Pipe scales and biofilms in drinking-water distribution systems: Undermining finished water quality

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

Volumn 44, Issue 13, 2014, Pages 1477-1523

  Makris, Konstantinos C ^a   Andra, Syam S ^a   Botsaris, George ^a  

^a CYPRUS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Cyprus)

Author keywords

biofilms; drinking water; environmental health; exposure; pipe scales; urbanization

Indexed keywords

BIOFILMS; WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS; WATER QUALITY;

CHEMICAL RELEASE; CONTAMINANT SOURCES; DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS; ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH; EXPOSURE; IMPORTANT FEATURES; SAFETY AND SECURITIES; URBANIZATION;

POTABLE WATER;

ASBESTOS; CALCIUM CARBONATE; COPPER; DRINKING WATER; FERRIC HYDROXIDE; FERRIC OXIDE; IRON; LEAD; MAGNETITE; MANGANESE; POLYETHYLENE; POLYVINYLCHLORIDE; STAINLESS STEEL; STEEL; TOXIC SUBSTANCE;

BIOFILM; DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM; DRINKING WATER; MICROORGANISM; PIPE; POLLUTANT; URBANIZATION; WATER QUALITY;

ACINETOBACTER CALCOACETICUS; AEROMONAS; AEROMONAS HYDROPHILA; BACTERIAL GROWTH; BIOFILM; BURKHOLDERIA; CITROBACTER; CORROSION; ENTEROCOCCUS FAECALIS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FLAVOBACTERIUM; HELICOBACTER; HUMAN; KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE; LEAD BLOOD LEVEL; LEGIONELLA PNEUMOPHILA; MORAXELLA; MYCOBACTERIUM; MYCOBACTERIUM INTRACELLULARE AVIUM; PSEUDOMONAS AERUGINOSA; REVIEW; SERRATIA MARCESCENS; SURFACE PROPERTY; URBAN AREA; WATER CONTAMINATION; WATER QUALITY; WATER SUPPLY;

EID: 84901507841     PISSN: 10643389     EISSN: 15476537     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/10643389.2013.790746     Document Type: Review

References (246)

1. Aissa, R., Francois, M., Ruby, C., Fauth, F., Medjahdi, G., Abdelmoula, M., and Genin, J.M. (2006). Formation and crystallographical structure of hydroxysulphate and hydroxycarbonate green rusts synthetised by coprecipitation. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 67(5-6), 1016-1019.
2. Allen, M. J., Taylor, R. H., and Geldreich, E. E. (1980). The occurrence of microorganisms in water main encrustations. Journal of the American Water Works Association 72(11), 614-625.
3. Allmann, R., and Donnay, J. D. H. (1969). About structure iowaite. American Mineralogist 54(1-2), 296-299.
4. American Water Works Association (AWWA) (1995). Problem organisms in water: Identification and treatment. Manual of Water Supply Practices, M7 (3rd ed., AWWA M7). Denver, CO: Author.
5. American Water Works Association Research Foundation & DVGWTechnologiezentrum Wasser. (AWWA) (1996). Internal corrosion of water distribution systems (2nd ed.) Denver, CO: Author.
6. Andritsos, N., and Karabelas, A. J. (1999). The influence of particulates on CaCO3 scale formation. Journal of Heat Transfer 121, 225-227.
7. Armon, R., Starosvetzky, J., Arbel, T., and Green, M. (1997). Survival of Legionella pneumophila and Salmonella typhimurium in biofilm systems. Water Science and Technology 35(11-12), 293-300.
8. Aschengrau, A., Rogers, S., and Ozonoff, D. (2003). Perchloroethylene- contaminated drinking water and the risk of breast cancer: Additional results from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA. Environmental Health Perspectives 111, 167-173.
9. Awwa Research Foundation (AwwaRF) (2008). Distribution system corrosion and the lead and copper rule: An overview of AwwaRF Research. 1-24. Available at http://www.awwa.org/files/GovtPublicAffairs/PDF/LCRResearch. pdf. (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
10. Axten, C. W., and Foster, D. (2008). Analysis of airborne and waterborne particles around a taconite ore processing facility. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 52 (1), S66-S72.
11. Bakker, D. P., Postmus, B. R., Busscher, H. J., and van der Mei, H. C. (2004). Bacterial strains isolated from different niches can exhibit different patterns of adhesion to substrata. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70(6), 3758-3760.
12. Berend, K., and Trouwborst, T. (1999). Cement-mortar pipes as a source of aluminum. Journal AWWA 91(7), 91-100.
13. Berger, P. S., Clark, R. M., and Reasoner, D. J. (2000). Water, drinking. In J. Lederberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of microbiology (2nd ed., Vol. 4, pp. 898-913). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
14. Berry, D., Xi, C., and Raskin, L. (2006). Microbial ecology of drinking water distribution systems. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 17, 1-6.
15. Beuken, R., Reinoso, M., Sturm, S., Kiefer, J., Bondelind, M., Aström, J., Lindhe, A., Lośen, L., Pettersson, T., Machenbach, I., Melin, E., Thorsen, T., Eikebrokk, B., Hokstad, P., Røstum, J., Niewersch, C., Kirchner, D., Kozisek, F., Gari, D., Swartz, C., and Menaia, J. (2008). Identification and description of hazards for water supply systems. A catalogue of today's hazards and possible future hazards. WA4 TECHNEAU Report D4.1.4., August, pp. 1-79.
16. Beveridge, T. J., Makin, S. A., Kadurugamuwa, J. L., and Li, Z. (1997). Interactions between biofilms and the environment. FEMS Microbiology Reviews 20, 291-303.
17. Bolton, N., Critchley, M., Fabien, R., Cromar, N., and Fallowfield, H. (2010). Microbially influenced corrosion of galvanized steel pipes in aerobic water systems. Journal of Applied Microbiology 109(1), 239-247.
18. Bomo, A. M., Storey, M. V., and Ashbolt, N. J. (2004). Detection, integration and persistence of Aeromonas in water distribution system biofilms. Journal of Water and Health 2, 83-96.
19. Borch, T., Camper, A. K., Biederman, J. A., Butterfield, P. W., Gerlach, R., and Amonette, J. E. (2008). Evaluation of characterization techniques for iron pipe corrosion products and iron oxide thin films. Journal of Environmental Engineering 134, 835-844.
20. Boulay, N., and Edwards, M. (2001). Role of temperature, chlorine, and organic matter in copper corrosion by-product release in soft water. Water Research 35, 683-690.
21. Bower, C., and Daeschel, M. (1999). Resistance responses of microorganisms in food environments. International Journal of Food Microbiology 50(1-2), 33-44.
22. Boyd, G. R., Dewis, K. M., Korshin, G. V., Reiber, S. H., Schock, M. R., Sandvig, A. M., and Giani, R. (2008). Effects of changing disinfectants on lead and copper release: Part 1-Literature Review. Journal of the American Water Works Association 100(11), 1-44.
23. Bremer, P. J., and Geesey, G. G. (1991). Laboratory-based model of microbiologically induced corrosion of copper. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 57(7), 1956-1962.
24. Brongers, M. P. H. (2002). Appendix K. Drinking water and sewer systems in corrosion costs and preventative strategies in the United States. Report FHWA-RD-01-156. US Department of Transportation Federal Highway Administration.
25. Bryers, J. D. (1987). Biologically active surfaces: Processes governing the formation and persistence of biofilms. Biotechnology Progress 3(2), 57-68.
26. Burke, L. M. (2006). Fate of Salmonella typhimurium in biofilms of drinking water distribution systems. MSc. Thesis, Univ. Pretoria. 2006, pp. 123. Available at http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-02232007-192747/ unrestricted/00 Dissertation.pdf (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
27. Burlingame, G. A., and Alselme, C. (1995). Distribution system tastes and odors. In I. H. Suffet, J. Mallevialle, and E. Kawczynski (Eds.), Advances in taste-and-odor treatment and control (pp. 281-320). AWWARF/Lyonnaise des Eaux publication. Denver, CO: American Water Works Association, Research Foundation.
28. Busscher, H. J., and Van der Mei, H. C. (1995). Use of flow chamber devices and image analysis methods to study microbial adhesion. Methods in Enzymology 253, 455-476.
29. Buswell, C. M., Herlihy, Y. M., Lawrence, L. M., McGuiggan, J. T., Marsh, P. D., Keevil, C. W., and Leach, S. A. (1998). Extended survival and persistence of Campylobacter spp. in water and aquatic biofilms and their detection by immunofluorescent-antibody and-rRNA staining. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64 (2), 733-741.
30. Campbell, H. S., and Turner, M. E. D. (1983). The influence of trace organics on scale formation and corrosion. Journal of the Institute for Water Engineering and Science, 4, 55.
31. Carbucicchio, M., Ciprian, R., Ospitali, F., and Palombarini, G. (2008). Morphology and phase composition of corrosion products formed at the sing-iron interface of a galvanized steel. Corrosion Science, 50(9), 2605-2613.
32. Cerrato, J. M., Reyes, L. P., Alvarado, C. N., and Dietrich, A. M. (2006). Effect of PVC and iron materials on Mn(II) deposition in drinking water distribution systems. Water Research 40, 2720-2726.
33. Chamberlain, A. H. L., and Angell, P. (1990). Influences of microorganisms on pitting of copper tube. In N. J. Dowling, M. W. Mittelman, and J. C. Danko (Eds.), Microbially influenced corrosion and biodegradation (pp. 3-65). Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press.
34. Chan, M. W. M. (2003). A critical study on corrosion and corrosion control methods for piping systems in Hong Kong. Ph.D. Thesis. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Department of Building Service Engineering, Hong Kong. Available at http://repository.lib.polyu.edu.hk/jspui/handle/10397/3009 (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
35. Chatfield, E. J., and Dillon, M. J. (1979). A national study for asbestos fibres in Canadian drinking water supplies. Ottawa, Canada, Department of National Health and Welfare, Environmental Health Directorate Report 79-EHD-34.
36. Chauret, C., Volk, C., Creason, R., Jarosh, J., Robinson, J., and Warnes, C. (2001). Detection of Aeromonas hydrophila in a drinking water distribution system: A field and pilot study. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 47(8), 782-786.
37. ChemSec. (2011). BPA banned in baby bottles but used in drinking water pipes. Press Release. Available at http://www.chemsec.org/images/stories/2011/ chemsec/111214ChemSec press release BPA and relining.pdf (Accessed on December 14, 2011).
38. Chen, X., and Stewart, P. S. (2002). Role of electrostatic interactions in cohesion of bacterial biofilms. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 59(6), 718-720.
39. Chorus, I., and Salas, H. J. (1997). Health impacts of freshwater algae: Draft for guidelines for recreational water and bathing beach quality. p. 5, Paper presented to the III Regional AIDIS congress for North America and the Caribbean, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 7-12 June. 1997.
40. Clark, R. M., Lykins, Jr., B. W., Block, J. C., Wymer, L. J., and Reasoner, D. J. (1994). Water quality changes in a simulated distribution system. J. Water Supply Res. Technology-Aqua 43(6), 263-277.
41. Cloete, E., Westaard, D., and van Vuuren, S. J. (2003). Dynamic response of biofilm to pipe surface and fluid velocity. Water Science and Technology 47(5), 57-59.
42. Cohn, P. D., Cox, M., and Berger, P. S. (1999). Health and aesthetic aspects of water quality, Chapter 2. In R. D. Letterman (Ed.), Water Quality and Treatment (5th ed., pp. 2.10-2.86). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
43. Corpe, W. A. (1980). Microbial surface components involved in adsorption of microorganisms onto surfaces. In G. Bitton and K. C. Marshall (Eds.), Adsorption of microorganisms to surfaces (pp. 105-144). New York, NY: John Wiley.
44. Costerton, J. W. (1999). Introduction to biofilm. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents 11, 217-221.
45. Costerton, J. W., Lewandowski, Z., Caldwell, D. E., Korber, D. R., and Lappin-Scott, H. M. (1995). Microbial biofilms. In L. N. Ornston, A. Balows, and E. P. Greenberg (Eds.), Annual Reviews of Microbiology (Vol. 49, pp. 711-745). Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews.
46. Critchley, M. M., Cromar, N. J., McClure, N., and Fallowfield, H. J. (2001). Biofilms and microbially influenced cuprosolvency in domestic copper plumbing systems. Journal of Applied Microbiology 91(4), 646-651.
47. Critchley, M. M., Pasetto, R., and O'Halloran, R. J. (2004). Microbiological influences in blue water copper corrosion. Journal of Applied Microbiology 97(3), 590-597.
48. Danese, P. N., Pratt, L. A., and Kolter, R. (2000). Exopolysaccharide production is required for development of Escherichia coli K-12 biofilm architecture. Journal of Bacteriology 182(12), 3593-3596.
49. Davey, M. E., and O'toole, G. A. (2000). Microbial biofilms: From ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 64(4), 847-867.
50. Davidson, C. M., Peters, N. J., Britton, A., Brady, L., Gardiner, P. H. E., and Lewis, B. D. (2004). Surface analysis and depth profiling of corrosion products formed in lead pipes used to supply low alkalinity drinking water. Water Science and Technology 49(2), 49-54.
51. Davies, D. G., Parsek, M. R., Pearson, J. P., Iglewski, B. H., Costerton, J. W., and Greenberg, E. P. (1998). The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of a bacterial biofilm. Science 280(5361), 295-298.
52. Dawson, D. M. (1990). Colloid-A-Tron: A non-chemical water treatment system. Corrosion Prevention and Control 37(3), 61-64.
53. Declerck, P., Behets, J., Margineanu, A., van Hoef, V., De Keersmaecker, B., and Ollevier, F. (2009). Replication of Legionella pneumophila in biofilms of water distribution pipes. Microbiological Research 164(6), 593-603.
54. Deines, P., Sekar, R., Husband, P. S., Boxall, J. B., Osborn, A. M., and Biggs, C. A. (2010). A new coupon design for simultaneous analysis of in situ microbial pidemio formation and community structure in drinking water distribution systems. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 87(2), 749-756.
55. Dietrich, A. M., Glindemann, D., Pizarro, F., Gidi, V., Olivares, M., Araya, M., Camper, A., Duncan, S., Dwyer, S., Whelton, A. J., Younos, T., Subramanian, S., Burlingame, G. A., Khiari, D., and Edwards, M. (2004). Health and aesthetic impacts of copper corrosion on drinking water. Presented at International Conference on Scaling and Corrosion in Water and Wastewater Systems in Cranfield, ENGLAND, MAR 25-27, 2003. Water Science and Technology 49(2), 55-62.
56. Donlan, R. M. (2002). Biofilms: Microbial life on surfaces. Emerging Infectious Diseases 8(9), 881-890.
57. Donlan, R. M., and Costerton, J. W. (2002). Biofilms: Survival mechanisms of clinically relevant microorganisms. Clinical Microbiology Reviews 15(2), 167-193.
58. Edwards, M. (2004). Controlling corrosion in drinking water distribution systems: A grand challenge for the 21st century. Water Science and Technology 49(2), 1-8.
59. Edwards, M., and Abhijeet, D. (2004). Role of chlorine and chloramine in corrosion of lead bearing plumbing materials. Journal of the American Water Works Association 96, 69-81.
60. Edwards, M., Hidmi, L., and Gladwell, D. (2002). Phosphate inhibition of soluble copper corrosion by-product release. Corrosion Science 44(5), 1057-1071.
61. Edwards, M., Jacobs, S., and Taylor, R. J. (2000). The blue water phenomenon. Journal of the American Water Works Association 92(7), 72-82.
62. Edwards, M., and McNeill, L. S. (2002). Effect of phosphate inhibitors on lead release from pipes. Journal of the American Water Works Association 94, 79-90.
63. Edwards, M., and Triantafyllidou, S. (2007). Chloride to sulfate mass ratio and lead leaching to water. Journal of the American Water Works Association 99(7), 96-109.
64. Edwards, M., Triantafyllidou, S., and Best, D. (2009). Elevated blood lead in young children due to lead-contaminated drinking water: Washington, DC, 2001?2004. Environmental Science and Technology 43(5), 1618-1623.
65. Ewing, F. J. (1935). The crystal structure of lepidocrocite. Journal of Chemical Physics 3(7), 420-424.
66. Exner, M., Kramer, A., Lajoie, L., Gebel, J., Engelhart, S., and Hartemann, P. (2005). Prevention and control of health care-associated waterborne infections in health care facilities. Am. J. Infect. Control. 33(5 Suppl 1), S26-40.
67. Fertmann, R., Hentschel, S., Dengler, D., Janssen, U., and Lommel, A. (2004). Lead exposure by drinking water: an epidemiological study in Hamburg, Germany. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 207(3), 235-244.
68. Fitzpatrick, F., Humphreys, H., and O'Gara, J. P. (2005). The genetics of staphylococcal biofilm formation-will a greater understanding of pathogenesis lead to better management of device-related infection? Clinical Microbiology and Infection 11(12), 967-973.
69. Fleet, M. E. (1981). The structure of magnetite. Acta Crystallographica B37, 917-920.
70. Flemming, H. C., Percival, S. L., and Walker, J. T. (2002). Contamination potential of biofilms in water distribution systems. Water Supply 2(1), 271-280.
71. Flemming, H. C., and Wingender, J. (2001). Relevance of microbial extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs)-Part I: Structural and ecological aspects. Water Science and Technology 43, 1-8.
72. Flournoy, R. L., Monroe, D., Chestnut, N. M., and Kumar, V. (1999). Health effects from vinyl chloride monomer leaching from pre-1977 PVC pipe, AWWA Annual Conference Proceedings, Washington DC, 1999.
73. Fuqua, C., Winans, S. C., and Greenberg, E. P. (1997). Quorum sensing in bacteria: The LuxR-LuxI family of cell density responsive transcriptional regulators. Journal of Bacteriology 176(2), 269-275.
74. Gallard, H., Leclercq, A., and Croue, J. P. (2004). Chlorination of bisphenol a: Kinetics and by-products formation. Chemosphere 56(5), 465-473.
75. Gallardo-Moreno, A. M., Gonzalez-Martin, M. L., Perez-Giraldo, C., Bruque, J. M., and Gomez-Garcia, A. C. (2002a). Serum as a factor influencing adhesion of Enterococcus faecalis to glass and silicone. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68(11), 5784-5787.
76. Gallardo-Moreno, A. M., Gonzalez-Martin, M. L., Perez-Giraldo, C., Garduno, E., Bruque, J. M., and Gomez-Garcia, A. C. (2002b). Thermodynamic analysis of growth temperature dependence in the adhesion of Candida parapsilosis to polystyrene. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 68 (5), 2610-2613.
77. Gamby, J., Pailleret, A., Clodic, C. B., Pradier, C. M., and Tribollet, B. (2008). In situ detection and characterization of potable water biofilms on materials by microscopic, spectroscopic and electrochemistry methods. Electrochimica Acta 54(1), 66-73.
78. Garrett, E. S., Perlegas, D., and Wozniak, D. J. (1999). Negative control of flagellum synthesis in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is modulated by the alternative sigma factor AlgT (AlgU). Journal of Bacteriology 181(23), 7401-7404.
79. Geesey, G. G., Jang, L., Jolley, J. G., Hankins, M. R., Iwaoka, T., and Griffiths, P. R. (1989). Binding of metal ions by extracellular polymers of biofilm bacteria. Water Science and Technology 20(11/12), 161-165.
80. Geesey, G. G., Mittelman, M. W., Iwaoka, T., and Griffiths, P. R. (1986). Role of bacterial exopolymers in the deterioration of metallic copper surfaces. Materials Performance 25(2), 37-40.
81. Geldreich, E. E. (1996). Creating microbial quality in drinking water. In Microbial quality of water supply in distribution systems, E. E. Geldreich, ed. (pp. 39-101). Lewis Publishers: Boca Raton, FL.
82. Gerke, T. L., Scheckel, K. G., and Schock, M. R. (2009). Identification and distribution of vanadinite (Pb5(V5+O4)3Cl in lead pipe corrosion by-products. Environmental Science and Technology 43(12), 4412-4418.
83. Giao, M. S., Azevedo, N. F., Wilks, S. A., Vieira, M. J., and Keevil, C. W. (2008). Persistence of Helicobacter pylori in heterotrophic drinking water biofilms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 74(19), 5898-5904.
84. Godwin, H. A. (2001). The biological chemistry of lead. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 5, 223-227.
85. Graf, D. L. (1961). Crystallographic tables for the rhombohedral carbonates. American Mineralogist 46, 1283-1316.
86. Heim, T. H., and Dietrich, A. M. (2007). Sensory aspects and water quality impacts of chlorinated and chloraminated drinking water in contact with HDPE and cPVC pipe. Water Research 41, 757-764.
87. Hentzer, M., Teitzel, G. M., Balzer, G. J., Heydorn, A., Molin, S., Givskov, M., and Parsek, M. R. (2001). Alginate overproduction affects Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm structure and function. Journal of Bacteriology 183(18), 5395-5401.
88. Hodgkiess, T. (2004). Inter-relationships between corrosion and mineral-scale deposition in aqueous systems. Water Science and Technology, 49(2), 121-128.
89. Hudson, H. E., and Gilcrea, F. W. (1976). Health and economic aspects of water hardness and corrosiveness. Journal of the American Water Works Association 68(4), 201-204.
90. Huggins, D. (2008). Remediation of lead levels in drinking water: The City of London's experience. Ontario Water Works Association, Proceedings of the OWWA/OMWA Joint Annual Conference and Trade Show, London, ON, April 27-30, 2008.
91. Hunter, R. C., Hitchcock, A. P., Dynes, J. J., Obst, M., and Beveridge, T. J. (2008). Mapping the speciation of iron in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms using scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. Environmental Science and Technology 42(23), 8766-8772.
92. Impellitteri, C. A., Evans, O., and Ravel, B. (2007). Speciation of organotins in polyvinyl chloride pipe via X-ray absorption spectroscopy and in leachates using GC-PFPD after derivatisation. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 9, 358-365.
93. Inoue, T., Shingaki, R., Sogawa, N., Sogawa, C. A., Asaumi, J., Kokeguchi, S., and Fukui, K. (2003). Biofilm formation by a fimbriae-deficient mutant of Actinobacillus actinomycetemcomitans, Microbiology and Immunology 47 (11), 877-881.
94. Istituto Superiore di Sanita (ISS). (1993). Environment: Research projects of the Istituto Superiore di Sanita. Environment, ISS, Rome. 1-73.
95. Jacobs, S., and Edwards, M. (2000). Sulfide scale catalysis of copper corrosion. Water Research 34: 2798-2808.
96. Jacobs, S., Reiber, S., and Edwards, M. (1998). Sulfide-induced copper corrosion. Journal of the American Water Works Association. 90: No. 7, 62-73.
97. Jørgensen, C., Boyd, H. B., Fawell, J., and Hydes, O. (2008). Establishment of a list of chemical parameters for the revision of the Drinking Water Directive. Preliminary draft final report to DG ENV for the revision of the Drinking Water Directive ENV.D.2/ETU/2007/0077r, April 2008. Available at http://circa.europa. eu/Public/irc/env/drinking water rev/library?l=/stakeholder consultation/stake holder 2008 1/parameters 2008-04-25pdf/EN 1.0 &a=d (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
98. Joslin, C. E., Tu, E. Y., McMahon, T. T., Passaro, D. J., Stayner, L. T., and Sugar, J. (2006). Epidemiological characteristics of a Chicago-area Acanthamoeba keratitis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 142, 212-217.
99. Keevil, C. W. (2002). Pathogens in environmental biofilms. In G. Bitton (Ed.), Encyclopedia of environmental microbiology (Vol. 4, pp. 2339-2356). New York, NY: John Wiley.
100. Keevil, C. W. (2004). The physico-chemistry of biofilm-mediated pitting corrosion of copper pipe supplying potable water. Water Science and Technology 49(2), 91-98.
101. Keevil, C. W., Walker, J. T., McEvoy, J., and Colbourne, J. S. (1989). Detection of biofilms associated with pitting corrosion of copper pipework in Scottish hospitals. In Biodeterioration Society Proceedings: Biocorrosion, Volume 5, Preston Biodeterioration Society, pp. 99-117.
102. Kerr, C. J., Osborn, K. S., Robson, G. D., and Handley, P. S. (1999). The relationship between pipe material and biofilm formation in a laboratory model system. Journal of Applied Microbiology Symposium Suppl. 85, 29S-38S.
103. Kilb, B., Lange, B., Schaule, G., Flemming, H. C., and Wingender, J. (2003). Contamination of drinking water by coliforms from biofilms grown on rubber-coated valves. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 206(6), 563-573.
104. Kilvington, S., Gray, T., Dart, J., Morlet, N., Beeching, J. R., Frazer, D. G., and Matheson, M. (2004). Acanthamoeba keratitis: the role of domestic tap water contamination in the United Kingdom. Invest. Ophth. Vis. Sci. 45, 165-169.
105. Kim, E. J., Herrera, J. E., Huggins, D., Braam, J., and Koshowski, S. (2011). Effect of pH on the concentrations of lead and trace contaminants in drinking water: A combined batch, pipe loop and sentinel home study. Water Research 45(9), 2763-2774.
106. Kimbrough, D. E. (2007). Brass corrosion as a source of lead and copper in traditional and all-plastic distribution systems. Journal of the American Water Works Association 99(8), 70-76.
107. Klausen, M., Heydorn, A., Ragas, P., Lambertsen, L., Aaes- Jørgensen, A., Molin, S., and Tolker-Nielsen, T. (2003). Biofilm formation by Pseudomonas aeruginosa wild type, flagella and type IV pili mutants. Molecular Microbiology 48(6),1511-24.
108. Knobeloch, et al. (1998) Gastrointestinal Upsets and New Copper Plumbing-Is There a Connection? Wisconsin Medical Journal, 49-53.
109. Korshin, G. V., Ferguson, J. F., and Lancaster, A. N. (2005). Influence of natural organic matter on the morphology of corroding lead surfaces and behavior of lead-containing particles. Water Research, 39, 811-818.
110. Kvech, S., and Edwards, M. (2002). Solubility controls on aluminum in drinking water at relatively low and high pH. Water Research 36, 4356-4368.
111. Kvech, S., and Edwards, M. (2001). Role of aluminosilicate deposits in lead and copper corrosion. Journal of the American Water Works Association 93(11), 104-112.
112. Kwok, W. K., Picioreanu, C., Ong, S. L., van Loosdrecht, M. C. M., Ng, W. J., and Heijnen, J. J. (1997). Influence of biomass production and detachment forces on biofilm structures in a biofilm airlift suspension reactor. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 58(4), 400-407.
113. Lasheen, M. R., Sharaby, C. M., El-Kholy, N. G., Elsherif, I. Y., and Ei-Wakeel, S. T. (2008). Factors influencing lead and iron release from some Egyptian drinking water pipes. Journal of Hazardous Materials 160(2-3), 675-680.
114. Laurent, P., Servais, P., and Randon, G. (1993). Bacterial development in distribution networks. Study and modelling. Water Supply 11(3/4), 387-398.
115. LeChevallier, M. W. (1990). Coliform re-growth in drinking water: A review. Journal of the American Water Works Association 82, 74-86.
116. LeChevallier, M. W., Babcock, T. M., and Lee, R. G. (1987). Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53(12), 2714-2724.
117. LeChevallier, M. W., Lowry, C. D., and Lee, R. G. (1990). Disinfecting biofilms in a model distribution system. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 82(7), 87-99.
118. LeChevallier, M. W., Lowry, C. D., Lee, R. G., and Gibbon, D. L. (1993). Examining the relationship between iron corrosion and the disinfection of biofilm bacteria. Journal of the American Water Works Association 85(7), 111-123.
119. Lee, S. H., O'Connor, J. T., and Banerji, S. K. (1980). Biologically mediated corrosion and its effects on water quality in distribution systems. Journal of the American Water Works Association 72(11), 636-645.
120. Lehtola, M. J., Laxander, M., Miettinen, I. T., Hirvonen, A., Vartiainen, T., and Martikainen P. J. (2006). The effects of changing water flow velocity on the formation of biofilms and water quality in pilot distribution system consisting of copper or polyethylene pipes. Water Research 40(11), 2151-2160.
121. Lehtola, M. J., Miettinen, K. T., Keinanen, M. M., Kekki, T. K., Laine, O., Hirvonen, A., Vartiainen, T., and Martikainen, P. J. (2004). Microbiology, chemistry and biofilm development in a pilot drinking water distribution system with copper and plastic pipes. Water Research 38(17), 3769-3779.
122. Lehtola, M. J., Miettinen, I. T., Lampola, T., Hirvonen, A., Vartiainen, T., and Martikainen, P. J. (2005). Pipeline materials modify the effectiveness of disinfectants in drinking water distribution systems. Water Research 39(10), 1962-1971.
123. Lehtola, M. J., Torvinen, E., Kusnetsov, J., Pitkanen, T., Maunula, L., von Bonsdorff, C. H., Martikainen, P. J., Wilks, S. A., Keevil, C. W., and Miettinen, I. T. (2007). Survival of Mycobacterium avium, Legionella pneumophila, Escherichia coli, and Caliciviruses in drinking water-associated biofilms grown under high shear turbulent flow. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 73(9), 2854-2859.
124. Lemon, K. P., Higgins, D. E., and Kolter, R. (2007). Flagella-mediated motility is critical for Listeria monocytogenes biofilm formation. Journal of Bacteriology 189(12), 4418-4424.
125. Lewandowski, Z., Dickinson, W., and Less, W. (1997). Electrochemical interactions of biofilms with metal surfaces. Water Science and Technology 36(1), 295-302.
126. Li, C., Yang, Y. J., Yu, J., Zhang, T. Q., Mao, X., and Shao, W. (2012). Second-order chlorine decay and trihalomethanes formation in a pilot-scale water distribution systems. Water Environment Research 84(8), 656-661.
127. Liang, J. L., Dziuban, E. J., Craun, G. F., Hill, V., Moore, M. R., Gelting, R. J., Calderon, R. L., Beach, M. J., and Roy, S. L. (2006). Surveillance of waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with drinking water and water not intended for drinking-United States, 2003-2004. Center for diseases control, Atlanta GA, USA. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report-Surveillance Summaries 55(SS12), 31-65.
128. Lin, J. P., Ellaway, M., and Adrien, R. (2001). Study of corrosion material accumulated on the inner wall of steel water pipe. Corrosion Science 43(11), 2065-2081.
129. Lin, Y. P., and Valentine, R. L. (2008a). The release of lead from the reduction of lead oxide (PbO2) by natural organic matter. Environmental Science and Technology 42(3), 760-765.
130. Lin, Y. P., and Valentine, R. L. (2008b). Release of Pb(II) from monochloraminemediated reduction of lead oxide (PbO2). Environmental Science and Technology 42(24), 9137-9143.
131. Liu, H. Z., Korshin, G. V., and Ferguson, J. F. (2009). Interactions of Pb(II)/Pb(IV) solid phases with chlorine and their effects on lead release. Environmental Science and Technology 43(9), 3278-3284.
132. Lytle, D. A., Gerke, T. L., and Maynard, J. B. (2005). Effect of bacterial sulfate reduction on iron corrosion scales. Journal of the American Water Works Association 97(10), 109-120.
133. Lytle, D. A., and Nadagouda, M. N. (2010). A comprehensive investigation of copper pitting corrosion in a drinking water distribution system, Corrosion Science 52(6), 1927-1938.
134. Lytle, D. A., Schock, M. R., and Scheckel, K. (2009). The inhibition of Pb(IV) oxide formation in chlorinated water by orthophosphate. Environmental Science and Technology 43(17), 6624-6631.
135. Lytle, D. A., Sorg, T. J., and Frietch, C. (2004). Accumulation of arsenic in drinking water distribution systems. Environmental Science and Technology 38(20), 5365-5372.
136. MacKenzie, W., Hoxie, N., Proctor, M., Gradus, M., Blari, K., Peterson, D., Kazmierczak, J., and Davis, J. (1994). A massive outbreak in Milwaukee of Cryptosporidium infection transmitted through the public water supply. New Eng. J. Med. 331(3), 161-167.
137. Manuel, C. M., Nunes, O. C., and Melo, L. F. (2007). Dynamics of drinking water biofilm in flow/non-flow conditions. Water Research 41(3), 551-562.
138. Marciano-Cabral, F., Jamerson, M., and Kaneshiro, E. S. (2010). Free-living amebae, Legionella and Mycobacterium in tap water supplied by a municipal drinking water utility in the USA. J. Water Health 8, 71-82.
139. McNeill, L. S., and Edwards, M. (2001). Iron pipe corrosion in distribution systems. Journal of the American Water Works Association 93, 88-100.
140. McNeill, L. S., and Edwards, M. (2002). Phosphate inhibitor use at US utilities. Journal of the American Water Works Association 94, 57-63.
141. Molloy, S. L., Ives, R., Hoyt, A., Taylor, R., and Rose, J. B. (2008). The use of copper and silver in carbon point-of-use filters for the suppression of Legionella throughput in domestic water systems. Journal of Applied Microbiology 104(4), 998-1007.
142. Momba, M. N. B., and Kaleni, P. (2002). Re-growth and survival of indicator microorganisms on the surfaces of household containers used for the storage of drinking water in rural communities of South Africa. Water Research 36(12), 3023-3028.
143. Morton, S. C., Zhang, Y., and Edwards, M. (2005). Implications of nutrient release from iron metal for microbial regrowth in water distribution systems. Water Research 39, 2883-2892.
144. Murdoch, F., and Smith, P. G. (1999). Formation of manganese micro-nodules on water pipeline materials. Water Research 33(12), 2893-2895.
145. Murdoch, F., and Smith, P. G. (2000). The interaction of a manganese-oxidising bacterium as part of a biofilm growing on distribution pipe materials. Water Science and Technology 41(4-5), 295-300.
146. Murphy, E. A. (1993). Effectiveness of flushing on reducing lead and copper levels in school drinking water. Environmental Health Perspectives 101(3), 240-241.
147. National Research Council (NRC) (2000). Copper in Drinking Water. National Academies Press, Washington, D.C. (available paper or on-line at http://books. nap.edu/books/0309069394/html/).
148. National Research Council (NRC) (2006). Drinking water distribution systems: Assessing and reducing risks. Committee on Public Water Supply Distribution Systems: Assessing and Reducing Risks, National Research Council. The National Academies Press, Washington DC, 1-405.
149. Nguyen, C., Elfland, C., and Edwards, M. (2012). Impact of advanced water conservation features and new copper pipe on rapid chloramine decay and microbial regrowth. Water Research 46, 611-621.
150. Nguyen, C. K., Stone, K. R., Dudi, A., and Edwards, M. A. (2010). Corrosive microenvironments at lead solder surfaces arising from galvanic corrosion with copper pipe. Environmental Science and Technology 44(18), 7076-7081.
151. Nguyen, C. K., Stone, K. R., and Edwards, M. (2011). Chloride to sulfate mass ratio: Practical studies in galvanic corrosion of lead solder. Journal of the American Water Works Association 103(1), 81-92.
152. Niquette, P., Servais, P., and Savoir, R. (2000). Impacts of pipe materials on densities of fixed bacterial biomass in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research 34(6), 1952-1956.
153. Norton C. D., and LeChevallier, M. W. (2000). A pilot study of bacteriological population changes through potable treatment and distribution. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 66 (1)268-276.
154. Ohashi, A., and Harada, H. (1996). A novel concept for evaluation of biofilm adhesion strength by applying tensile force and shear force. Water Science and Technology 34(5), 201-211.
155. O'Toole, G. A., and Kolter, R. (1998). Flagellar and twitching motility are necessary for Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. Molecular Microbiology 30(2), 295-304.
156. Pandit, A., and Bhave, S. (1996). Present interpretation of the role of copper in Indian childhood cirrhosis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 63, 830S-835S.
157. Park, S. R., Mackay, W. G., and Reid, D. C. (2001). Helicobacter sp. recovered from drinking water biofilm sampled from a water distribution system. Water Research 35(6), 1624-1626.
158. Parks, J. L., McNeill, L., Frey, M., Eaton, A. D., Haghani, A., Ramirez, L., and Edwards, M. (2004). Determination of total chromium in environmental water samples. Water Research 38(12), 2827-2838.
159. Pedersen, K. (1990). Biofilm development on stainless steel and PVC surfaces in drinking water. Water Research 24(2), 239-243.
160. Pekov, I. V., Perchiazzi, N., Merlino, S., Vyacheslav, N., Merlini, M., and Zadov, A. E. (2007). Chukanovite, Fe2(CO3)(OH)2, a new mineral from the weathered iron meteorite Dronino. European Journal of Mineralogy 19(6), 891-898.
161. Percival, S. L., and Thomas, J. G. (2009). Transmission of Helicobacter pylori and the role of water and biofilms. Journal of Water and Health 7(3), 469-477.
162. Percival, S. L., Walker, J. T., and Hunter, P. R. (2000). Microbiological aspects of biofilms and drinking water (pp. 240). CRC Press: Baco Raton, FL.
163. Peyton, B. M., and Characklis, W. G. (1992). Kinetics of biofilm detachment. Water Science and Technology 26(9-11), 1995-1998.
164. Potera, C. (1999). Forging a link between biofilms and disease. Science 283(5409), 1837-1839.
165. Pratt, L. A., and Kolter, R. (1998). Genetic analysis of Escherichia coli biofilm formation: Defining the roles of flagella, motility, chemotaxis and type I pili. Molecular Microbiology 30(2), 285-294.
166. Reiber, S., and Dostal, G. (2000). Arsenic and old pipes-a mysterious liason: Well water disinfection sparks surprises. Opflow 26, 1.
167. Renner, R. (2008). Pipe scales release hazardous metals into drinking water. Environmental Science and Technology 42(12), 4241-4241.
168. Rigal, S., and Danjou, J. (1999). Tastes and odors in drinking water distribution systems related to the use of synthetic materials. Water Science and Technology 40, 203-208.
169. Rogers, J., Dowsett, A. B., Dennis, P. J., Lee, J. V., and Keevil, C. W. (1994). Influence of plumbing materials on biofilm formation and growth of Legionella pneumophila in potable water systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 60(6), 1842-1851.
170. Ryder, R. A. (1980). The costs of internal corrosion in water systems. Journal of the American Water Works Association 72(5), 267-279.
171. Sadiki, A. I. (1998). A study of organotin level in Canadian drinking water distributed through PVC pipes. Chemosphere 38(7), 1541-1548.
172. Sarin, P., Snoeyink, V. L., Bebee, J., Jim, K. K., Beckett, M. A., Kriven, W. M., and Clement, J. A. (2004). Iron release from corroded iron pipes in drinking water distribution systems: effect of dissolved oxygen. Water Research 38(5), 1259-1269.
173. Sarin, P., Snoeyink, V. L., Bebee, J., Kriven, W. M., and Clement, J. A. (2001). Physicochemical characteristics of corrosion scales in old iron pipes. Water Research 35, 2961-2969.
174. Satchwill, T. S. (1998). The impact of pipe coatings on drinking water quality. Paper #3. 1998.
175. Schock, M. R. (1980). Response of lead solubility to dissolved carbonate in drinkingwater.Journal of the American Water Works Association 72(12), 695-704.
176. Schock, M. R. (1999). Internal corrosion and deposition control, Chapter 17. In R. D. Letterman (Ed.), Water quality and treatment (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
177. Schock, M. R. (2005). Distribution systems as reservoirs and reactors for inorganic contaminants, Chapter 6. In M. J. MacPhee (Ed.), Distribution system water quality, challenges in the 21st century (pp. 105-140). Denver, CO: American Water Works Association.
178. Schock, M. R., and Gardels, M. C. (1983). Plumbosolvency reduction by high pH and low carbonate-solubility relationships. Journal of the American Water Works Association 75(2), 87-91.
179. Schock, M. R., Hyland, R. N., and Welch, M. M. (2008). Occurrence of contaminant accumulation in lead pipe scales from domestic drinking-water distribution systems. Environmental Science and Technology 42(12), 4285-4291.
180. Schock, M. R., and Lytle, D. A. (2010). Internal corrosion and deposition control, Chapter 20. In J. K. Edzwald (Ed.), Water quality and treatment: A handbook of community water supplies (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
181. Schock, M. R., Wagner, I., and Oliphant, R. (1996). The corrosion and solubility of lead in drinking water. In Internal corrosion of water distribution systems, American Water Works Association, ed. (2nd ed., pp. 131-230). Denver, CO: AWWA Research Foundation/TZW.
182. Schwartz, T., Hoffmann, S., and Obst, U. (1998). Formation and bacterial composition of young, natural biofilms obtained from public bank-filtered drinking water systems. Water Research 32(9), 2787-2797.
183. Servais, P., Laurent, P., and Randon, G. (1995). Comparison of the bacterial dynamics in various French distribution systems. Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology-Aqua 44, 10-17.
184. Shim, J. J., and Kim, J. G. (2004). Copper corrosion in potable water distribution systems: influence of copper products on the corrosion behavior. Materials Letters 58(14), 2002-2006.
185. Silhan, J., Corfitzen, C. B., and Albrechtsen, H. J. (2006). Effect of temperature and pipe material on biofilm formation and survival of Escherichia coli in used drinking water pipes: A laboratory-based study. Water Science and Technology 54(3), 49-56.
186. Simoes, L. C., Simoes, M., Oliveira, R., and Vieira, M. J. (2007). Potential of the adhesion of bacteria isolated from drinking water to materials. Journal of Basic Microbiology 47(2), 174-183.
187. Simon, L., Francois, M., Refait, P., Renaudin, G., Lelaurain, M., and Genin, J. M. R. (2003). Structure of the Fe(II-III) layered double hydroxysulphate green rust two from Rietveld analysis. Solid State Science 5(2), 327-334.
188. Smets, B. F., Grasso, D., Engwall, M. A., and Machinist, B. J. (1999). Surface physicochemical properties of Pseudomonas fluorescens and impact on adhesion and transport through porous media. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces 14(1-4), 121-139.
189. Smoot, L. M., and Pierson, M. D. (1998). Influence of environmental stress on the kinetics and strength of attachment of Listeria monocytogenes Scott A to Buna-N rubber and stainless steel. Journal of Food Protection 61(10), 1286-1292.
190. Snoeyink, V. L., Schock, M. R., Sarin, P., Wang, L., Chen, A. S. C., and Harmon, S. M. (2003). Aluminium-containing scales in water distribution systems: Prevalence and composition. Journal of Water Supply 52, 455-474.
191. Souza, J. C. M., Henriques, M., Oliveira, R., Teughels, W., Celis, J. P, and Rocha, L. A. (2010). Do oral biofilms influence the wear and corrosion behavior of titanium? Biofouling 26(4), 471-478.
192. Stahl, K., Nielsen, K., Jiang, J. Z., Lebech, B., Hanson, J. C., Norby, P., and van Lanschot, J. (2003). On the akaganeite crystal structure, phase transformations and possible role in post-excavational corrosion of iron artifacts. Corrosion Science 45(11), 2563-2575.
193. Stoodley, P., de Beer, D., and Lappin-Scott, H. M. (1997). Influence of electric fields and pH on biofilm structure as related to the bioelectric effect. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy 41(9), 1876-1879.
194. Stoodley, P., Wilson, S., Hall-Stoodley, L., Boyle, J. D., Lappin-Scott, H. M., and Costerton, J. W. (2001). Growth and detachment of cell clusters from mature mixed-species biofilms. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 67(12), 5608-5613.
195. Storey, M. V., L°angmark, J., Ashbolt, N. J., and Stenstr̈om, T. A. (2004). The fate of legionellae within distribution pipe biofilms: Measurement of their persistence, inactivation and detachment. Water Science and Technology 49(11-12), 269-275.
196. Stout, J. E., Yu, V. L., and Best, M. G. (1985). Ecology of Legionella pneumophila within water distribution systems. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 49(1), 221-228.
197. Sutherland, I. W. (2001). The biofilm matrix-an immobilized but dynamic microbial environment. Trends in Microbiology 9(5), 222-227.
198. Swietlik, J., Raczyk-Stanisławiak, U., Piszora, P., and Nawrocki, J. (2012). Corrosion in drinking water pipes: The importance of green rusts. Water Research, 46, 1-10.
199. Szewzyk, U., Szewzyk, R., Manz, W., and Schleifer, K. H. (2000). Microbiological safety of drinking water. Annual Reviews of Microbiology 54, 81-127.
200. Takahashi, S., Mukai, H., Tanabe, S., Sakayama, K., Miyazaki, T., and Masuno, H. (1999). Butyltin residues in livers of humans and wild terrestrial mammals and in plastic products. Environ. Poll. 106, 213-218.
201. Tendolkar, P. M., Baghdayan, A. S., Gilmore, M. S., and Shankar, N. (2004). Enterococcal surface protein, Esp, enhances biofilm formation by Enterococcus faecalis. Infection and Immunity 72(10), 6032-6039.
202. Teng, F., Guan, Y. T., and Zhu, W. P. (2008). Effect of biofilm on cast iron pipe corrosion in drinking water distribution system: Corrosion scales characterization and microbial community structure investigation. Corrosion Science 50(10), 2816-2823.
203. Tokajian S. T., Hashwa F. A., Hancock I. C., and Zalloua P. A. (2005). Phylogenetic assessment of heterotrophic bacteria from a water distribution system using 16S rDNA sequencing. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 51(4), 325-35.
204. Triantafyllidou, S., Parks, J., and Edwards, M. (2007). Lead particles in potable water. Journal of the American Water Works Association 99(6), 107-117.
205. Trinkw, V. (2001). (German drinking water ordinance). Verordnung ̈uber die Qualiẗat von Wasser f̈ur den menschlichen.
206. Turakhia, M. H., and Characklis, W. G. (1989). Activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in biofilms: Effect of calcium. Biotechnology and Bioengineering 33(4), 406-414.
207. Uhlig, H. H., and Revie, R. W. (1985). Corrosion and corrosion control. An introduction to corrosion science and engineering (pp. 464). New York, NY: John Wiley.
208. United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. E.P.A.). (1991). Federal Register. January 30, 1991. Part II. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 141, 142, and 143. National Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Final Rule.(56 FR 3526).
209. United States Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. EPA) (2002). Analysis of National Occurrence of the 1998 Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) Regulatory Determination Priority Contaminants in Public Water systems. Office of Water. EPA 815-D-01-002. Washington, DC. 2002.
210. United States Government Accountability Office-GAO (U.S. GAO) (2011). Report to congressional requesters. Drinking water-Unreliable state data limit EPA's ability to target enforcement priorities and communicate water systems' performance. GAO-11-381, June 2011, Washington, D.C., USA. Available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d11381.pdf (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
211. Van der Kooij, D., and Veenendaal, H. R. (2001). Biomass production potential of materials in contact with drinking water: Method and practical importance. Water Science and Technology 1(3), 39-45.
212. Van der Wende, E., and Characklis, W. G. (1990). Biofilms in potable water distribution systems. In: G. A. McFeters (Ed.), Drinking water microbiology: Progress and recent developments (pp. 249-268). New York, NY: Springer.
213. Van der Wende, E., Characklis, W. G., and Smith, D. B. (1989). Biofilms and bacterial drinking water quality. Water Research 23(10), 1313-1322.
214. Vandevivere, P., and Kirchman, D. L. (1993). Attachment stimulates exopolysaccharide synthesis by a bacterium. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 59(10), 3280-3286.
215. Van Loosdrecht, M. C. M., Lyklema, J., Norde, W., Schraa, G., and Zehnder, A. J. B. (1987). Electrophoretic mobility and hydrophobicity as a measure to predict the initial steps of bacterial adhesion. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 53(8), 1898-1901.
216. Verdonck, L., Hoste, S., Roelandt, F. F., and Vanderkelen, G. P. (1982). Normal coordinate analysis of alpha FeOOH-A molecular approach. Journal of Molecular Structure 79(1-4), 273-279.
217. Vikesland, P. J., and Valentine, R. L. (2002). Iron oxide surface-catalyzed oxidation of ferrous iron by monochloramine: Implications of oxide type and carbonate on reactivity. Environmental Science and Technology 36, 512-519.
218. Walch, M. (1992). Corrosion, microbial. In J. Lederberg (Ed.), Encyclopedia of microbiology (Vol. 1, pp. 585-591). New York, NY: Academic Press.
219. Wang, H., Hu, C., Hu, X., Yang, M., and Qu, J. (2012a). Effects of disinfectant and biofilm on the corrosion of cast iron pipes in a reclaimed water distribution system. Water Research 46, 1070-1078.
220. Wang, H., Masters, S., Hong, Y., Stallings, J., Falkinham, J. O., Edwards, M. A., and Pruden, A. (2012b). Effect of disinfectant, water age, and pipe material on occurrence and persistence of Legionella, mycobacteria, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and two amoebas. Environmental Science and Technology 46, 11566-11574.
221. Wang, Z., Kim, J., and Seo, Y. (2012c). Influence of bacterial extracellular polymeric substances on the formation of carbonaceous and nitrogenous disinfection byproducts. Environmental Science and Technology 46, 11361-11369.
222. Water Infrastructure Network (WIN) (2000). Clean and safe drinking water for the 21st century. A renewed national commitment to water and wastewater infrastructure. Available at http://www.amsa-cleanwater.org/advocacy/winreport/ winreport2000.pdf (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
223. Watnick, P. I., Fullner, K. J., and Kolter, R. (1999). A role for the mannose-sensitive hemagglutinin in biofilm formation by Vibrio cholerae El Tor. Journal of Bacteriology 181(11), 3606-3609.
224. WHO/UNICEF (2012). World Health Organization and UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation. Progress on drinking water and sanitation report, 2012. Washington, DC, USA.
225. Wingender, J., and Flemming, H. C. (2004). Contamination potential of drinking water distribution network biofilms. Water Science and Technology 49 (11-12), 277-286.
226. Wingender, J., and Flemming, H. C. (2011). Biofilms in drinking water and their role as reservoir for pathogens. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 214(6), 417-23.
227. Wingender, J., Neu, T. R., and Flemming, H. C. (1999). What are bacterial extracellular polymeric substances? In J. Wingender, T. R. Neu, H. C. Flemming (Eds.), Microbial extracellular polymeric substances: Characterization, structure and function (pp. 1-19). Berlin: Springer.
228. World Health Organization (WHO) (2003). Copper: environmental levels and human exposure. http://www.who.int/water sanitation health/GDWQ/Chemicals/ copperfull.htm
229. Environmental World Health Organization (WHO) (2004). Guidelines for drinking water quality, second edition. Recommendations, vol. 1, Geneva.
230. World Health Organization (WHO) (2007). Legionella and the prevention of legionellosis (J. Bartram, Y. Chartier, J. V. Lee, K. Pond, S. Surman-Lee, Eds.). Geneva: Author.
231. World Health Organization (WHO) (2009). Global health risks, mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks. Geneva: Author.
232. World Health Organization (WHO)/National Science Foundation (NSF) (2003). Heterotrophic plate counts and drinking-water safety: The significance of HPCs for water quality and human health. Bartram, J., Cotruvo, J., Exner, M., Fricker, C., and Glasmacher, A. Available at http://www.nsf.org/conference/hpc/ hpc proceedings.html (Accessed on June 21, 2012).
233. Wulff, N. A., Mariano, A. G., Gaurivaud, P., de Almeida Souza, L. C., Virg-?lio, A. C., and Monteiro, P. B. (2008). Influence of culture medium pH on growth, aggregation, and biofilm formation of Xylella fastidiosa. Current Microbiology 57, 127-132.
234. Xie, Y., and Giammar, D. E. (2011). Effects of flow and water chemistry on lead release rates from pipe scales. Water Research 45, 6525-6534.
235. Yang, F., Shi, B., Gu, J., Wang, D., and Yang, M. (2012). Morphological and physicochemical characteristics of iron corrosion scales formed under different water source histories in a drinking water distribution system. Water Research 46, 5423-5433.
236. Yoder, J., Roberts, V., Craun, G. F., Hill, V., Hicks, L., Alexander, N. T., Radke, V., Calderon, R. L., Hlavsa, M. C., Beach, M. J., and Roy, S. L. (2008). Surveillance of waterborne disease and outbreaks associated with drinking water and water not intended for drinking-United States, 2003-2004. Center for diseases control, Atlanta, GA, USA. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report-Surveillance Summaries 57(SS09), 39-62.
237. Zacheus, O. M., Iivanainen, E. K., Nissinen, T. K., Lehtola, M. J., and Martikainen, P. J. (2000). Bacterial biofilm formation on polyvinyl chloride, polyethylene and stainless steel exposed to ozonated water. Water Research 34(1), 63-70.
238. Zacheus, O. M., Lehtola, M. J., Korhonen, L. K., and Martikainen, P. J. (2001). Soft deposits the key site for microbial growth in drinking water distribution networks. Water Research 35(7), 1757-1765.
239. Zaitlina, B., and Watson, S. B. (2006). Actinomycetes in relation to taste and odour in drinking water: Myths, tenets and truths. Water Research 40(6), 1741-1753.
240. Zhang, Y., and Edwards, M. (2009). Accelerated chloramine decay and microbial growth by nitrification in premise plumbing. Journal of the American Water Works Association 101(11), 51-62.
241. Zhang, Y., Griffin, A., and Edwards, M. (2010). Effect of nitrification on corrosion of galvanized iron, copper and concrete. Journal of the American Water Works Association 102(4), 83-93.
242. Zhang, Y., Griffin, A., Rahman, M., Camper, A., Baribeau, H., and Edwards, M. (2009). Lead contamination of potable water due to nitrification. Environmental Science and Technology 43(6), 1890-1895.
243. Zhou, L. L., Zhang, Y. J., and Li, G. B. (2009). Effect of pipe material and low level disinfectants on biofilm development in a simulated drinking water distribution system. Journal of Zhejiang University Science A 10(5), 725-731.
244. Zietz, B. P., Dieter, H. H., Lakomek, M., Schneider, H., Kessler-Gaedtke, B., and Dunkelberg, H. (2003). Epidemiological investigation on chronic copper toxicity to children exposed via the public drinking water supply. Science of the Total Environment 302(1-3), 127-144.
245. Zietz, B. P, Laß, J., and Suchenwirth, R. (2007). Assessment and management of tap water lead contamination in Lower Saxony, Germany. Int. J. Environ. Health Res. 17, 407-418.
246. Zimmerman, J. B., Mihelcic, J. R., and Smith, J. A. (2008). Global stressors on water quality and quantity. Environmental Science and Technology 42(12), 4247-4254.