The relationship between Big-5 personality traits and cognitive ability in older adults - A review

Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 42-71

  Curtis, Rachel G ^a   Windsor, Tim D ^a   Soubelet, Andrea ^b  

^a FLINDERS UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITÉ CÔTE D'AZUR   (France)

Author keywords

Big 5; cognitive ability; cognitive aging; older adults; personality

Indexed keywords

AGING; COGNITION; HUMAN; PERSONALITY; PHYSIOLOGY;

AGING; COGNITION; HUMANS; PERSONALITY;

EID: 84908207959     PISSN: 13825585     EISSN: 17444128     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/13825585.2014.888392     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Aiken-Morgan, A. T., Bichsel, J., Allaire, J. C., Savla, J., Edwards, C. L., & Whitfield, K. E. (2012). Personality as a source of individual differences in cognition among older African Americans. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 465-471. doi:10. 1016/j. jrp. 2012. 04. 006
2. Allemand, M., Steiger, A. E., & Hill, P. L. (2013). Stability of personality traits in adulthood. GeroPsych: The Journal of Gerontopsychology and Geriatric Psychiatry, 26, 5-13. doi:10. 1024/1662-9647/a000080
3. Allemand, M., Zimprich, D., & Hertzog, C. (2007). Cross-sectional age differences and longitudinal age changes of personality in middle adulthood and old age. Journal of Personality, 75, 323-358. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-6494. 2006. 00441. x
4. Allen, P. A., Kaut, K., Baena, E., Lien, M. C., & Ruthruff, E. (2011). Individual differences in positive affect moderate age-related declines in episodic long-term memory. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23, 768-779. doi:10. 1080/20445911. 2011. 570254
5. Anstey, K. J., Lord, S. R., & Williams, P. (1997). Strength in the lower limbs, visual contrast sensitivity, and simple reaction time predict cognition in older women. Psychology and Aging, 12, 137-144. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 12. 1. 137
6. Arbuckle, T. Y., Gold, D., & Andres, D. (1986). Cognitive functioning of older people in relation to social and personality variables. Psychology and Aging, 1, 55-62. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 1. 1. 55
7. Arbuckle, T. Y., Gold, D. P., Andres, D., Schwartzman, A., & Chaikelson, J. (1992). The role of psychosocial context, age, and intelligence in memory performance of older men. Psychology and Aging, 7, 25-36. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 7. 1. 25
8. Arbuckle, T. Y., Maag, U., Pushkar, D., & Chaikelson, J. S. (1998). Individual differences in trajectory of intellectual development over 45 years of adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 13, 663-675. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 13. 4. 663
9. Asendorpf, J. B. (2002). The puzzle of personality types. European Journal of Personality, 16(S1), S1-S5. doi:10. 1002/per. 446
10. Asendorpf, J. B. (2003). Head-to-head comparison of the predictive validity of personality types and dimensions. European Journal of Personality, 17, 327-346. doi:10. 1002/per. 492
11. Asendorpf, J. B. (2006). Typeness of personality profiles: A continuous person-centred approach to personality data. European Journal of Personality, 20, 83-106. doi:10. 1002/per. 575
12. Asendorpf, J. B., Borkenau, P., Ostendorf, F., & Van Aken, M. A. G. (2001). Carving personality description at its joints: Confirmation of three replicable personality prototypes for both children and adults. European Journal of Personality, 15, 169-198. doi:10. 1002/per. 408
13. Asendorpf, J. B., & van Aken, M. A. G. (1999). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled personality prototypes in childhood: Replicability, predictive power, and the trait-type issue. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 815-832. doi:10. 1037/0022-3514. 77. 4. 815
14. Austin, E. J., Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M. C., Fowkes, F. G. R., Pedersen, N. L., Rabbitt, P.,. McInnes L. (2002). Relationships between ability and personality: Does intelligence contribute positively to personal and social adjustment? Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1391-1411. doi:10. 1016/S0191-8869(01)00129-5
15. Baker, T. J., & Bichsel, J. (2006). Personality predictors of intelligence: Differences between young and cognitively healthy older adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 41, 861-871. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2006. 02. 017
16. Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architecture of human ontogeny: Selection, optimization, and compensation as foundation of developmental theory. American Psychologist, 52, 366-380. doi:10. 1037/0003-066X. 52. 4. 366
17. Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. (2003). New frontiers in the future of aging: From successful aging of the young old to the dilemmas of the fourth age. Gerontology, 49, 123-135. doi:10. 1159/000067946
18. Bielak, A. A. M. (2010). How can we not 'lose it' if we still don't understand how to 'use it'? Unanswered questions about the influence of activity participation on cognitive performance in older age-A mini-review. Gerontology, 56, 507-519. doi:10. 1159/000264918
19. Bielak, A. A. M., Anstey, K. J., Christensen, H., & Windsor, T. D. (2012). Activity engagement is related to level, but not change in cognitive ability across adulthood. Psychology and Aging, 27, 219-228. doi:10. 1037/a0024667
20. Biernacki, M., & Tarnowski, A. (2011). The effect of age and personality on the main cognitive processes in drivers. International Journal of Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health, 24, 367-379. doi:10. 2478/s13382-011-0035-x
21. Boehm, B., Asendorpf, J. B., & Avia, M. D. (2002). Replicable types and subtypes of personality: Spanish NEO-PI samples. European Journal of Personality, 16(S1), S25-S41. doi:10. 1002/per. 450
22. Bolger, N., & Schilling, E. A. (1991). Personality and the problems of everyday life: The role of neuroticism in exposure and reactivity to daily stressors. Journal of Personality, 59, 355-386. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-6494. 1991. tb00253. x
23. Booth, J. E., Schinka, J. A., Brown, L. M., Mortimer, J. A., & Borenstein, A. R. (2006). Five-factor personality dimensions, mood states, and cognitive performance in older adults. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 28, 676-683. doi:10. 1080/13803390590
24. Boyle, L. L., Lyness, J., Duberstein, P. R., Karuza, J., King, D. A., Messing, S., & Tu, X. (2010). Trait neuroticism, depression, and cognitive function in older primary care patients. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 18, 305-312. doi:10. 1097/JGP. 0b013e3181c2941b
25. Bugg, J. M., & Head, D. (2011). Exercise moderates age-related atrophy of the medial temporal lobe. Neurobiology of Aging, 32, 506-514. doi:10. 1016/j. neurobiolaging. 2009. 03. 008
26. Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality development: Stability and change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 453-484. doi:10. 1146/annurev. psych. 55. 090902. 141913
27. Chamorro-Premuzic, T., & Furnham, A. (2004). A possible model for understanding the personalityintelligence interface. British Journal of Psychology, 95, 249-264. doi:10. 1348/00071260477
28. Chapman, B., Duberstein, P., Tindle, H. A., Sink, K. M., Robbins, J., Tancredi, D. J., & Franks, P. (2012). Personality predicts cognitive function over 7 years in older persons. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20, 612-621. doi:10. 1097/JGP. 0b013e31822cc9cb
29. Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Raz, N., Webb, A. G., Cohen, N. J., McAuley, E., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. The Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 58, M176-M180. doi:10. 1093/gerona/58. 2. M176
30. Costa Jr, P. T., Fozard, J. L., McCrae, R. R., & Bossé, R. (1976). Relations of age and personality dimensions to cognitive ability factors. Journal of Gerontology, 31, 663-669. doi:10. 1093/geronj/31. 6. 663
31. Costa Jr, P. T., Herbst, J. H., McCrae, R. R., Samuels, J., & Ozer, D. J. (2002). The replicability and utility of three personality types. European Journal of Personality, 16(S1), S73-S87. doi:10. 1002/per. 448
32. Costa Jr, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992a). Four ways five factors are basic. Personality and Individual Differences, 13, 653-665. doi:10. 1016/0191-8869(92)90236-I
33. Costa Jr, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992b). Revised NEO personality inventory (NEOPI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
34. Costa Jr, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (2003). Personality in adulthood: A five-factor theory perspective (2nd ed. ). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
35. Costa Jr, P. T., McCrae, R. R., & Dye, D. A. (1991). Facet scales for agreeableness and conscientiousness: A revision of the NEO personality inventory. Personality and Individual Differences, 12, 887-898. doi:10. 1016/0191-8869(91)90177-D
36. DeKosky, S. T., Williamson, J. D., Fitzpatrick, A. L., Kronmal, R. A., Ives, D. G., Saxton, J. A.,. Furberg, C. D. (2008). Ginkgo biloba for prevention of Dementia: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 300, 2253-2262. doi:10. 1001/jama. 2008. 683
37. Dellenbach, M., & Zimprich, D. (2008). Typical intellectual engagement and cognition in old age. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15, 208-231. doi:10. 1080/13825580701
38. Denburg, N. L., Weller, J. A., Yamada, T. H., Shivapour, D. M., Kaup, A. R., Laloggia, A.,. Bechara A. (2009). Poor decision making among older adults is related to elevated levels of neuroticism. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 37, 164-172. doi:10. 1007/s12160-009-9094-7
39. Dulay, M. F., & Murphy, C. (2002). Olfactory acuity and cognitive function converge in older adulthood: Support for the common cause hypothesis. Psychology and Aging, 17, 392-404. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 17. 3. 392
40. Gold, D. P., Andres, D., Etezadi, J., Arbuckle, T. Y., Schwartzman, A., & Chaikelson, J. (1995). Structural equation model of intellectual change and continuity and predictors of intelligence in older men. Psychology and Aging, 10, 294-303. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 10. 2. 294
41. Gold, D. P., & Arbuckle, T. Y. (1990). Interactions between personality and cognition and their implications for theories of aging. In E. A. Lovelace (Ed. ), Aging and cognition: Mental processes, self-awareness and interventions (pp. 351-377). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science.
42. Gow, A. J., Whiteman, M. C., Pattie, A., & Deary, I. J. (2005). The personality-intelligence interface: Insights from an ageing cohort. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 751-761. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2005. 01. 028
43. Graham, E. K., & Lachman, M. E. (2012). Personality stability is associated with better cognitive performance in adulthood: Are the stable more able? The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67, 545-554. doi:10. 1093/geronb/gbr149
44. Graham, E. K., & Lachman, M. E. (2014). Personality traits, facets and cognitive performance: Age differences in their relations. Personality and Individual Differences, 59, 89-95. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2013. 11. 011
45. Gregory, T., Nettelbeck, T., & Wilson, C. (2010). Openness to experience, intelligence, and successful ageing. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 895-899. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2010. 02. 017
46. Herzberg, P. Y., & Roth, M. (2006). Beyond resilients, undercontrollers, and overcontrollers? An extension of personality prototype research. European Journal of Personality, 20, 5-28. doi:10. 1002/per. 557
47. Hertzog, C., Kramer, A. F., Wilson, R. S., & Lindenberger, U. (2008). Enrichment effects on adults cognitive development: Can the functional capacity of older adults be preserved and enhanced? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 9(11), 1-65. doi:10. 1111/j. 1539-6053. 2009. 01034. x
48. Hultsch, D. F., Hertzog, C., Small, B. J., & Dixon, R. A. (1999). Use it or lose it: Engaged lifestyle as a buffer of cognitive decline in aging? Psychology and Aging, 14, 245-263. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 14. 2. 245
49. Jackson, J., Balota, D. A., & Head, D. (2011). Exploring the relationship between personality and regional brain volume in healthy aging. Neurobiology of Aging, 32, 2162-2171. doi:10. 1016/j. neurobiolaging. 2009. 12. 009
50. Jackson, J. J., Hill, P. L., Payne, B. R., Roberts, B. W., & Stine-Morrow, E. A. (2012). Can an old dog learn (and want to experience) new tricks? Cognitive training increases openness to experience in older adults. Psychology and Aging, 27, 286-292. doi:10. 1037/a0025918
51. Jelicic, M., Bosma, H., Ponds, R. W. H. M., Van Boxtel, M. P. J., Houx, P. J., & Jolles, J. (2003). Neuroticism does not affect cognitive functioning in later life. Experimental Aging Research, 29, 73-78. doi:10. 1080/03610730303
52. Jorm, A. F., Mackinnon, A. J., Christensen, H., Henderson, S., Scott, R., & Korten, A. (1993). Cognitive functioning and neuroticism in an elderly community sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 15, 721-723. doi:10. 1016/0191-8869(93)90013-S
53. Jylhä, P., & Isometsä, E. (2006). The relationship of neuroticism and extraversion to symptoms of anxiety and depression in the general population. Depression and Anxiety, 23, 281-289. doi:10. 1002/da. 20167
54. Knutson, B., Momenan, R., Rawlings, R. R., Fong, G. W., & Hommer, D. (2001). Negative association of neuroticism with brain volume ratio in healthy humans. Biological Psychiatry, 50, 685-690. doi:10. 1016/S0006-3223(01)01220-3
55. Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (1994). Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection. Psychology and Aging, 9, 339-355. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 9. 3. 339
56. Löckenhoff, C. E., Terracciano, A., Bienvenu, O. J., Patriciu, N. S., Nestadt, G., McCrae, R. R.,. Costa Jr, P. T. (2008). Ethnicity, education, and the temporal stability of personality traits in the East Baltimore Epidemiologic Catchment Area study. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 577-598. doi:10. 1016/j. jrp. 2007. 09. 004
57. Low, L.-F., Harrison, F., & Lackersteen, S. M. (2013). Does personality affect risk for dementia? A systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 21, 713-728. doi:10. 1016/j. jagp. 2012. 08. 004
58. Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2011). Personality development across the lifespan: Longitudinal analyses with a national sample from Germany. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 101, 847-861. doi:10. 1037/a0024298
59. Lupien, S. J., Gaudreau, S., Tchiteya, B. M., Maheu, F., Sharma, S., Nair, N. P. V.,. Meaney, M. J. (1997). Stress-induced declarative memory impairment in healthy elderly subjects: Relationship to cortisol reactivity. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 82, 2070-2075. doi:10. 1210/jc. 82. 7. 2070
60. Lupien, S. J., Maheu, F., Tu, M., Fiocco, A., & Schramek, T. E. (2007). The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition. Brain and Cognition, 65, 209-237. doi:10. 1016/j. bandc. 2007. 02. 007
61. MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83-104. doi:10. 1037/1082-989X. 7. 1. 83
62. McArdle, J. J., & Hamagami, F. (2001). Latent difference score structural models for linear dynamic analyses with incomplete longitudinal data. In L. M. Collins & M. Sayer (Eds. ), New methods for the analysis of change (pp. 139-175). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
63. McCrae, R. R. (1994). Openness to experience: Expanding the boundaries of factor V. European Journal of Personality, 8, 251-272. doi:10. 1002/per. 2410080404
64. McCrae, R. R., & John, O. P. (1992). An introduction to the five-factor model and its applications. Journal of Personality, 60, 175-215. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-6494. 1992. tb00970. x
65. Meier, B., Perrig-Chiello, P., & Perrig, W. (2002). Personality and memory in old age. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 9, 135-144. doi:10. 1076/anec. 9. 2. 135. 9544
66. Mitchell, M. B., Cimino, C. R., Benitez, A., Brown, C. L., Gibbons, L. E., Kennison, R. F.,. Piccinin A. M. (2012). Cognitively stimulating activities: Effects on cognition across four studies with up to 21 years of longitudinal data. Journal of Aging Research, 2012(461592), 1-12. doi:10. 1155/2012/461592
67. Mottus, R., Johnson, W., & Deary, I. J. (2012). Personality traits in old age: Measurement and rankorder stability and some mean-level change. Psychology and Aging, 27, 243-249. doi:10. 1037/a0023690
68. Mottus, R., Johnson, W., Starr, J. M., & Deary, I. J. (2012). Correlates of personality trait levels and their changes in very old age: The Lothian Birth Cohort 1921. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 271-278. doi:10. 1016/j. jrp. 2012. 02. 004
69. Moutafi, J., Furnham, A., & Crump, J. (2003). Demographic and personality predictors of intelligence: A study using the Neo Personality Inventory and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. European Journal of Personality, 17, 79-94. doi:10. 1002/per. 471
70. Moutafi, J., Furnham, A., & Paltiel, L. (2004). Why is conscientiousness negatively correlated with intelligence? Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1013-1022. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2003. 11. 010
71. Moutafi, J., Furnham, A., & Tsaousis, I. (2006). Is the relationship between intelligence and trait neuroticism mediated by test anxiety? Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 587-597. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2005. 08. 004
72. Mroczek, D. K., & Spiro, A. (2003). Modeling intraindividual change in personality traits: Findings from the Normative Aging Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58, P153-P165. doi:10. 1093/geronb/58. 3. P153
73. Muris, P., Roelofs, J., Rassin, E., Franken, I., & Mayer, B. (2005). Mediating effects of rumination and worry on the links between neuroticism, anxiety and depression. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1105-1111. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2005. 04. 005
74. Muthén, B. O. (2002). Beyond SEM: General latent variable modeling. Behaviormetrika, 29, 81-117. doi:10. 2333/bhmk. 29. 81
75. Ozer, D., & Benet-Martínez, V. (2006). Personality and the prediction of consequential outcomes. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 401-421. doi:10. 1146/annurev. psych. 57. 102904. 190127
76. Pace, V. L., & Brannick, M. T. (2010). How similar are personality scales of the "same" construct? A meta-analytic investigation. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 669-676. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2010. 06. 014
77. Rhodes, R. E., & Smith, N. E. I. (2006). Personality correlates of physical activity: A review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40, 958-965. doi:10. 1136/bjsm. 2006. 028860
78. Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3-25. doi:10. 1037/0033-2909. 126. 1. 3
79. Roberts, B. W., & Mroczek, D. (2008). Personality trait change in adulthood. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 31-35. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8721. 2008. 00543. x
80. Roberts, B. W., Smith, J., Jackson, J. J., & Edmonds, G. (2009). Compensatory conscientiousness and health in older couples. Psychological Science, 20, 553-559. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-9280. 2009. 02339. x
81. Roberts, B. W., Walton, K. E., & Viechtbauer, W. (2006). Patterns of mean-level change in personality traits across the life course: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 1-25. doi:10. 1037/0033-2909. 132. 1. 1
82. Robins, R. W., John, O. P., Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1996). Resilient, overcontrolled, and undercontrolled boys: Three replicable personality types. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 157-171. doi:10. 1037/0022-3514. 70. 1. 157
83. Robinson, D. L. (1989). The neurophysiological bases of high IQ. International Journal of Neuroscience, 46, 209-234. doi:10. 3109/00207458908
84. Salthouse, T. A. (1991). Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
85. Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental exercise and mental aging. Evaluating the validity of the "Use It or Lose It" hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 68-87. doi:10. 1111/j. 1745-6916. 2006. 00005. x
86. Salthouse, T. A. (2012). How general are the effects of trait anxiety and depressive symptoms on cognitive functioning? Emotion, 12, 1075-1084. doi:10. 1037/a0025615
87. Sapolsky, R. M. (1994). Glucocorticoids, stress and exacerbation of excitotoxic neuron death. Seminars in Neuroscience, 6, 323-331. doi:10. 1006/smns. 1994. 1041
88. Schnabel, K., Asendorpf, J. B., & Ostendorf, F. (2002). Replicable types and subtypes of personality: German NEO-PI-R versus NEO-FFI. European Journal of Personality, 16(S1), SS7-S24. doi:10. 1002/per. 445
89. Sharp, E. S., Reynolds, C. A., Pedersen, N. L., & Gatz, M. (2010). Cognitive engagement and cognitive aging: Is openness protective? Psychology and Aging, 25, 60-73. doi:10. 1037/a0018748
90. Sliwinski, M. J., Smyth, J. M., Hofer, S. M., & Stawski, R. S. (2006). Intraindividual coupling of daily stress and cognition. Psychology and Aging, 21, 545-557. doi:10. 1037/0882-7974. 21. 3. 545
91. Smith, T. W., & Spiro, A. (2002). Personality, health, and aging: Prolegomenon for the next generation. Journal of Research in Personality, 36, 363-394. doi:10. 1016/S0092-6566(02) 00014-4
92. Soubelet, A. (2011). Age-cognition relations and the personality trait of conscientiousness. Journal of Research in Personality, 45, 529-534. doi:10. 1016/j. jrp. 2011. 06. 007
93. Soubelet, A., & Salthouse, T. A. (2010). The role of activity engagement in the relations between openness/intellect and cognition. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 896-901. doi:10. 1016/j. paid. 2010. 07. 026
94. Soubelet, A., & Salthouse, T. A. (2011). Personality-cognition relations across adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 47, 303-310. doi:10. 1037/a0021816
95. Stawski, R. S., Mogle, J., & Sliwinski, M. J. (2011). Intraindividual coupling of daily stressors and cognitive interference in old age. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 66B(suppl 1), i121-i129. doi:10. 1093/geronb/gbr012
96. Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 8, 448-460. doi:10. 1017/S1355617702
97. Stern, Y. (2009). Cognitive reserve. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2015-2028. doi:10. 1016/j. neuropsychologia. 2009. 03. 004
98. Stillman, A. N., Rowe, K. C., Arndt, S., & Moser, D. J. (2012). Anxious symptoms and cognitive function in non-demented older adults: An inverse relationship. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27, 792-798. doi:10. 1002/gps. 2785
99. Suls, J., & Martin, R. (2005). The daily life of the garden-variety neurotic: Reactivity, stressor exposure, mood spillover, and maladaptive coping. Journal of Personality, 73, 1485-1510. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-6494. 2005. 00356. x
100. Sutin, A. R., Terracciano, A., Kitner-Triolo, M. H., Uda, M., Schlessinger, D., & Zonderman, A. B. (2011). Personality traits prospectively predict verbal fluency in a lifespan sample. Psychology and Aging, 26, 994-999. doi:10. 1037/a0024276
101. Wetherell, J. L., Reynolds, C. A., Gatz, M., & Pedersen, N. L. (2002). Anxiety, cognitive performance, and cognitive decline in normal aging. The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57, P246-P255. doi:10. 1093/geronb/57. 3. P246
102. Williams, P. G., Suchy, Y., & Kraybill, M. L. (2010). Five-Factor Model personality traits and executive functioning among older adults. Journal of Research in Personality, 44, 485-491. doi: 10. 1016/j. jrp. 2010. 06. 002
103. Wilson, R. S., Evans, D. A., Bienias, J. L., Mendes de Leon, C. F., Schneider, J. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2003). Proneness to psychological distress is associated with risk of Alzheimer's disease. Neurology, 61, 1479-1485. doi:10. 1212/01. WNL. 0000096167. 56734. 59
104. Wilson, R. S., Schneider, J. A., Arnold, S. E., Bienias, J. L., & Bennett, D. A. (2007). Conscientiousness and the incidence of Alzheimer Disease and mild cognitive impairment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1204-1212. doi:10. 1001/archpsyc. 64. 10. 1204
105. Wilson, R. S., Schneider, J. A., Boyle, P. A., Arnold, S. E., Tang, Y., & Bennett, D. A. (2007). Chronic distress and incidence of mild cognitive impairment. Neurology, 68, 2085-2092. doi: 10. 1212/01. wnl. 0000264930. 97061. 82
106. Windsor, T. D., & Anstey, K. J. (2008). A longitudinal investigation of perceived control and cognitive performance in young, midlife and older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 15, 744-763. doi:10. 1080/13825580802
107. Wolf, O. T., Schommer, N. C., Hellhammer, D. H., McEwen, B. S., & Kirschbaum, C. (2001). The relationship between stress induced cortisol levels and memory differs between men and women. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 26, 711-720. doi:10. 1016/S0306-4530(01)00025-7
108. Wortman, J., Lucas, R. E., & Donnellan, M. B. (2012). Stability and change in the Big Five personality domains: Evidence from a longitudinal study of Australians. Psychology and Aging, 27, 867-874. doi:10. 1037/a0029322
109. Wright, C. I., Feczko, E., Dickerson, B., & Williams, D. (2007). Neuroanatomical correlates of personality in the elderly. NeuroImage, 35, 263-272. doi:10. 1016/j. neuroimage. 2006. 11. 039
110. Zimprich, D., Allemand, M., & Dellenbach, M. (2009). Openness to experience, fluid intelligence, and crystallized intelligence in middle-aged and old adults. Journal of Research in Personality, 43, 444-454. doi:10. 1016/j. jrp. 2009. 01. 018