A global model simulation of present and future nitrate aerosols and their direct radiative forcing of climate

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 14, Issue 20, 2014, Pages 11031-11063

  Hauglustaine, D A ^a   Balkanski, Y ^a   Schulz, M ^b  

^a LABORATOIRE DES SCIENCES DU CLIMAT ET DE L ENVIRONNEMENT   (France)

^b NORWEGIAN METEOROLOGICAL INSTITUTE   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL; AGRICULTURAL EMISSION; AMMONIA; AMMONIUM NITRATE; CLIMATE EFFECT; COMPUTER SIMULATION; NITRATE; OPTICAL DEPTH; RADIATIVE FORCING;

EUROPE; NORTH AMERICA;

EID: 84904576715     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-14-11031-2014     Document Type: Article

References (98)

1. Ackermann, I. J., Hass, H., Memmesheimer, M., Ziegenbein, C., and Ebel, A.: The parameterization of the sulfate-nitrate-ammonia aerosol system in the long-range transport model EURAD, Meteorol. Atmos. Phys., 57, 101-114, 1995.
2. Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., and Koch, D. M.: Global concentrations of tropospheric sulfate, nitrate, and ammonium aerosol simulated in a general circulation model, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 13791-13823, 1999.
3. Adams, P. J., Seinfeld, J. H., Koch, D., Mickley, L., and Jacob, D.: General circulation model assessment of direct radiative forcing by the sulfate-nitrate-ammonium-water inorganic aerosol system, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 1097-1112, doi10.1029/2000JD900512, 2001.
4. Balkanski, Y.: textitL'Influence des Aérosols sur le Climat, Thèse d'Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches, Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin, Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, 2011.
5. Bauer, S. E., Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Hauglustaine, D. A., and Dentener, F.: Global modeling of heterogeneous chemistry on mineral aerosol surfaces: influence on tropospheric ozone chemistry and comparison to observations, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02304, doi10.1029/2003JD003868, 2004.
6. Bauer, S. E., Koch, D., Unger, N., Metzger, S. M., Shindell, D. T., and Streets, D. G.: Nitrate aerosols today and in 2030: a global simulation including aerosols and tropospheric ozone, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 5043-5059, doi10.5194/acp-7-5043-2007, 2007.
7. Bellouin, N., Rae, J., Jones, A., Johnson, C., Haywood, J., and Boucher, O.: Aerosol forcing in the climate model intercomparison project (CMIP5) simulations by the HadGEM2-ES and the role of ammonium nitrate, J. Geophys. Res., 16, D20206, doi10.1029/2001JD016074, 2011.
8. Bousquet, P., Hauglustaine, D. A., Peylin, P., Carouge, C., and Ciais, P.: Two decades of OH variability as inferred by an inversion of atmospheric transport and chemistry of methyl chloroform, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 2635-2656, doi10.5194/acp-5-2635-2005, 2005.
9. Bousquet, P., Yver, C., Pison, I., Li, Y. S., Fortems, A., Hauglustaine, D., Szopa, S., Rayner, P. J., Novelli, P., Langenfelds, R., Steele, P., Ramonet, M., Schmidt, M., Foster, P., Morfopulos, C., and Ciais, P.: A 3D synthesis inversion of the molecular hydrogen cycle: sources and sinks budget implications for the soil uptake, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D01302, doi10.1029/2010JD014599, 2010.
10. Bouwman, A. F., Lee, D. S., Asman, W. A. H., Dentener, F. J., Van Der Hoek, K. W., and Olivier, J. G. J.: A global high-resolution emission inventory for ammonia, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 11, 561-587, 1997.
11. Brunner, D., Staehelin, J., Rogers, H. L., Köhler, M. O., Pyle, J. A., Hauglustaine, D. A., Jourdain, L., Berntsen, T. K., Gauss, M., Isaksen, I. S. A., Meijer, E., van Velthoven, P., Pitari, G., Mancini, E., Grewe, V., and Sausen, R.: An evaluation of the performance of chemistry transport models by comparison with research aircraft observations. Part 1: concepts and overall model performance, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 3, 1606-1631, 2003.
12. Chin, M., Ginoux, P., Kinne, S., Holben, B. N., Duncan, B. N., Martin, R. V., Logan, J. A., Higurashi, A., and Nakajima, T.: Tropospheric Aerosol Optical Thickness from the GOCART Model and Comparisons with Satellite and Sun Photometer Measurements, J. Atmos. Sci., 59, 461-483, 2002.
13. Chung, S. H. and Seinfeld, J. H.: Global distribution and climate forcing of carbonaceous aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4407, doi10.1029/2001JD00397, 2002.
14. Claquin, T., Schulz, M., and Balkanski, Y. J.: Modeling the mineralogy of atmospheric dust source, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 22243-22256, 1999.
15. Clarisse, L., Clerbaux, C., Dentener, F., Hurtmans, D., and Coheur, P.-F.: Global ammonia distribution derived from infrared satellite observations, Nat. Geosci., 2, 479-483, 2009.
16. Cooke, W. F. and J. J. N. Wilson, A global black carbon aerosol model, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 19,395-19,409, 1996.
17. Dall'Osto, M., M., Harrison, R. M., Coe, H., Williams, P. I., and Allan, J. D.: Real time chemical characterization of local and regional nitrate aerosols, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 3709-3720, doi10.5194/acp-9-3709-2009, 2009.
18. 3, and OH, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 7149-7163, 1993.
19. Dentener, F., Kinne, S., Bond, T., Boucher, O., Cofala, J., Generoso, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Hoelzemann, J. J., Ito, A., Marelli, L., Penner, J. E., Putaud, J.-P., Textor, C., Schulz, M., van der Werf, G. R., and Wilson, J.: Emissions of primary aerosol and precursor gases in the years 2000 and 1750 prescribed data-sets for AeroCom, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4321-4344, doi10.5194/acp-6-4321-2006, 2006a.
20. Dentener, F., Stevenson, D., Drevet, J., Lamarque, J.-F., Bey, I., Eickhout, B., Fiore, A., Hauglustaine, D., Horrowitz, L., Krol, M., Kuhlsherestha, U., Lawrence, M.,Galy-Lacaux, C., Rast, S., Shindell, D., Stevenson, D., Van Noije, T., Atherthon, C., Bell, N., Bergman, D., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, W., Doherty, R., Ellingsen, K., Galloway, J., Gauss, M., Montanaro, V., Muller, J.-F., Pitari, G., Rodriquez, J., Sanderson, M., Strahan, S., Schultz, M., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Wild, O., Nitrogen and sulfur deposition on regional and global scales: a multimodel evaluation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB4003, doi10.1029/2005GB002672, 2006b.
21. Doney, S. C., Mahowald, N., Lima, I., Feely, R. A., Mackenzie, F. T., Lamarque, J.-F., and Rasch, P. J.: Impact of anthropogenic atmospheric nitrogen and sulfur deposition on ocean acidification and the inorganic carbon system, P. Natl. Acad. Sci., 104, 14580-14585, doi10.1073/pnas.0702218104, 2007.
22. Dufour, G., Szopa, S., Hauglustaine, D. A., Boone, C. D., Rinsland, C. P., and Bernath, P. F.: The influence of biogenic emissions on upper-tropospheric methanol as revealed from space, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 6119-6129, doi10.5194/acp-7-6119-2007, 2007.
23. Emanuel, K. A.: A scheme for representing cumulus convection in large-scale models, J Atmos. Sci., 48, 2313-2335, 1991.
24. Evans, M. J. and Jacob, D. J.: Impact of new laboratory studies of N2O5 hydrolysis on global model budgets of tropospheric nitrogen oxides, ozone, and OH, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09813, doi10.1029/2005GL022469, 2005.
25. Fairlie, T. D., Jacob, D. J., Dibb, J. E., Alexander, B., Avery, M. A., van Donkelaar, A., and Zhang, L.: Impact of mineral dust on nitrate, sulfate, and ozone in transpacific Asian pollution plumes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 3999-4012, doi10.5194/acp-10-3999-2010, 2010.
26. Feng, Y., and Penner, J. E.: Global modeling of nitrate and ammonium: interaction of aerosols and tropospheric chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D01304, doi10.1029/2005JD006404, 2007.
27. Fiore, A. M., Dentener, F. J., Wild, O., Cuvelier, C., Schultz, M. G., Hess, P., Textor, C., Schulz, M., Doherty, R. M., Horowitz, L. W., MacKenzie, I. A., Sanderson, M. G., Shindell, D. T., Stevenson, D. S., Szopa, S., Van Dingenen, R., Zeng, G., Atherton, C., Bergmann, D., Bey, I., Carmichael, G., Collins, W. J., Duncan, B. N., Faluvegi, G., Folberth, G., Gauss, M., Gong, S., Hauglustaine, D., Holloway, T., Isaksen, I. S. A., Jacob, D. J., Jonson, J. E., Kaminski, J. W., Keating, T. J., Lupu, A., Marmer, E., Montanaro, V., Park, R. J., Pitari, G., Pringle, K., J., Pyle, J. A., Schroeder, S., Vivanco, M. G., Wind, P., Wojcik, G., Wu, S., and Zuber, A.: Multi-model Estimates of Intercontinental Source-Receptor Relationships for Ozone Pollution, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D04301, doi10.1029/2008JD010816, 2009.
28. Folberth, G. A., Hauglustaine, D. A., Lathière, J., and Brocheton, F.: Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique general circulation model: model description and impact analysis of biogenic hydrocarbons on tropospheric chemistry, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2273-2319, doi10.5194/acp-6-2273-2006, 2006.
29. Forster, P., Ramaswamy, V., Artaxo, P., Berntsen, T., Betts, R., Fahey, D. W., Haywood, J., Lean, J., Lowe, D. C., Myhre, G., Nganga, J., Prinn, R., Raga, G., Schulz, M., and Van Dorland, R.: Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing, in: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H. L., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2007.
30. Fouquart, Y. and Bonel, B.: Computations of solar heating of the earth's atmosphere: a new parameterization, Beitr. Phys. Atmos., 53, 35-62, 1980.
31. Gosse, S. F., Wang, M., Labrie, D., and Chylek, P.: Imaginary part of the refractive index of sulfates and nitrates in the 0.7-2.6 ?m spectral region, Appl. Opt., 36, 16, 3622-3634, 1997.
32. Gruber, N. and Galloway, J. N.: Earth-system perspective of the global nitrogen cycle, Nature, 451, 293-296, 2008.
33. Hauglustaine, D. A., Hourdin, F., Walters, S., Jourdain, L., Filiberti, M.-A., Larmarque, J.-F., and Holland, E. A.: Interactive chemistry in the Laboratoire de Météorologie Dynamique general circulation model: description and background tropospheric chemistry evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D04314, doi10.1029/2003JD003957, 2004.
34. Heald, C. L., Collett Jr., J. L., Lee, T., Benedict, K. B., Schwandner, F. M., Li, Y., Clarisse, L., Hurtmans, D. R., Van Damme, M., Clerbaux, C., Coheur, P.-F., Philip, S., Martin, R. V., and Pye, H. O. T.: Atmospheric ammonia and particulate inorganic nitrogen over the United States, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 10295-10312, doi10.5194/acp-12-10295-2012, 2012.
35. Hertel, O., Reis, S., Skjoth, C. A., Bleeker, A., Harrison, R., Cape, J. N., Fowler, D., Skiba, U., Simpson, D., Jickells, T., Baker, A., Kulmala, M., Gyldenkaerne, S., Sorensen, L. L., and Erisman, J. W.: Nitrogen processes in the atmosphere, in: The European Nitrogen Assessment, edited by: Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W., Billen, G., Bleeker, A., Grennfelt, P., van Grinsven, H., and Grizzetti, B., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 177-207, 2011.
36. Holben, B. N., Tanre, D., Smirnov, A., Eck, T. F., Slutsker, I., Abuhassan, N., Newcomb, W. W., Schafer, J., Chatenet, B., Lavenue, F., Kaufman, Y. J., Vande Castle, J., Setzer, A., Markham, B., Clark, D., Frouin, R., Halthore, R., Karnieli, A., O'Neill, N. T., Pietras, C., Pinker, R. T., Voss, K., and Zibordi, G.: An emerging ground-based aerosol climatology: aerosol optical depth from AERONET, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12067-12097, 2001.
37. Hourdin, F. and Armengaud, A.: The use of finite-volume methods for atmospheric advection of trace species-1. test of various formulations in a general circulation model, Mon. Weather Rev., 127, 822-837, 1999.
38. Hourdin, F. and Issartel, J. P.: Sub-surface nuclear tests monitoring through the CTBT xenon network, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27, 2245-2248, 2000.
39. Hourdin, F., Musat, I., Bony, S., Braconnot, P., Codron, F., Dufresne, J.-L., Fairhead, L., Filiberti, M.-A., Friedlingstein, P., Grandpeix, J.-Y., Krinner, G., Levan, P., Li, Z.-X., and Lott, F.: The LMDZ4 general circulation model: climate performance and sensitivity to parametrized physics with emphasis on tropical convection, Clim. Dynam., 27, 787-813, 2006.
40. x compounds in Europe, in: Tropospheric Ozone, Regional and Global Scale Interactions, edited by: Isaksen, I S A., 239-261, Reidel, Dordrecht, 1988.
41. Irshad, R., Grainger, R G., Peters, D M., McPheat, R A., Smith, K M., and Thomas, G.: Laboratory measurements of the optical properties of sea salt aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 221-230, doi10.5194/acp-9-221-2009, 2009.
42. Jacobson, M Z.: Studying the effects of calcium and magnesium on size-distributed nitrate and ammonium with EQUISOLV II, Atmos. Environ., 33, 3635-3649, 1999.
43. Jacobson, M Z.: Global direct radiative forcing due to multicomponent anthropogenic and natural aerosols, J. Geophys Res., 106, 1551-1568, 2001.
44. Jarzembski, M A., Norman, M L., Fuller, K A., Srivastava, V., and Cutten, D R.: Complex refractive index of ammonium nitrate in the 2-20 unitmum spectral range, Appl. Optics, 42, 922-930, 2003.
45. Kinne, S., Schulz, M., Textor, C., Guibert, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S E., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T F., Boucher, O., Chin, M., Collins, W., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Feichter, J., Fillmore, D., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Grini, A., Hendricks, J., Herzog, M., Horowitz, L., Isaksen, I., Iversen, T., Kirkevåg, A., Kloster, S., Koch, D., Kristjansson, J E., Krol, M., Lauer, A., Lamarque, J F., Lesins, G., Liu, X., Lohmann, U., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, O., Stier, P., Takemura, T., and Tie, X.: An AeroCom initial assessment-optical properties in aerosol component modules of global models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 1815-1834, doi10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006, 2006.
46. Koffi, B., Schulz, M., Breon, F.-M., Griesfeller, J., Winker, D., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Chin, M., Collins, W D., Dentener, F., Diehl, T., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Ginoux, P., Gong, S., Horowitz, L W., Iversen, T., Kirkevag, A., Koch, D., Krol, M., Myhre, G., Stier, P., and Takemura, T.: Application of the CALIOP layer product to evaluate the vertical distribution of aerosols estimated by global models: AeroCom phase I results, J. Geophys. Res., 117, D10201, doi10.1029/2011JD016858, 2012.
47. Krinner, G., Viovy, N., de Noblet-Ducoudre, N., Ogee, J., Polcher, J., Friedlingstein, P., Ciais, P., Sitch, S., and Prentice, I C.: A dynamic global vegetation model for studies of the coupled atmosphere-biosphere system, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 19, GB1015, doi10.1029/2003GB002199, 2005.
48. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M G., Shindell, D., Smith, S J., Stehfest, E., Van Aardenne, J., Cooper, O R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., McConnell, J R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010, 2010.
49. Lamarque, J.-F., Kyle, G P., Meinshausen, M., Riahi, K., Smith, S J., van Vuuren, D P., Conley, A J., and Vitt, F.: Global and regional evolution of short-lived radiatively-active gases and aerosols in the Representative Concentration Pathways, Climatic Change, 109, 191-212, doi10.1007/s10584-011-0155-0, 2011.
50. Lamarque, J.-F., Dentener, F., McConnell, J., Ro, C.-U., Shaw, M., Vet, R., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P., Dalsoren, S., Doherty, R., Faluvegi, G., Ghan, S J., Josse, B., Lee, Y H., MacKenzie, I A., Plummer, D., Shindell, D T., Skeie, R B., Stevenson, D S., Strode, S., Zeng, G., Curran, M., Dahl-Jensen, D., Das, S., Fritzsche, D., and Nolan, M.: Multi-model mean nitrogen and sulfur deposition from the Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Model Intercomparison Project (ACCMIP): evaluation of historical and projected future changes, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 7997-8018, doi10.5194/acp-13-7997-2013, 2013.
51. Lathière, J., Hauglustaine, D A., Friend, A D., De Noblet-Ducoudré, N., Viovy, N., and Folberth, G A.: Impact of climate variability and land use changes on global biogenic volatile organic compound emissions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 2129-2146, doi10.5194/acp-6-2129-2006, 2006.
52. Lauer, A., Hendricks, J., Ackermann, I., Schell, B., Hass, H., and Metzger, S.: Simulating aerosol microphysics with the ECHAM/MADE GCM-Part 1: Model description and comparison with observations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 5, 3251-3276, doi10.5194/acp-5-3251-2005, 2005.
53. 2 inversions, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 10, 783-796, 1996.
54. Lee, D. S., Kohler, I., Grobler, E., Rohrer, F., Sausen, R., Gallardo-Klenner, L., Olivier, J. G. J., Dentener, F. J., and Bouwman, A. F.: Estimations of global Nox emissions and their uncertainties, Atmos. Environ., 31, 1735-1749, 1997.
55. Li, W J. and Shao, L Y.: Observation of nitrate coatings on atmospheric mineral dust particles, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 1863-1871, doi10.5194/acp-9-1863-2009, 2009.
56. Liao, H. and Seinfeld, J H.: Global impacts of gas-phase chemistry-aerosol interactions on direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic aerosols and ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18208, doi10.1029/2005JD005907, 2005.
57. Liao, H., Zhang, Y., Chen, W.-T., Raes, F., and Seinfeld, J H.: Effect of chemistry-aerosol-climate coupling on predictions of future climate and future levels of tropospheric ozone and aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D10306, doi10.1029/2008JD010984, 2009.
58. Martin, S T., Schlenker, J C., Malinowski, A., Hung, H.-M., and Rudich, Y.: Crystallization of atmospheric sulfate-nitrate-ammonium particles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2102, doi10.1029/2003GL017930, 2003.
59. Martin, S T., Hung, H.-M., Park, R J., Jacob, D J., Spurr, R J D., Chance, K V., and Chin, M.: Effects of the physical state of tropospheric ammonium-sulfate-nitrate particles on global aerosol direct radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 183-214, doi10.5194/acp-4-183-2004, 2004.
60. Mensah, A. A., Holzinger, R., Otjes, R., Trimborn, A., Mentel, Th. F., ten Brink, H., Henzing, B., and Kiendler-Scharr, A.: Aerosol chemical composition at Cabauw, The Netherlands as observed in two intensive periods in May 2008 and March 2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 4723-4742, doi10.5194/acp-12-4723-2012, 2012.
61. Metzger, S., Dentener, F., Pandis, S., and Lelieveld, J.: Gas/aerosol partitioning: 1. A computationally efficient model, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4312, doi10.1029/2001JD001102, 2002a.
62. Metzger, S., Dentener, F., Krol, M., Jeuken, A., and Lelieveld, J.: Gas/aerosol partitioning: 2. Global modeling results, J. Geophys. Res., 107, 4312, doi10.1029/2001JD001103, 2002b.
63. Mozurkewich, M.: The dissociation constant of ammonium nitrate and its dependence on temperature, relative humidity and particle size, Atmos. Environ. A-Gen., 27, 261-270, 1993.
64. Myhre, G., Grini, A., and Metzger, S.: Modelling of nitrate and ammonium-containing aerosols in presence of sea salt, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4809-4821, doi10.5194/acp-6-4809-2006, 2006.
65. Myhre, G., Samset, B H., Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T K., Bian, H., Bellouin, N., Chin, M., Diehl, T., Easter, R C., Feichter, J., Ghan, S J., Hauglustaine, D., Iversen, T., Kinne, S., Kirkevåg, A., Lamarque, J.-F., Lin, G., Liu, X., Lund, M T., Luo, G., Ma, X., van Noije, T., Penner, J E., Rasch, P J., Ruiz, A., Seland, Ø., Skeie, R B., Stier, P., Takemura, T., Tsigaridis, K., Wang, P., Wang, Z., Xu, L., Yu, H., Yu, F., Yoon, J.-H., Zhang, K., Zhang, H., and Zhou, C.: Radiative forcing of the direct aerosol effect from AeroCom Phase II simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 1853-1877, doi10.5194/acp-13-1853-2013, 2013.
66. Nenes, A., Pandis, S., and Pilinis, C.: ISORROPIA: a new thermodynamic equilibrium model for multiphase multicomponent inorganic aerosols, Aquat. Geochem., 4, 123-152, 1998.
67. 2O in 1990, Environ. Pollut., 102, 135-148, 1998.
68. Park, R J., Jacob, D J., Field, B D., Yantosca, R M., and Chian, M.: Natural and transboundary pollution influences on sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosols in the United States: implications for policy, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15204, doi10.1029/2003JD004473, 2004.
69. Pilinis, C. and Seinfeld, J H.: Continued development of a general equilibrium model for inorganic multicomponent atmospheric aerosols, Atmos. Environ., 21, 2453-2466, 1987.
70. Pilinis, C., Capaldo, K P., Nenes, A., and Pandis, S N.: MADM-a new multicomponent aerosol dynamics model, Aerosol Sci. Tech., 32, 482-502, 2000.
71. 2 emissions from surface measurements, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5281-5297, doi10.5194/acp-9-5281-2009, 2009.
72. Pringle, K J., Tost, H., Message, S., Steil, B., Giannadaki, D., Nenes, A., Fountoukis, C., Stier, P., Vignati, E., and Lelieveld, J.: Description and evaluation of GMXe: a new aerosol submodel for global simulations (v1), Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 391-412, doi10.5194/gmd-3-391-2010, 2010.
73. Putaud, J. P., Raes, F., Van Dingenen, R., Brüggemann, E., Facchini, M.-C., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S., Gehrig, R., Hüglin, C., Laj, P., Lorbeer, G., Maenhaut, W., Mihalopoulos, N., Müller, K., Querol, X., Rodriguez, S., Schneider, J., Spindler, G., ten Brink, H., Tørseth, K., and Wiedensohler, A.: European aerosol phenomenology-2: chemical characteristics of particulate matter at kerbside, urban, rural and background sites in Europe, Atmos. Environ., 38, 2579-2595, 2004a.
74. Putaud, J.-P., Van Dingenen, R., Dell'Acqua, A., Raes, F., Matta, E., Decesari, S., Facchini, M. C., and Fuzzi, S.: Size-segregated aerosol mass closure and chemical composition in Monte Cimone (I) during MINATROC, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 889-902, doi10.5194/acp-4-889-2004, 2004b.
75. Reidmiller, D. R., Fiore, A. M., Jaffe, D. A., Bergmann, D., Cuvelier, C., Dentener, F. J., Duncan, B. N., Folberth, G., Gauss, M., Gong, S., Hess, P., Jonson, J. E., Keating, T., Lupu, A., Marmer, E., Park, R., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D. T., Szopa, S., Vivanco, M. G., Wild, O., and Zuber, A.: The influence of foreign vs. North American emissions on surface ozone in the US, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5027-5042, doi10.5194/acp-9-5027-2009, 2009.
76. 2 in the Northern Hemisphere using a chemistry transport model, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D16311, doi10.1029/2005JD006725, 2006.
77. Sander, S. P., Abbatt, J., Barker, J. R., Burkholder, J. B., Friedl, R. R., Golden, D. M., Huie, R. E., Kolb, C. E., Kurylo, M. J., Moortgat, G. K., Orkin, V. L., and Wine, P. H.: Chemical Kinetics and Photochemical Data for Use in Atmospheric Studies, Evaluation No. 17, JPL Publication 10-6, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, Pasadena, 2011.
78. Schaap, M., van Loon, M., ten Brink, H. M., Dentener, F. J., and Builtjes, P. J. H.: Secondary inorganic aerosol simulations for Europe with special attention to nitrate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 4, 857-874, doi10.5194/acp-4-857-2004, 2004.
79. Schaap, M., Otjes, R. P., and Weijers, E. P.: Illustrating the benefit of using hourly monitoring data on secondary inorganic aerosol and its precursors for model evaluation, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11041-11053, doi10.5194/acp-11-11041-2011, 2011.
80. Schulz, M.: Constraining Model Estimates of the Aerosol Radiative Forcing, Thèse d'Habilitation à Diriger des Recherches, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris VI, 2007.
81. Schulz, M., Balkanski, Y., Dulac, F., and Guelle, W.: Role of aerosol size distribution and source location in a three-dimensional simulation of a Saharan dust episode tested against satellite-derived optical thickness, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 10579-10592, 1998.
82. Schulz, M., Textor, C., Kinne, S., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S., Berntsen, T., Berglen, T., Boucher, O., Dentener, F., Guibert, S., Isaksen, I. S. A., Iversen, T., Koch, D., Kirkevåg, A., Liu, X., Montanaro, V., Myhre, G., Penner, J. E., Pitari, G., Reddy, S., Seland, Ø., Stier, P., and Takemura, T.: Radiative forcing by aerosols as derived from the AeroCom present-day and pre-industrial simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5225-5246, doi10.5194/acp-6-5225-2006, 2006.
83. Schulz M., Gauss, M., Benedictow, A., Jonson, J. E., Tsyro, S., Nyiri, A., Simpson, D., Steensen, B. M., Klein, H., Valdebenito, 5 A., Wind, P., Kirkevåg, A., Griesfeller, J., Bartnicki, J., Olivié, D., Grini, A., Iversen, T., Seland, Ø., Semeena, V. S., Fagerli, H., Aas, W., Hjellbrekke, A.-G., Mareckova, K., Wankmuller, R., Schneider, P., Solberg, S., Svendby, T., Liu, L., Posch, M., Vieno, M., Reis, S., Kryza, M., Werner, M., and Walaszek, K.: Transboundary acidification, euthropication and ground level ozone in Europe in 2011, EMEP Report 1/2013, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, ISSN 1504-6109, 2013.
84. Schwartz, S. E.: Mass transport considerations pertinent to aqueous-phase reactions of gases in liquid-water clouds, in: Chemistry of Multiphase Atmospheric Systems, edited by: Jaeschke, W., 415-471, Springer, New York, 1986.
85. Seinfeld, J. H., and Pandis, S. N.: Atmospheric chemistry and Physics, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1998.
86. Shindell, D. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Schulz, M., Flanner, M., Jiao, C., Chin, M., Young, P. J., Lee, Y. H., Rotstayn, L., Mahowald, N., Milly, G., Faluvegi, G., Balkanski, Y., Collins, W. J., Conley, A. J., Dalsoren, S., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L., Liu, X., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., Voulgarakis, A., Yoon, J.-H., and Lo, F.: Radiative forcing in the ACCMIP historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2939-2974, doi10.5194/acp-13-2939-2013, 2013.
87. Sun, Q. and Wexler, A. S.: Modeling urban and regional aerosols near acid neutrality application to the 24-25 June SCAQS episode, Atmos. Environ., 32, 3533-3545, 1998.
88. Sutton, M. A., Dragosits, U., Tang, Y. S., and Fowler, D.: Ammonia emissions from non-agricultural sources in the UK, Atmos. Environ., 34, 855-869, 2000.
89. Szopa, S, Balkanski, Y., Schulz, M., Bekki, S., Cugnet, D., Fortems-Cheiney, A., Turquety, S., Cozic, A., Deandreis, C., Hauglustaine, D., Idelkadi, A., Lathiere, J., Marchand, M., Yan, N., and Dufresne, J.-L.: Aerosol and ozone changes as forcing for climate evolution between 1850 and 2100, Clim. Dynam., 40, 2223-2250, doi10.1007/s00382-012-1408-y, 2012.
90. Tang, I. N.: Chemical and size effects of hygroscopic aerosols on light scattering coefficients, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 2156-2202, doi10.1029/96JD03003, 1996.
91. Ten Brink, H., Otjes, R., Jongejan, P., and Slanina, S.: An instrument for semi-continuous monitoring of the size-distribution of nitrate, ammonium, sulphate and chloride in aerosol, Atmos. Environ., 41, 2768-2779, 2007. hack
92. Tie, X., Madronich, S., Walters, S., Edwards, D. P., Ginoux, P., Mahowald, N., Zhang, R. Y., Lou, C., and Brasseur, G.: Assessment of the global impact of aerosols on tropospheric oxidants, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D03204, doi10.1029/2004JD005359, 2005.
93. van Dorland, R., Dentener, F. J., and Lelieveld, J.: Radiative forcing due to tropospheric ozone and sulphate aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 28079-28100, 1997.
94. Van Leer, B.: Towards the ultimate conservative difference scheme. Part IV: a new approach to numerical convection, J. Comput. Phys., 23, 276-299, 1977.
95. Wang, R., Tao, S., Wang, W., Liu, J., Shen, H., Shen, G., Wang, B., Liu, X., Li, W., Huang, Y., Zhang, Y., Lu, Y., Chen, H., Chen, Y., Wang, C., Zhu, D., Wang, X., Li, B., Liu, W., and Ma, J.: Black carbon emissions in China from 1949 to 2050, Environ. Sci. Technol., 46, 7595-7603, 2012.
96. Xu, L. and Penner, J. E.: Global simulations of nitrate and ammonium aerosols and their radiative effects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 9479-9504, doi10.5194/acp-12-9479-2012, 2012.
97. Zhang, L., Jacob, D. J., Knipping, E. M., Kumar, N., Munger, J. W., Carouge, C. C., van Donkelaar, A., Wang, Y. X., and Chen, D.: Nitrogen deposition to the United States: distribution, sources, and processes, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 12, 241-282, doi10.5194/acpd-12-241-2012, 2012.
98. Zhang, Y., Seigneur, C., Seinfeld, J. H., Jacobson, M., Clegg, S. L., and Binkowski, F. S.: A comparative review of inorganic aerosol thermodynamic equilibrium modules: similarities, differences, and their likely causes, Atmos. Environ., 34, 117-137, 2000.