Huckaby, L.S., Regan, C.M., Popp, J., 1998. Forest reference conditions for ecosystem management in the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-19. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 87 pp.
85. Keeley J.E. Fire management impacts on invasive plants in the western United States. Conserv. Biol. 2006, 20:375-384.
86. Keith R.P., Veblen T.T., Schoennagel T.L., Sherriff R.L. Understory vegetation indicates historic fire regimes in ponderosa pine-dominated ecosystems in the Colorado Front Range. J. Veg. Sci. 2010, 21:488-499.
87. Klenner W., Walton R., Arsenault A., Kremsater L. Dry forests in the southern interior of British Columbia: historic disturbances and implications for restoration and management. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 256:1711-1722.
88. Knapp E.E., Schwilk D.W., Kane J.M., Keeley J.E. Role of burning season on initial understory vegetation response to prescribed fire in a mixed conifer forest. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:11-22.
89. Knapp E.E., Weatherspoon C.P., Skinner C.N. Shrub seed banks in mixed conifer forests of northern California and the role of fire in regulation abundance. Fire Ecol. 2012, 8:32-48.
90. Knapp E.E., Skinner C.N., North M.P., Estes B.L. Long-term overstory and understory change following logging and fire exclusion in a Sierra Nevada mixed-conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 2013, 310:903-914.
91. Korb J.E., Johnson N.C., Covington W.W. Slash pile burning effects on soil biotic and chemical properties and plant establishment: recommendations for amelioration. Restor. Ecol. 2004, 12:52-62.
92. Handbook of Meta-analysis in Ecology and Evolution 2013, Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 498pp. J. Koricheva, J. Gurevitch, K. Mengersen (Eds.).
93. Kosco B.H., Bartolome J.W. Effects of cattle and deer on regenerating mixed conifer clearcuts. J. Range Manag. 1983, 36:265-268.
94. Kramer N.B., Johnson F.D. Mature forest seed banks of three habitat types in central Idaho. Can. J. Bot. 1987, 65:1961-1966.
95. Kreye J.K., Brewer N.W., Morgan P., Varner J.M., Smith A.M.S., Hoffman C.M., Ottmar R.D. Fire behavior in masticated fuels: a review. For. Ecol. Manage. 2014, 314:193-207.
96. Kreyling J., Schmiedinger A., Macdonald E., Beierkuhnlein C. Slow understory redevelopment after clearcutting in high mountain forests. Biodiv. Conserv. 2008, 17:2339-2355.
97. Larson, F.R., Wolters, G.L., 1983. Overstory-understory relationships: mixed conifer forests. pp. 21-25. In: Bartlett, E.T., Betters, D.R. (Eds.), Overstory-understory Relationships in Western Forests. Western Regional Research Publication No. 1. Colorado State University Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 36 pp.
98. Laughlin D.C., Fulé P.Z. Wildland fire effects on understory plant communities in two fire-prone forests. Can. J. For. Res. 2008, 38:133-142.
99. Lochhead K.D., Comeau P.G. Relationships between forest structure, understorey light and regeneration in complex Douglas-fir dominated stands in south-eastern British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 2012, 284:12-22.
100. Lydersen J.M., North M.P., Knapp E.E., Collins B.M. Quantifying spatial patterns of tree groups and gaps in mixed-conifer forests: reference conditions and long-term changes following fire suppression and logging. For. Ecol. Manage. 2013, 304:370-382.
101. Lyon, L.J., Stickney, P.F., 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings: 14th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference, October 8-10, 1974, Missoula, MT, pp. 355-373. Tall Timbers Research Station: Tallahassee, FL, USA.
102. Lyon, L.J., 1966. Initial vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Research Paper INT-29. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, UT. 17 pp.
103. Ma S., Concilio A., Oakley B., North M., Chen J. Spatial variability in microclimate in a mixed-conifer forest before and after thinning and burning treatments. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 259:904-915.
104. Mason G.J., Baker T.T., Cram D.S., Boren J.C., Fernald A.G., VanLeeuwen D.M. Mechanical fuel treatment effects on fuel loads and indices of crown fire potential in a south central New Mexico dry mixed conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 2009, 251:195-204.
105. McGlone C.M., Egan D. The role of fire in the establishment and spread of nonnative plants in Arizona ponderosa pine forests: a review. J. Arizona-Nevada Acad. Sci. 2009, 41:75-86.
106. McGlone C.M., Sieg C.H., Kolb T.E. Invasion resistance and persistence: established plants win, even with disturbance and high propagule pressure. Biol. Invasions 2012, 13:291-304.
107. McIver J.D., Stephens S.L., Agee J.K., Barbour J., Boerner R.E.J., Edminster C.B., Erickson K.L., Farris H.L., Fettig C.J., Fiedler C.E., Haase S., Hart S.C., Keeley J.E., Knapp E.E., Lehmkuhl J.F., Moghaddas J.J., Otrosina W., Outcalt K.W., Schwilk D.W., Skinner C.N., Waldrop T.A., Weatherspoon C.P., Yaussy D.A., Youngblood A., Zack S. Ecological effects of alternative fuel-reduction treatments: highlights of the National Fire and Fire Surrogate study (FFS). Int. J. Wildland Fire 2013, 22:63-82.
108. McKelvey, K.S., Johnston, J.D., 1992. Historical perspectives on forests of the Sierra Nevada and the transverse ranges of southern California: forest conditions at the turn of the century. pp. 225-246. In: Verner, J., McKelvey, K.S., Noon, B.R., Gutierrez, R.J., Gould, G.I., Beck, T.W. (Eds.), The California Spotted Owl: A Technical Assessment of Its Current Status. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-133. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, Albany, CA.
109. Metlen K.L., Fiedler C.E. Restoration treatment effects on the understory of ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir forests in western Montana, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2006, 222:355-369.
110. Metlen K.L., Fiedler C.E., Youngblood A. Understory response to fuel reduction treatments in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Northwest Sci. 2004, 78:175-185.
111. Minnich R.A., Barbour M.G., Burk J.H., Fernau R.F. Sixty years of change in Californian conifer forests of the San Bernardino Mountains. Conserv. Biol. 1995, 9:902-914.
112. Minnich R.A., Barbour M.G., Burk J.H., Sosa-Ramirez J. Californian mixed-conifer forests under unmanaged fire regimes in the Sierra San Pedro Mártir, Baja California, Mexico. J. Biogeogr. 2000, 27:105-129.
113. Mitchell J.E., Bartling P.N.S. Comparison of linear and nonlinear overstory-understory models for ponderosa pine. For. Ecol. Manage. 1991, 42:195-204.
114. Munger, T.T., Westveld, R.H., 1931. Slash disposal in the western yellow pine forests of Oregon and Washington. Technical Bulletin 259. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. 58 pp.
115. Newland J.A., DeLuca T.H. Influence of fire on native nitrogen-fixing plants and soil nitrogen status in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests in western Montana. Can. J. For. Res. 2000, 30:274-282.
116. North M., Oakley B., Fiegener R., Gray A., Barbour M. Influence of light and soil moisture on Sierran mixed-conifer understory communities. Plant Ecol. 2005, 177:13-24.
117. North M., Innes J., Zald H. Comparison of thinning and prescribed fire restoration treatments to Sierran mixed-conifer historic conditions. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:331-342.
118. North M., Collins B.M., Stephens S. Using fire to increase the scale, benefits, and future maintenance of fuels treatments. J. Forest. 2012, 110:392-401.
119. Page H.N., Bork E.W. Effect of planting season, bunchgrass species, and neighbor control on the success of transplants for grassland restoration. Restor. Ecol. 2005, 13:651-658.
120. Page H.N., Bork E.W., Newman R.F. Understory responses to mechanical restoration and drought within montane forests of British Columbia. Br. Columb. J. Ecosyst. Manage. 2005, 6:8-21.
121. Page-Dumroese, D., Harvey, A., Jurgensen, M., Graham, R., 1991. Organic matter function in the western-montane forest soil system. pp. 95-100. In: Harvey, A.E., Neuenschwander, L.F. (compilers), Proceedings-management and Productivity of Western-montane Forest Soils. General Technical Report INT-280. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Ogden, UT. 254 pp.
122. Paillet Y., Bergès L., Hjältén J., et al. Biodiversity differences between managed and unmanaged forests: meta-analysis of species richness in Europe. Conserv. Biol. 2010, 24:101-112.
123. Parsons D.J., DeBenedetti S.H. Impact of fire suppression on a mixed-conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 1979, 2:21-33.
124. Patton, D.R., 1976. Timber harvesting increases deer and elk use of a mixed conifer forest. Research Note RM-329. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 3 pp.
125. Peppin D., Fulé P.Z., Sieg C.H., Beyers J.L., Hunter M.E. Post-wildfire seeding in forests of the western United States: an evidence-based review. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:573-586.
126. Perry L.G., Blumenthal D.M., Monaco T.A., Paschke M.W., Redente E.F. Immobilizing nitrogen to control plant invasion. Oecologia 2010, 163:13-24.
127. Pullin A.S., Stewart G.B. Guidelines for systematic review in conservation and environmental management. Conserv. Biol. 2006, 20:1647-1656.
128. Pyke D.A., Zamora B.A. Relationships between overstory structure and understory production in the grand fir/myrtle boxwood habitat type of northcentral Idaho. J. Range Manag. 1982, 35:769-773.
129. Reynolds, R.T., Sánchez Meador, A.J., Youtz, J.A., Nicolet, T., Matonis, M.S., Jackson, P.L., DeLorenzo, D.G., Graves, A.D., 2013. Restoring composition and structure in southwestern frequent-fire forests: a science-based framework for improving ecosystem resiliency. General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-310. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, CO. 76 pp.
130. Riggs, R.A., Tiedemann, A.R., Cook, J.G., Ballard, T.M., Edgerton, P.J., Vavra, M., Krueger, W.C., Hall, F.C., Bryant, L.D., Irwin, L.L., Delcurto, T., 2000. Modification of mixed-conifer forests by ruminant herbivores in the Blue Mountains ecological province. Research Paper PNW-RP-527. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, OR. 77 pp.
131. Roberts M.R. Response of the herbaceous layer to natural disturbance in North American forests. Can. J. Bot. 2004, 82:1273-1283.
132. Rosenvald R., Lõhmus A. For what, when, and where is green-tree retention better than clear-cutting? a review of the biodiversity aspects. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 255:1-15.
133. Scherer G., Zabowski D., Java B., Everett R. Timber harvesting residue treatment. Part II. Understory vegetation. For. Ecol. Manage. 2000, 126:35-50.
134. Schoennagel T., Nelson C.R. Restoration relevance of recent National Fire Plan treatments in forests of the western United States. Front. Ecol. Environ. 2011, 9:271-277.
135. Seidel, K.W., Cochran, P.H., 1981. Silviculture of mixed conifer forests in eastern Oregon and Washington. General Technical Report PNW-121. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, OR. 70 pp.
136. Selmants P.C., Knight D.H. Understory plant species composition 30-50 years after clearcutting in southeastern Wyoming coniferous forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 2003, 185:275-289.
137. Siegel R.B., DeSante D.F. Bird communities in thinned versus unthinned Sierran mixed conifer stands. Wilson Bull. 2003, 115:155-165.
138. Stark K.E., Arsenault A., Bradfield G.E. Soil seed banks and plant community assembly following disturbance by fire and logging in interior Douglas-fir forests of south-central British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 2006, 84:1548-1560.
139. Stark K.E., Arsenault A., Bradfield G.E. Variation in soil seed bank species composition of a dry coniferous forest: spatial scale and sampling considerations. Plant Ecol. 2008, 197:73-181.
140. Steele, R.W., Beaufait, W.R., 1969. Spring and autumn broadcast burning of interior Douglas-fir slash. Bulletin 36. University of Montana, School of Forestry, Missoula, MT. 12 p.
141. Stephens S.L., Collins B.M., Roller G. Fuel treatment longevity in a Sierra Nevada mixed conifer forest. For. Ecol. Manage. 2012, 285:204-212.
142. Strickler G.S., Edgerton P.J. Emergent seedlings from coniferous litter and soil in eastern Oregon. Ecology 1976, 57:801-807.
143. Sutherland S., Nelson C.R. Nonnative plant response to silvicultural treatments: a model based on disturbance, propagule pressure, and competitive abilities. West. J. Appl. For. 2010, 25:27-33.
144. Taylor A.H. Identifying forest reference conditions on early cut-over lands, Lake Tahoe Basin, USA. Ecol. Appl. 2004, 14:1903-1920.
145. Thill, R.E., Ffolliott, P.F., Patton, D.R., 1983. Deer and elk forage production in Arizona mixed conifer forests. Research Note RM-248. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, CO. 13 pp.
146. Turnbull L.A., Crawley M.J., Rees M. Are plant populations seed-limited? a review of seed sowing experiments. Oikos 2000, 88:225-238.
147. Vankat J.L. Post-1935 changes in forest vegetation of Grand Canyon National Park, Arizona, USA: Part 2 - mixed conifer, spruce-fir, and quaking aspen forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 261:326-341.
148. Veblen T.T., Romme W.H., Regan C. Regional application of historical ecology at ecologically defined scales: forest ecosystems in the Colorado Front Range. pp. 149-165. Historical Environmental Variation in Conservation and Natural Resource Management 2012, 352. John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey. J.A. Wiens, G.D. Hayward, H.D. Safford, C. Giffen (Eds.).
149. Verschuyl J., Riffell S., Miller D., Wigley T.B. Biodiversity response to intensive biomass production from forest thinning in North American forests - a meta-analysis. For. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 261:221-232.
150. Walker R.F., Fecko R.M., Frederick W.B., Miller W.W., Johnson D.W. Influences of thinning, chipping, and fire on understory vegetation in a Sierran mixed conifer stand. J. Sust. For. 2012, 31:493-517.
151. Walker R.F., Fecko R.M., Johnson D.W., Miller W.W. Wildfire effects on understory vegetation, natural regeneration, and forest floor fuels in a Sierran mixed conifer stand. J. Sust. For. 2013, 32:456-494.
152. Wayman R.B., North M. Initial response of a mixed-conifer understory plant community to burning and thinning restoration treatments. For. Ecol. Manage. 2007, 239:32-44.
153. Weatherspoon, C.P., 1988. Preharvest prescribed burning for vegetation management: effects on Ceanothus velutinus seeds in duff and soil. pp. 125-141. In Tomascheski, J.H. (chairperson), Proceedings: 9th Annual Vegetation Management Conference; 3-5 November 1987, Redding, CA. Forest Vegetation Management Conference, Redding, CA. 226 pp.
154. Webster, K.M., Halpern, C.B., 2010. Long-term vegetation responses to reintroduction and repeated use of fire in mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada. Ecosphere 1(5):art9.
155. Young J.A., Hedrick D.W., Kenniston R.F. Forest cover and logging-herbage and browse production in the mixed conifer forest of northeastern Oregon. J. Forest. 1967, 65:807-813.
156. Youngblood A., Metlen K.L., Coe K. Changes in stand structure and composition after restoration treatments in low elevation dry forests of northeastern Oregon. For. Ecol. Manage. 2006, 234:143-163.
157. Zhang J., Ritchie M.W., Oliver W.W. Vegetation responses to stand structure and prescribed fire in an interior ponderosa pine ecosystem. Can. J. For. Res. 2008, 38:909-918.