Nitrogen deposition to the United States: Distribution, sources, and processes

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 12, Issue 10, 2012, Pages 4539-4554

  Zhang, L ^a,b   Jacob, D J ^a,b   Knipping, E M ^c   Kumar, N ^c   Munger, J W ^a,b   Carouge, C C ^b   Van Donkelaar, A ^d   Wang, Y X ^e   Chen, D ^f  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (United States)

^d DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY   (China)

^f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMMONIA; ANTHROPOGENIC SOURCE; ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; ATMOSPHERIC DEPOSITION; ATMOSPHERIC MODELING; NITROGEN; SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 84857771766     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-12-4539-2012     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Abbatt, J. P. D.: Interaction of HNO3 with water-ice surfaces at temperatures of the free troposphere, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 1479-1482, 1997.
2. Amos, H. M., Jacob, D. J., Holmes, C. D., Fisher, J. A., Wang, Q., Yantosca, R. M., Corbitt, E. S., Galarneau, E., Rutter, A. P., Gustin, M. S., Steffen, A., Schauer, J. J., Graydon, J. A., Louis, V. L. St., Talbot, R. W., Edgerton, E. S., Zhang, Y., and Sunder-land, E. M.: Gas-particle partitioning of atmospheric Hg(II) and its effect on global mercury deposition, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 591-603, doi:10.5194/acp-12-591-2012, 2012.
3. Aneja, V. P., Chauhan, J. P., and Walker, J. T.: Characterization of atmospheric ammonia emissions from swine waste storage and treatment lagoons, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 11535-11545, 2000.
4. Asman, W. A. H., Sutton, M. A., and Schjørring, J. K.: Ammonia: emission, atmospheric transport and deposition, New Phy-tol., 139, 27-48, 1998. (Pubitemid 28266042)
5. Baughcum, S. L., Tritz, T. G., Henderson, S. C., and Pickett, D. C.: Scheduled Civil Aircraft Emission Inventories for 1992: Database Development and Analysis. NASA Contractor Report 4700, 1996.
6. Bertram, T. H. and Thornton, J. A.: Toward a general parameterization of N2O5 reactivity on aqueous particles: the competing effects of particle liquid water, nitrate and chloride, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 8351-8363, doi:10.5194/acp-9-8351-2009, 2009.
7. Bertram, T. H., Thornton, J. A., Riedel, T. P., Middlebrook, A. M., Bahreini, R., Bates, T. S., Quinn, P. K., and Coffman, D. J.: Direct observations of N2O5 reactivity on ambient aerosol particles, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L19803, doi:10.1029/2009gl040248, 2009.
8. Bey, I., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Logan, J. A., Field, B. D., Fiore, A. M., Li, Q., Liu, H., Mickley, L. J., and Schultz, M. G.: Global modeling of tropospheric chemistry with assimilated meteorology: Model description and evaluation, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 23073-23096, 2001.
9. Binkowski, F. S. and Roselle, S. J.: Models-3 Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model aerosol component: 1. Model description, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4183, doi:10.1029/2001JD001409, 2003.
10. Bobbink, R. B., Hornung, M., and Roelofs, J. G. M.: The effects of air-borne nitrogen pollutants on species diversity in natural and semi-natural European vegetation, J. Ecol., 86, 717-738, 1998. (Pubitemid 28485997)
11. Boersma, K. F., Eskes, H. J., Dirksen, R. J., van der A, R. J., Veefkind, J. P., Stammes, P., Huijnen, V., Kleipool, Q. L., Sneep, M., Claas, J., Leitão, J., Richter, A., Zhou, Y., and Brunner, D.: An improved tropospheric NO2 column retrieval algorithm for the Ozone Monitoring Instrument, Atmos. Meas. Tech., 4, 1905-1928, doi:10.5194/amt-4-1905-2011, 2011.
12. Bouwman, A. F., Lee, D. S., Asman, W. A. H., Dentener, F. J., Van Der Hoek, K. W., and Olivier, J. G. J.: A global high resolution emission inventory for ammonia. Global Biogeochem. Cy., 11, 561-587. 1997.
13. Bouwman, A. F., van Vuuren, D. P., Derwent, R. G., and Posch, M.: A global analysis of acidification and eutrophication of terrestrial ecosystems, Water Air Soil Poll., 141, 349-382, 2002. (Pubitemid 36131032)
14. Bowman, W. D., Cleveland, C. C., Halada, A?., Hres?ko, J., and Baron, J. S.: Negative impact of nitrogen deposition on soil buffering capacity, Nat. Geosci., 1, 767-770, doi:10.1038/ngeo339, 2008.
15. Brown, S. S., Dubé, W. P., Fuchs, H., Ryerson, T. B., Wollny, A. G., Brock, C. A., Bahreini, R., Middlebrook, A. M., Neuman, J. A., Atlas, E., Roberts, J. M., Osthoff, H. D., Trainer, M., Fehsenfeld, F. C., and Ravishankara, A. R.: Reactive uptake coefficients for N2O5determined from aircraft measurements during the Second Texas Air Quality Study: Comparison to current model parameterizations, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00F10, doi:10.1029/2008jd011679, 2009.
16. Businger, J. A., Wyngaard, J. C., Izumi, Y., and Bradley, E. F.: Flux-profile relationships in the atmospheric surface layer, J. Atmos. Sci., 28, 181-189, 1971.
17. Chen, D., Wang, Y. X., McElroy, M. B., He, K., Yantosca, R. M., and Le Sager, P.: Regional CO pollution in China simulated by high-resolution nested-grid GEOS-Chem model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 3825-3839, doi:10.5194/acp-11-3825-2009, 2009.
18. Clarke, J. F., Edgerton, E. S., and Martin, B. E.: Dry deposition calculations for the Clean Air Status and Trends Network, Atmos. Environ., 31, 3667-3678, 1997. (Pubitemid 27397399)
19. Davis, J. M., Bhave, P. V., and Foley, K. M.: Parameterization of N2O5 reaction probabilities on the surface of particles containing ammonium, sulfate, and nitrate, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 5295-5311, doi:10.5194/acp-8-5295-2008, 2008.
20. Dentener, F., Drevet, J., Lamarque, J. F., Bey, I., Eickhout, B., Fiore, A. M., Hauglustaine, D., Horowitz, L. W., Krol, M., Kul-shrestha, U. C., Lawrence, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Rast, S., Shin-dell, D., Stevenson, D., Van Noije, T., Atherton, C., Bell, N., Bergman, D., Butler, T., Cofala, J., Collins, B., Doherty, R., Ellingsen, K., Galloway, J., Gauss, M., Montanaro, V., Müller, J. F., Pitari, G., Rodriguez, J., Sanderson, M., Solmon, F., Stra-han, S., Schultz, M., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., and Wild, O.: Nitrogen and sulfur deposition on regional and global scales: A multimodel evaluation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 20, GB4003, doi:10.1029/2005GB002672, 2006. (Pubitemid 350284673)
21. Doskey, P. V., Kotamarthi, V. R., Fukui, Y., Cook, D. R., Breitbeil III, F. W., and Wesely, M. L.: Air-surface exchange of peroxy-acetyl nitrate at a grassland site, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D10310, doi:10.1029/2004JD004533, 2004. (Pubitemid 39102698)
22. Edgerton, E., Saylor, R., Hartsell, B., Jansen, J., and Alan-hansen, D.: Ammonia and ammonium measurements from the southeastern United States, Atmos. Environ., 41, 3339-3351, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.12.034, 2007. (Pubitemid 46518239)
23. Ellis, R. A., Murphy, J. G., Markovic, M. Z., VandenBoer, T. C., Makar, P. A., Brook, J., and Mihele, C.: The influence of gas-particle partitioning and surface-atmosphere exchange on ammonia during BAQS-Met, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 133-145, doi:10.5194/acp-11-133-2011, 2011.
24. Evans, M. J. andJacob, D. J.: Impact of new laboratory studies of N2O5 hydrolysis on global model budgets of tropospheric nitrogen oxides, ozone, and OH, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L09813, doi:10.1029/2005gl022469, 2005. (Pubitemid 40875844)
25. Fisher, J. A., Jacob, D. J., Wang, Q., Bahreini, R., Carouge, C. C., Cubison, M. J., Dibb, J. E., Diehl, T., Jimenez, J. L., Leibensperger, E. M., Lu, Z., Meinders, M. B. J., Pye, H. O. T., Quinn, P. K., Sharma, S., Streets, D. G., van Donkelaar, A., and Yantosca, R. M.: Sources, distribution, and acidity of sulfate-ammonium aerosol in the Arctic in winter-spring, Atmos. Environ., 45, 7301-7318, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.08.030, 2011.
26. Galloway, J. N., Dentener, F. J., Capone, D. G., Boyer, E. W., Howarth, R. W., Seitzinger, S. P., Asner, G. P., Cleveland, C. C., Green, P. A., Holland, E. A., Karl, D. M., Michaels, A. F., Porter, J. H., Townsend, A. R., and Vorosmarty, C. J.: Nitrogen cycles: past, present, and future, Biogeochem., 70, 153-226, 2004.
27. Geigert, M. A., Nikolaidis, N. P., Miller, D. R., and Heitert, J.: Deposition rates for sulfur and nitrogen to a hardowood forest in northern Connecticut, USA, Atmos. Environ., 28, 1689-1697, 1994. (Pubitemid 24194309)
28. Gilliland, A. B., Dennis, R. L., Roselle, S. J., and Pierce, T. E.: Seasonal NH3 emission estimates for the eastern United States based on ammonium wet concentrations and an inverse modeling method, J. Geophys. Res., 108, D15, 4477, doi:10.1029/2002jd003063, 2003.
29. Gilliland, A. B., Wyat Appel, K., Pinder, R. W., and Dennis, R. L.: Seasonal NH3 emissions for the continental United States: Inverse model estimation and evaluation, Atmos. Environ., 40, 4986-4998, 2006. (Pubitemid 44088482)
30. Guenther, A., Karl, T., Harley, P., Wiedinmyer, C., Palmer, P. I., and Geron, C.: Estimates of global terrestrial isoprene emissions using MEGAN (Model of Emissions of Gases and Aerosols from Nature), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3181-3210, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3181-2006, 2006. (Pubitemid 44197400)
31. Hicks, B.: Dry deposition to forests-On the use of data from clearings, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 136, 214-221, doi:10.1016/j.agrformet.2004.06.013, 2006.
32. Holland, E. A., Bradswell, B. H., Sulzman, J., and Lamarque, J.-F.: Nitrogen Deposition onto the United States and Western Europe: Synthesis of Observations and Models, Ecol. Appl., 15, 38-57, 2005. (Pubitemid 40263567)
33. Horii, C. V., William Munger, J., Wofsy, S. C., Zahniser, M., Nelson, D., and Barry McManus, J.: Atmospheric reactive nitrogen concentration and flux budgets at a Northeastern U.S. forest site, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 133, 210-225, 2005. (Pubitemid 41772503)
34. Horowitz, L. W., Liang, J., Gardner, G., and Jacob, D. J.: Export of reactive nitrogen from North America during summertime: Sensitivity to hydrocarbon chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13451-13476, 1998. (Pubitemid 28469519)
35. Hudman, R. C., Jacob, D. J., Turquety, S., Leibensperger, E. M., Murray, L. T., Wu, S., Gilliland, A. B., Avery, M., Bertram, T. H., Brune, W., Cohen, R. C., Dibb, J. E., Flocke, F. M., Fried, A., Holloway, J., Neuman, J. A., Orville, R., Perring, A., Ren, X., Sachse, G. W., Singh, H. B., Swanson, A., and Wooldridge, P. J.: Surface and lightning sources of nitrogen oxides over the United States: Magnitudes, chemical evolution, and outflow, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D12S05, doi:10.1029/2006jd007912, 2007. (Pubitemid 47241661)
36. Jacob, D. J.: Heterogeneous chemistry and tropospheric ozone, At-mos. Environ., 34, 2131-2159, 2000. (Pubitemid 30151069)
37. Jacob, D. J., Logan, J. A., Gardner, G. M., Yevich, R. M., Spi-vakovsky, C. M., Wofsy, S. C., Sillman, S., and Prather, M. J.: Factors Regulating Ozone Over the United States and Its Export to the Global Atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 14817-14826, doi:10.1029/98jd01224, 1993.
38. Kasibhatla, P. S., Levy Ii, H., and Moxim, W. J.: GLobal NOx, HNO3, PAN, and NOy distrubtions from fossil fuel combustion emissions: A model study, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 7165-7180, 1993. (Pubitemid 23383028)
39. Kuhns, H., Knipping, E. M., and Vukovich, J. M.: Development of a United States-Mexico emissions inventory for the Big Bend Regional Aerosol and Visibility Observational (BRAVO) Study, J. Air Waste Manage., 55, 677-692, 2005.
40. Lamsal, L. N., Martin, R. V., van Donkelaar, A., Celarier, E. A., Bucsela, E. J., Boersma, K. F., Dirksen, R., Luo, C., and Wang, Y.: Indirect validation of tropospheric nitrogen dioxide retrieved from the OMI satellite instrument: Insight into the seasonal variation of nitrogen oxides at northern midlatitudes, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D05302, doi:10.1029/2009jd013351, 2010.
41. Lerdau, M. T., Munger, J. W., Jacob, D. J.: The NO2 flux conundrum, Science, 289, 2291-2293, 2000.
42. Li, Q., Jacob, D. J., Munger, J. W., Yantosca, R. M., and Parrish, D. D.: Export of NOy from the North American boundary layer: Reconciling aircraft observations and global model budgets, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D02313, doi:10.1029/2003jd004086, 2004. (Pubitemid 40555126)
43. Liang, J., Horowitz, L. W., Jacob, D. J., Wang, Y., Fiore, A. M., Logan, J. A., Gardner, G. M., and Munger, J. W.: Seasonal budgets of reactive nitrogen species and ozone over the United States, and export fluxes to the global atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 13435-13450, 1998. (Pubitemid 28469518)
44. Liu, H. Y., Jacob, D. J., Bey, I., and Yantosca, R. M.: Constraints from Pb-210 and Be-7 on wet deposition and transport in a global three-dimensional chemical tracer model driven by assimilated meteorological fields, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 12109-12128, 2001.
45. Macintyre, H. L. and Evans, M. J.: Sensitivity of a global model to the uptake of N2O5 by tropospheric aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7409-7414, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7409-2010, 2010.
46. Mao, J., Jacob, D. J., Evans, M. J., Olson, J. R., Ren, X., Brune, W. H., Clair, J. M. S., Crounse, J. D., Spencer, K. M., Beaver, M. R., Wennberg, P. O., Cubison, M. J., Jimenez, J. L., Fried, A., Weibring, P., Walega, J. G., Hall, S. R., Weinheimer, A. J., Cohen, R. C., Chen, G., Crawford, J. H., McNaughton, C., Clarke, A. D., Jaeglé, L., Fisher, J. A., Yantosca, R. M., Le Sager, P., and Carouge, C.: Chemistry of hydrogen oxide radicals (HOx) in the Arctic troposphere in spring, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 5823-5838, doi:10.5194/acp-10-5823-2010, 2010.
47. Mari, C., Jacob, D. J., and Bechtold, P.: Transport and scavenging of soluble gases in a deep convective cloud, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 22255-22267, 2000. (Pubitemid 32058217)
48. Martin, R. V., Jacob, D. J., Yantosca, R. M., Chin, M., and Ginoux, P.: Global and regional decreases in tropospheric oxidants from photochemical effects of aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4097, doi:10.1029/2002JD002622, 2003.
49. Martin, R. V., Sauvage, B., Folkins, I., Sioris, C. E., Boone, C., Bernath, P., and Ziemke, J.: Space-based constraints on the production of nitric oxide by lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D09309, doi:10.1029/2006jd007831, 2007. (Pubitemid 47009868)
50. Mentel, T. F., Sohn, M., and Wahner, A.: Nitrate effect in the heterogeneous hydrolysis of dinitrogen pentoxide on aqueous aerosols, Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys., 1, 5451-5457, doi:10.1039/a905338g, 1999.
51. O'Byrne, G., Martin, R. V., van Donkelaar, A., Joiner, J., and Celarier, E. A.: Surface reflectivity from the Ozone Monitoring Instrument using the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spec-troradiometer to eliminate clouds: Effects of snow on ultraviolet and visible trace gas retrievals, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D17305, doi:10.1029/2009JD013079, 2010.
52. Olivier, J. G. J., Berdowski, J. J. M.: Global emissions sources and sinks, in: The Climate System, edited by: Berdowski, J., Guicherit, R., and Heij, B. J., 33-78, A.A. Balkema Publish-ers/Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers, Lisse, The Netherlands, 2001.
53. Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., Field, B. D., Yantosca, R. M., and Chin, M.: Natural and transboundary pollution influences on sulfate-nitrate-ammonium aerosols in the United States: Implications for policy, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D15204, doi:10.1029/2003jd004473, 2004.
54. Pickering, K. E., Wang, Y. S., Tao, W. K., Price, C., and Muller J. F.: Vertical distributions of lightning NOx for use in regional and global chemical transport models. J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31203-31216, 1998. (Pubitemid 128665498)
55. Pinder, R. W., Adams, P. J., Pandis, S. N., and Gilliland, A. B.: Temporally resolved ammonia emission inventories: Current estimates, evaluation tools, and measurement needs, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D16310, doi:10.1029/2005jd006603, 2006. (Pubitemid 46290747)
56. Price, C. and Rind, D.: A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lightning distributions, J. Geophys. Res. 97, 9919-9933, 1992. (Pubitemid 23373239)
57. Reay, D. S., Dentener, F., Smith, P., Grace, J., and Feely, R. A.: Global nitrogen deposition and carbon sinks, Nat. Geosci., 1, 430-437, 2008
58. Roberts, J. M., Osthoff, H. D., Brown, S. S., Ravishankara, A. R., Coffman, D., Quinn, P., and Bates, T.: Laboratory studies of products of N2O5 uptake on Cl-containing substrates, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L20808, doi:10.1029/2009gl040448, 2009.
59. Sanderson, M. G., Dentener, F. J., Fiore, A. M., Cuvelier, C., Keating, T. J., Zuber, A., Atherton, C. S., Bergmann, D. J., Diehl, T., Doherty, R. M., Duncan, B. N., Hess, P., Horowitz, L. W., Jacob, D. J., Jonson, J. E., Kaminski, J. W., Lupu, A., MacKenzie, I. A., Mancini, E., Marmer, E., Park, R., Pitari, G., Prather, M. J., Pringle, K. J., Schroeder, S., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D. T., Szopa, S., Wild, O., and Wind, P.: A multi-model study of the hemispheric transport and deposition of oxidised nitrogen, Geo-phys. Res. Lett., 35, L17815, doi:10.1029/2008GL035389, 2008.
60. Sauvage, B., Martin, R. V., van Donkelaar, A., Liu, X., Chance, K., Jaeglé, L., Palmer, P. I., Wu, S., and Fu, T.-M.: Remote sensed and in situ constraints on processes affecting tropical tropospheric ozone. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 7, 815-838, doi:10.5194/acp-7-815-2007, 2007.
61. Schindler, D. W., Dillon, P. J., and Schreier, H.: A review of anthropogenic sources of nitrogen and their effects on Canadian aquatic ecosystems, Biogeochemistry, 79, 25-44, doi:10.1007/s10533-006-9001-2, 2006. (Pubitemid 44051366)
62. Sievering, H., Enders, G., Kins, L., Kramm, G., Ruoss, K., Roider, G., Zelger, M., Anderson, L., and Dlugi, R.: Nitric acid, particu-late nitrate and ammonium profiles at the Bayerischer Wald: evidence for large deposition rates of total nitrate, Atmos. Environ., 28, 311-315, 1994.
63. Sievering, H., Kelly, T., McConville, G., Seibold, C., and Turnipseed, A.: Nitric acid dry deposition to conifer forests: Niwot Ridge spruce-fir-pine study. Atmos. Environ., 35, 3851-3859, 2001.
64. Smith, S. N., and Mueller, S. F.: Modeling natural emissions in the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) Model-I: building an emissions data base, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 4931-4952, 2010, http://www.atmos-chem-phys.net/ 10/4931/2010/.
65. Stevens, C. J., Dise, N. B., Mountford, J. O., and Gowing, D. J.: Impact of nitrogen deposition on the species richness of grasslands, Science, 303, 1876-1879, 2004. (Pubitemid 38374881)
66. Sutton, M. A., Burkhardt, J. K., Guerin, D., Nemitz, E., and Fowler, D.: Development of resistance models to describe measurements of bi-directional ammonia surface-atmosphere exchange, Atmos. Environ., 32, 473-480, 1998. (Pubitemid 28142492)
67. Thornton, J. A., Kercher, J. P., Riedel, T. P., Wagner, N. L., Cozic, J., Holloway, J. S., Dubé, W. P., Wolfe, G. M., Quinn, P. K., Mid-dlebrook, A. M., Alexander, B., and Brown, S. S.: A large atomic chlorine source inferred from mid-continental reactive nitrogen chemistry, Nature, 464, 271-274, doi:10.1038/nature08905, 2010.
68. Turnipseed, A. A., Huey, L. G., Nemitz, E., Stickel, R., Higgs, J., Tanner, D. J., Slusher, D. L., Sparks, J. P., Flocke, F., and Guen-ther, A.: Eddy covariance fluxes of peroxyacetyl nitrates (PANs) and NOy to a coniferous forest, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D09304, doi:10.1029/2005jd006631, 2006. (Pubitemid 43950208)
69. US EPA (Environmental Protection Agency): Integrated Science Assessment (ISA) f Oxides of Nitrogen and Sulfur-Ecological Criteria (Final Report). EPA/600/R-08/082F, US Environmental Prot Assessment-RTP Division, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA, available at http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/cfm/recordisplay.cfm?deid=201485, 2008.
70. Van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., Collatz, J. G., Ka-sibhatla, P., and Arellano, A. F.: Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 3423-3441, doi:10.5194/acp-6-3423-2006, 2006. (Pubitemid 44272961)
71. Van Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., Leaitch, W. R., Macdonald, A. M., Walker, T. W., Streets, D. G., Zhang, Q., Dunlea, E. J., Jimenez, J. L., Dibb, J. E., Huey, L. G., Weber, R., and Andreae, M. O.: Analysis of aircraft and satellite measurements from the Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment (INTEX-B) to quantify long-range transport of East Asian sulfur to Canada, At-mos. Chem. Phys., 8, 2999-3014, doi:10.5194/acp-8-2999-2008, 2008.
72. Vestreng, V. and Klein, H.: Emission data reported to UN-ECE/EMEP. Quality assurance and trend analysis and Presentation of WebDab, MSC-W Status Report 2002, Norwegian Meteorological Institute, Oslo, Norway, 2002.
73. Vitousek, P. M., Aber, J. D., Howarth, R. W., Likens, G. E., Mat-son, P. A., Schindler, D. W., Schlesinger, W. H., and Tillman, D. G.: Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: Sources and consequences, Ecol. Appl., 7, 737-750. 1997.
74. Wahner, A., Mentel, T. F., Sohn, M., and Stier, J.: Heterogeneous reaction of N2O5 on sodium nitrate aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 31103-31112, 1998. (Pubitemid 128665490)
75. Wang, J., Hoffmann, A. A., Park, R. J., Jacob, D. J., and Martin, S. T.: Global distribution of solid and aqueous sulfate aerosols: Effect of the hysteresis of particle phase transitions, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D11206, doi:10.1029/2007jd009367, 2008.
76. Wang, Y. H., Jacob, D. J., and Logan, J. A.: Global simulation of tropospheric O3-NOx-hydrocarbon chemistry, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 10713-10725, 1998. (Pubitemid 128718584)
77. Wang, Y. X., McElroy, M. B., Jacob, D. J., and Yantosca, R. M.: A nested grid formulation for chemical transport over Asia: Applications to CO, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D22307, doi:10.1029/2004jd005237, 2004. (Pubitemid 40294880)
78. Wesely, M. L.: Parameterization of surface resistances to gaseous dry deposition in regional-scale numerical-models, Atmos. Environ., 23, 1293-1304, 1989.
79. Wolfe, G. M., J. A. Thornton, R. L. N. Yatavelli, et al., Eddy co-variance fluxes of acyl peroxy nitrates (PAN, PPN and MPAN) above a Ponderosa pine forest, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 615-635, doi:10.5194/acp-9-615-2009, 2009.
80. Yienger, J. J. and Levy II, H.: Empirical model of global soil biogenic NOx emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 11447-11464, 1995.
81. Zhang, L., Jacob, D. J., Downey, N. V., Wood, D. A., Ble-witt, D., Carouge, C. C., van Donkelaar, A., Jones, D. B. A., Murray, L. T., and Wang, Y.: Improved estimate of the policy-relevant background ozone in the United States using the GEOS-Chem global model with 1/2?×2/3? horizontal resolution over North America, Atmos. Environ., 45, 6769-6776, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2011.07. 054, 2011.
82. Zhang, Q., Streets, D. G., Carmichael, G. R., He, K. B., Huo, H., Kannari, A., Klimont, Z., Park, I. S., Reddy, S., Fu, J. S., Chen, D., Duan, L., Lei, Y., Wang, L. T., and Yao, Z. L.: Asian emissions in 2006 for the NASA INTEX-B mission, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 5131-5153, doi:10.5194/acp-9-5131-2009, 2009.