Inflammation in CRPS: Role of the sympathetic supply

Autonomic Neuroscience: Basic and Clinical

Volumn 182, Issue , 2014, Pages 102-107

  Schlereth, Tanja ^a   Drummond, Peter D ^b   Birklein, Frank ^a  

^a Department of Neurology ^*  (Germany)

^b MURDOCH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

Complex regional pain syndrome; Cytokines; Inflammation; Sympathetic nervous system

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR; INTERLEUKIN 10; INTERLEUKIN 1BETA; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 4; INTERLEUKIN 6; NORADRENALIN; SUBSTANCE P; CYTOKINE;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ARTICLE; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROME; HUMAN; IMMUNE SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; KERATINOCYTE; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SKIN; SPROUTING; SWEATING; SYMPATHETIC FUNCTION; UPREGULATION; ANIMAL; IMMUNOLOGY; IMMUNOMODULATION; PHYSIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROMES; CYTOKINES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; NEUROIMMUNOMODULATION; SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM;

EID: 84898893091     PISSN: 15660702     EISSN: 18727484     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2013.12.011     Document Type: Article

References (129)

1. Alexander G.M., van Rijn M.A., van Hilten J.J., Perreault M.J., Schwartzman R.J. Changes in cerebrospinal fluid levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in CRPS. Pain 2005, 116:213-219.
2. Ali Z., Raja S.N., Wesselmann U., Fuchs P.N., Meyer R.A., Campbell J.N. Intradermal injection of norepinephrine evokes pain in patients with sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 2000, 88:161-168.
3. Arnold J.M., Teasell R.W., MacLeod A.P., Brown J.E., Carruthers S.G. Increased venous alpha-adrenoceptor responsiveness in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Ann. Intern. Med. 1993, 118:619-621.
4. Austin P.J., Kim C.F., Perera C.J., Moalem-Taylor G. Regulatory T cells attenuate neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury and experimental autoimmune neuritis. Pain 2012, 153:1916-1931.
5. Baik E., Chung J.M., Chung K. Peripheral norepinephrine exacerbates neuritis-induced hyperalgesia. J. Pain 2003, 4:212-221.
6. Banati R.B. Brain plasticity and microglia: is transsynaptic glial activation in the thalamus after limb denervation linked to cortical plasticity and central sensitisation?. J. Physiol. Paris 2002, 96:289-299.
7. Banati R.B. Neuropathological imaging: in vivo detection of glial activation as a measure of disease and adaptive change in the brain. Br. Med. Bull. 2003, 65:121-131.
8. Baron R., Maier C. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: skin blood flow, sympathetic vasoconstrictor reflexes and pain before and after surgical sympathectomy. Pain 1996, 67:317-326.
9. Baron R., Schattschneider J., Binder A., Siebrecht D., Wasner G. Relation between sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity and pain and hyperalgesia in complex regional pain syndromes: a case-control study. Lancet 2002, 359:1655-1660.
10. Beerthuizen A., Stronks D.L., Van't Spijker A., Yaksh A., Hanraets B.M., Klein J., Huygen F.J. Demographic and medical parameters in the development of complex regional pain syndrome type 1 (CRPS1): prospective study on 596 patients with a fracture. Pain 2012, 153:1187-1192.
11. Birder L.A., Perl E.R. Expression of alpha2-adrenergic receptors in rat primary afferent neurones after peripheral nerve injury or inflammation. J. Physiol. 1999, 515(Pt 2):533-542.
12. Birklein F., Sittl R., Spitzer A., Claus D., Neundorfer B., Handwerker H.O. Sudomotor function in sympathetic reflex dystrophy. Pain 1997, 69:49-54.
13. Birklein F., Riedl B., Sieweke N., Weber M., Neundorfer B. Neurological findings in complex regional pain syndromes-analysis of 145 cases. Acta Neurol. Scand. 2000, 101:262-269.
14. Birklein F., Schmelz M., Schifter S., Weber M. The important role of neuropeptides in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2001, 57:2179-2184.
15. Blaes F., Schmitz K., Tschernatsch M., Kaps M., Krasenbrink I., Hempelmann G., Brau M.E. Autoimmune etiology of complex regional pain syndrome (M. Sudeck). Neurology 2004, 63:1734-1736.
16. Blaes F., Tschernatsch M., Braeu M.E., Matz O., Schmitz K., Nascimento D., Kaps M., Birklein F. Autoimmunity in complex-regional pain syndrome. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2007, 1107:168-173.
17. Blair S.J., Chinthagada M., Hoppenstehdt D., Kijowski R., Fareed J. Role of neuropeptides in pathogenesis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64:448-451.
18. Blumberg H., Janig W. Activation of fibers via experimentally produced stump neuromas of skin nerves: ephaptic transmission or retrograde sprouting?. Exp. Neurol. 1982, 76:468-482.
19. Calder J.S., Holten I., McAllister R.M. Evidence for immune system involvement in reflex sympathetic dystrophy. J. Hand Surg. (Br.) 1998, 23:147-150.
20. Campero M., Bostock H., Baumann T.K., Ochoa J.L. A search for activation of C nociceptors by sympathetic fibers in complex regional pain syndrome. Clin. Neurophysiol. 2010, 121:1072-1079.
21. Cao L., DeLeo J.A. CNS-infiltrating CD4+ T lymphocytes contribute to murine spinal nerve transection-induced neuropathic pain. Eur. J. Immunol. 2008, 38:448-458.
22. Chemali K.R., Gorodeski R., Chelimsky T.C. Alpha-adrenergic supersensitivity of the sudomotor nerve in complex regional pain syndrome. Ann. Neurol. 2001, 49:453-459.
23. Christensen K., Jensen E.M., Noer I. The reflex dystrophy syndrome response to treatment with systemic corticosteroids. Acta Chir. Scand. 1982, 148:653-655.
24. Cohen H.E., Hall J., Harris N., McCabe C.S., Blake D.R., Janig W. Enhanced pain and autonomic responses to ambiguous visual stimuli in chronic Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) type I. Eur. J. Pain 2012, 16:182-195.
25. Cooper M.S., Clark V.P. Neuroinflammation, neuroautoimmunity, and the co-morbidities of complex regional pain syndrome. J. NeuroImmune Pharm. 2012, 8:452-469.
26. Costigan M., Moss A., Latremoliere A., Johnston C., Verma-Gandhu M., Herbert T.A., Barrett L., Brenner G.J., Vardeh D., Woolf C.J., Fitzgerald M. T-cell infiltration and signaling in the adult dorsal spinal cord is a major contributor to neuropathic pain-like hypersensitivity. J. Neurosci. 2009, 29:14415-14422.
27. Davis K.D., Treede R.D., Raja S.N., Meyer R.A., Campbell J.N. Topical application of clonidine relieves hyperalgesia in patients with sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 1991, 47:309-317.
28. de Rooij A.M., DE M.M., Sturkenboom M.C., Marinus J., van den Maagdenberg A.M., van Hilten J.J. Familial occurrence of complex regional pain syndrome. Eur. J. Pain 2009, 13:171-177.
29. Dilek B., Yemez B., Kizil R., Kartal E., Gulbahar S., Sari O., Akalin E. Anxious personality is a risk factor for developing complex regional pain syndrome type I. Rheumatol. Int. 2012, 32:915-920.
30. Dogrul A., Coskun I., Uzbay T. The contribution of alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoceptors in peripheral imidazoline and adrenoceptor agonist-induced nociception. Anesth. Analg. 2006, 103:471-477.
31. Donello J.E., Guan Y., Tian M., Cheevers C.V., Alcantara M., Cabrera S., Raja S.N., Gil D.W. A peripheral adrenoceptor-mediated sympathetic mechanism can transform stress-induced analgesia into hyperalgesia. Anesthesiology 2011, 114:1403-1416.
32. Drummond P.D., Finch P.M. Persistence of pain induced by startle and forehead cooling after sympathetic blockade in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2004, 75:98-102.
33. Drummond P.D., Finch P.M. A disturbance in sensory processing on the affected side of the body increases limb pain in complex regional pain syndrome. Clin. J. Pain 2013, (Epub ahead of print).
34. Drummond P.D., Finch P.M., Smythe G.A. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: the significance of differing plasma catecholamine concentrations in affected and unaffected limbs. Brain 1991, 114(Pt 5):2025-2036.
35. Drummond P.D., Skipworth S., Finch P.M. Alpha 1-adrenoceptors in normal and hyperalgesic human skin. Clin. Sci. (Lond.) 1996, 91:73-77.
36. Drummond P.D., Finch P.M., Skipworth S., Blockey P. Pain increases during sympathetic arousal in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2001, 57:1296-1303.
37. Ebbinghaus M., Gajda M., Boettger M.K., Schaible H.G., Brauer R. The anti-inflammatory effects of sympathectomy in murine antigen-induced arthritis are associated with a reduction of Th1 and Th17 responses. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2012, 71:253-261.
38. Geertzen J.H., de Bruijn-Kofman A.T., de Bruijn H.P., van de Wiel H.B., Dijkstra P.U. Stressful life events and psychological dysfunction in Complex Regional Pain Syndrome type I. Clin. J. Pain 1998, 14:143-147.
39. Geha P.Y., Baliki M.N., Harden R.N., Bauer W.R., Parrish T.B., Apkarian A.V. The brain in chronic CRPS pain: abnormal gray-white matter interactions in emotional and autonomic regions. Neuron 2008, 60:570-581.
40. Gibbs G.F., Drummond P.D., Finch P.M., Phillips J.K. Unravelling the pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome: focus on sympathetically maintained pain. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2008, 35:717-724.
41. Goebel A., Blaes F. Complex regional pain syndrome, prototype of a novel kind of autoimmune disease. Autoimmun. Rev. 2013, 12:682-686.
42. Goebel A., Vogel H., Caneris O., Bajwa Z., Clover L., Roewer N., Schedel R., Karch H., Sprotte G., Vincent A. Immune responses to Campylobacter and serum autoantibodies in patients with complex regional pain syndrome. J. Neuroimmunol. 2005, 162:184-189.
43. Goebel A., Baranowski A., Maurer K., Ghiai A., McCabe C., Ambler G. Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of the complex regional pain syndrome: a randomized trial. Ann. Intern. Med. 2010, 152:152-158.
44. Goebel A., Leite M.I., Yang L., Deacon R., Cendan C.M., Fox-Lewis A., Vincent A. The passive transfer of immunoglobulin G serum antibodies from patients with longstanding Complex Regional Pain Syndrome. Eur. J. Pain 2011, 15:504-506.
45. Gonzales R., Sherbourne C.D., Goldyne M.E., Levine J.D. Noradrenaline-induced prostaglandin production by sympathetic postganglionic neurons is mediated by alpha 2-adrenergic receptors. J. Neurochem. 1991, 57:1145-1150.
46. Goyarts E., Matsui M., Mammone T., Bender A.M., Wagner J.A., Maes D., Granstein R.D. Norepinephrine modulates human dendritic cell activation by altering cytokine release. Exp. Dermatol. 2008, 17:188-196.
47. Grande L.A., Loeser J.D., Ozuna J., Ashleigh A., Samii A. Complex regional pain syndrome as a stress response. Pain 2004, 110:495-498.
48. Groeneweg J.G., Huygen F.J., Heijmans-Antonissen C., Niehof S., Zijlstra F.J. Increased endothelin-1 and diminished nitric oxide levels in blister fluids of patients with intermediate cold type complex regional pain syndrome type 1. BMC Musculoskelet. Disord. 2006, 7:91.
49. Groeneweg J.G., Antonissen C.H., Huygen F.J., Zijlstra F.J. Expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase and endothelin-1 in skin tissue from amputated limbs of patients with complex regional pain syndrome. Mediat. Inflamm. 2008, 2008:680981.
50. Gross O., Tschernatsch M., Brau M.E., Hempelmann G., Birklein F., Kaps M., Madlener K., Blaes F. Increased seroprevalence of parvovirus B 19 IgG in complex regional pain syndrome is not associated with antiendothelial autoimmunity. Eur. J. Pain 2007, 11:237-240.
51. Guo T.Z., Offley S.C., Boyd E.A., Jacobs C.R., Kingery W.S. Substance P signaling contributes to the vascular and nociceptive abnormalities observed in a tibial fracture rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type I. Pain 2004, 108:95-107.
52. Häbler H.J., Janig W., Koltzenburg M. Activation of unmyelinated afferents in chronically lesioned nerves by adrenaline and excitation of sympathetic efferents in the cat. Neurosci. Lett. 1987, 82:35-40.
53. Häbler H., Eschenfelder S., Liu X.G., Janig W. Sympathetic-sensory coupling after L5 spinal nerve lesion in the rat and its relation to changes in dorsal root ganglion blood flow. Pain 2000, 87:335-345.
54. Harden R.N., Duc T.A., Williams T.R., Coley D., Cate J.C., Gracely R.H. Norepinephrine and epinephrine levels in affected versus unaffected limbs in sympathetically maintained pain. Clin. J. Pain 1994, 10:324-330.
55. Harden R.N., Rudin N.J., Bruehl S., Kee W., Parikh D.K., Kooch J., Duc T., Gracely R.H. Increased systemic catecholamines in complex regional pain syndrome and relationship to psychological factors: a pilot study. Anesth. Analg. 2004, 99:1478-1485.
56. Harden R.N., Bruehl S., Stanton-Hicks M., Wilson P.R. Proposed new diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain Med. 2007, 8:326-331.
57. Heijmans-Antonissen C., Wesseldijk F., Munnikes R.J., Huygen F.J., van der Meijden P., Hop W.C., Hooijkaas H., Zijlstra F.J. Multiplex bead array assay for detection of 25 soluble cytokines in blister fluid of patients with complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Mediat. Inflamm. 2006, 2006:1-8.
58. Heijnen C.J., Rouppe van der Voort C., Wulffraat N., van der Net J., Kuis W., Kavelaars A. Functional alpha 1-adrenergic receptors on leukocytes of patients with polyarticular juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. J. Neuroimmunol. 1996, 71:223-226.
59. Holzer P. Neurogenic vasodilatation and plasma leakage in the skin. Gen. Pharmacol. 1998, 30:5-11.
60. Hong Y., Abbott F.V. Contribution of peripheral alpha 1A-adrenoceptors to pain induced by formalin or by alpha-methyl-5-hydroxytryptamine plus noradrenaline. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 1996, 301:41-48.
61. Hou Q., Barr T., Gee L., Vickers J., Wymer J., Borsani E., Rodella L., Getsios S., Burdo T., Eisenberg E., Guha U., Lavker R., Kessler J., Chittur S., Fiorino D., Rice F., Albrecht P. Keratinocyte expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide beta: implications for neuropathic and inflammatory pain mechanisms. Pain 2011, 152:2036-2051.
62. Huygen F.J., De Bruijn A.G., De Bruin M.T., Groeneweg J.G., Klein J., Zijistra F.J. Evidence for local inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome type 1. Mediat. Inflamm. 2002, 11:47-51.
63. Huygen F.J., Ramdhani N., van T.A., Klein J., Zijlstra F.J. Mast cells are involved in inflammatory reactions during Complex Regional Pain Syndrome type 1. Immunol. Lett. 2004, 91:147-154.
64. Inchiosa M.A., Kizelshteyn G. Treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type I with oral phenoxybenzamine: rationale and case reports. Pain Pract. 2008, 8:125-132.
65. Janig W., Baron R. Complex regional pain syndrome: mystery explained?. Lancet Neurol. 2003, 2:687-697.
66. Jorum E., ORstavik K., Schmidt R., Namer B., Carr R.W., Kvarstein G., Hilliges M., Handwerker H., Torebjork E., Schmelz M. Catecholamine-induced excitation of nociceptors in sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 2007, 127:296-301.
67. Kalita J., Vajpayee A., Misra U.K. Comparison of prednisolone with piroxicam in complex regional pain syndrome following stroke: a randomized controlled trial. QJM 2006, 99:89-95.
68. Kaufmann I., Eisner C., Richter P., Huge V., Beyer A., Chouker A., Schelling G., Thiel M. Lymphocyte subsets and the role of TH1/TH2 balance in stressed chronic pain patients. Neuroimmunomodulation 2007, 14:272-280.
69. Kavelaars A. Regulated expression of alpha-1 adrenergic receptors in the immune system. Brain Behav. Immun. 2002, 16:799-807.
70. Kohr D., Tschernatsch M., Schmitz K., Singh P., Kaps M., Schafer K.H., Diener M., Mathies J., Matz O., Kummer W., Maihofner C., Fritz T., Birklein F., Blaes F. Autoantibodies in complex regional pain syndrome bind to a differentiation-dependent neuronal surface autoantigen. Pain 2009, 143:246-251.
71. Kohr D., Singh P., Tschernatsch M., Kaps M., Pouokam E., Diener M., Kummer W., Birklein F., Vincent A., Goebel A., Wallukat G., Blaes F. Autoimmunity against the beta(2) adrenergic receptor and muscarinic-2 receptor in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2011, 152:2690-2700.
72. Koopman F.A., Stoof S.P., Straub R.H., Van Maanen M.A., Vervoordeldonk M.J., Tak P.P. Restoring the balance of the autonomic nervous system as an innovative approach to the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Mol. Med. 2011, 17:937-948.
73. Kramer H.H., Eberle T., Uceyler N., Wagner I., Klonschinsky T., Muller L.P., Sommer C., Birklein F. TNF-alpha in CRPS and 'normal' trauma-significant differences between tissue and serum. Pain 2011, 152:285-290.
74. Kurvers H.A., Hofstra L., Jacobs M.J., Daemen M.A., van den Wildenberg F.A., Kitslaar P.J., Slaaf D.W., Reneman R.S. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: does sympathetic dysfunction originate from peripheral neuropathy?. Surgery 1996, 119:288-296.
75. Kurvers H., Daemen M., Slaaf D., Stassen F., van den W F., Kitslaar P., de Mey J. Partial peripheral neuropathy and denervation induced adrenoceptor supersensitivity. Functional studies in an experimental model. Acta Orthop. Belg. 1998, 64:64-70.
76. Leis S., Weber M., Isselmann A., Schmelz M., Birklein F. Substance-P-induced protein extravasation is bilaterally increased in complex regional pain syndrome. Exp. Neurol. 2003, 183:197-204.
77. Levine J.D., Fye K., Heller P., Basbaum A.I., Whiting-O'Keefe Q. Clinical response to regional intravenous guanethidine in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. J. Rheumatol. 1986, 13:1040-1043.
78. Lewis J.S., Schweinhardt P. Perceptions of the painful body: the relationship between body perception disturbance, pain and tactile discrimination in complex regional pain syndrome. Eur. J. Pain 2012, 16:1320-1330.
79. Li W.W., Guo T.Z., Li X.Q., Kingery W.S., Clark J.D. Fracture induces keratinocyte activation, proliferation, and expression of pro-nociceptive inflammatory mediators. Pain 2010, 151:843-852.
80. Li W.W., Guo T.-Z., Liang D.Y., Sun Y., Kingery W.S., Clark D.J. Substance P signaling controls mast cell activation, degranulation, and nociceptive sensitization in a rat fracture model of complex regional pain syndrome. Anesthesiology 2012, 116:882-895.
81. Li W., Shi X., Wang L., Guo T., Wei T., Cheng K., Rice K.C., Kingery W.S., Clark J.D. Epidermal adrenergic signaling contributes to inflammation and pain sensitization in a rat model of complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2013, 154(8):1224-1236.
82. Lin Q., Zou X., Fang L., Willis W.D. Sympathetic modulation of acute cutaneous flare induced by intradermal injection of capsaicin in anesthetized rats. J. Neurophysiol. 2003, 89:853-861.
83. Maestroni G.J. Sympathetic nervous system influence on the innate immune response. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 2006, 1069:195-207.
84. Maihofner C., Handwerker H.O., Neundorfer B., Birklein F. Cortical reorganization during recovery from complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2004, 63:693-701.
85. Maihofner C., Handwerker H.O., Neundorfer B., Birklein F. Mechanical hyperalgesia in complex regional pain syndrome: a role for TNF-alpha?. Neurology 2005, 65:311-313.
86. Maihofner C., Baron R., DeCol R., Binder A., Birklein F., Deuschl G., Handwerker H.O., Schattschneider J. The motor system shows adaptive changes in complex regional pain syndrome. Brain 2007, 130:2671-2687.
87. Mailis A., Wade J. Profile of Caucasian women with possible genetic predisposition to reflex sympathetic dystrophy: a pilot study. Clin. J. Pain 1994, 10:210-217.
88. Marinus J., Moseley G.L., Birklein F., Baron R., Maihofner C., Kingery W.S., van Hilten J.J. Clinical features and pathophysiology of complex regional pain syndrome. Lancet Neurol. 2011, 10:637-648.
89. Maruo K., Yamamoto H., Yamamoto S., Nagata T., Fujikawa H., Kanno T., Yaguchi T., Maruo S., Yoshiya S., Nishizaki T. Modulation of P2X receptors via adrenergic pathways in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons after sciatic nerve injury. Pain 2006, 120:106-112.
90. McLachlan E.M., Janig W., Devor M., Michaelis M. Peripheral nerve injury triggers noradrenergic sprouting within dorsal root ganglia. Nature 1993, 363:543-546.
91. Michaelis M., Devor M., Janig W. Sympathetic modulation of activity in rat dorsal root ganglion neurons changes over time following peripheral nerve injury. J. Neurophysiol. 1996, 76:753-763.
92. Moalem G., Xu K., Yu L. T lymphocytes play a role in neuropathic pain following peripheral nerve injury in rats. Neuroscience 2004, 129:767-777.
93. Moseley G.L. Why do people with complex regional pain syndrome take longer to recognize their affected hand?. Neurology 2004, 62:2182-2186.
94. Moseley G.L. Distorted body image in complex regional pain syndrome. Neurology 2005, 65:773.
95. Munnikes R.J., Muis C., Boersma M., Heijmans-Antonissen C., Zijlstra F.J., Huygen F.J. Intermediate stage complex regional pain syndrome type 1 is unrelated to proinflammatory cytokines. Mediat. Inflamm. 2005, 2005:366-372.
96. Oaklander A.L., Fields H.L. Is reflex sympathetic dystrophy/complex regional pain syndrome type I a small-fiber neuropathy?. Ann. Neurol. 2009, 65:629-638.
97. Oyen W.J., Arntz I.E., Claessens R.M., van der Meer J.W., Corstens F.H., Goris R.J. Reflex sympathetic dystrophy of the hand: an excessive inflammatory response?. Pain 1993, 55:151-157.
98. Pearson R.D., Bailey J. Complex regional pain syndrome in an 8-year-old female with emotional stress during deployment of a family member. Mil. Med. 2011, 176:876-878.
99. Perez D.M., Papay R.S., Shi T. Alpha1-adrenergic receptor stimulates interleukin-6 expression and secretion through both mRNA stability and transcriptional regulation: involvement of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor-kappaB. Mol. Pharmacol. 2009, 76:144-152.
100. Perl E.R. Causalgia, pathological pain, and adrenergic receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 1999, 96:7664-7667.
101. Pertovaara A. Noradrenergic pain modulation. Prog. Neurobiol. 2006, 80:53-83.
102. Petersen M., Zhang J., Zhang J.M., LaMotte R.H. Abnormal spontaneous activity and responses to norepinephrine in dissociated dorsal root ganglion cells after chronic nerve constriction. Pain 1996, 67:391-397.
103. Pluteanu F., Ristoiu V., Flonta M.L., Reid G. Alpha(1)-adrenoceptor-mediated depolarization and beta-mediated hyperpolarization in cultured rat dorsal root ganglion neurones. Neurosci. Lett. 2002, 329:277-280.
104. Richardson J.D., Vasko M.R. Cellular mechanisms of neurogenic inflammation. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 2002, 302:839-845.
105. Rouppe v.d V., Kavelaars A., van de Pol M., Heijnen C.J. Noradrenaline induces phosphorylation of ERK-2 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells after induction of alpha(1)-adrenergic receptors. J. Neuroimmunol. 2000, 108:82-91.
106. Sato J., Perl E.R. Adrenergic excitation of cutaneous pain receptors induced by peripheral nerve injury. Science 1991, 251:1608-1610.
107. Schattschneider J., Binder A., Siebrecht D., Wasner G., Baron R. Complex regional pain syndromes: the influence of cutaneous and deep somatic sympathetic innervation on pain. Clin. J. Pain 2006, 22:240-244.
108. Schmelz M., Petersen L.J. Neurogenic inflammation in human and rodent skin. News Physiol. Sci. 2001, 16:33-37.
109. Schnegelsberg B., Sun T.T., Cain G., Bhattacharya A., Nunn P.A., Ford A.P., Vizzard M.A., Cockayne D.A. Overexpression of NGF in mouse urothelium leads to neuronal hyperinnervation, pelvic sensitivity, and changes in urinary bladder function. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2010, 298:R534-R547.
110. Segura E., Amigorena S. Identification of human inflammatory dendritic cells. Oncoimmunology 2013, 2:e23851.
111. Seiffert K., Hosoi J., Torii H., Ozawa H., Ding W., Campton K., Wagner J.A., Granstein R.D. Catecholamines inhibit the antigen-presenting capability of epidermal Langerhans cells. J. Immunol. 2002, 168:6128-6135.
112. Straube S., Derry S., Moore R.A., McQuay H.J. Cervico-thoracic or lumbar sympathectomy for neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2010, (9). (CD002918).
113. Sumitani M., Shibata M., Iwakura T., Matsuda Y., Sakaue G., Inoue T., Mashimo T., Miyauchi S. Pathologic pain distorts visuospatial perception. Neurology 2007, 68:152-154.
114. Terkelsen A.J., Molgaard H., Hansen J., Finnerup N.B., Kroner K., Jensen T.S. Heart rate variability in complex regional pain syndrome during rest and mental and orthostatic stress. Anesthesiology 2012, 116:133-146.
115. Toben D., Schroeder I., El K.T., Mehta M., Hoffmann J.E., Frisch J.T., Schell H., Lienau J., Serra A., Radbruch A., Duda G.N. Fracture healing is accelerated in the absence of the adaptive immune system. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2011, 26:113-124.
116. Torebjork E., Wahren L., Wallin G., Hallin R., Koltzenburg M. Noradrenaline-evoked pain in neuralgia. Pain 1995, 63:11-20.
117. Tuttle J.B., Etheridge R., Creedon D.J. Receptor-mediated stimulation and inhibition of nerve growth factor secretion by vascular smooth muscle. Exp. Cell Res. 1993, 208:350-361.
118. Uceyler N., Eberle T., Rolke R., Birklein F., Sommer C. Differential expression patterns of cytokines in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2007, 132:195-205.
119. van de Beek W.J., Roep B.O., van der Slik A.R., Giphart M.J., van Hilten B.J. Susceptibility loci for complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2003, 103:93-97.
120. van Rooijen D.E., Roelen D.L., Verduijn W., Haasnoot G.W., Huygen F.J., Perez R.S., Claas F.H., Marinus J., van Hilten J.J., van den Maagdenberg A.M. Genetic HLA associations in complex regional pain syndrome with and without dystonia. J. Pain 2012, 13:784-789.
121. Vitkovic L., Bockaert J., Jacque C. "Inflammatory" cytokines: neuromodulators in normal brain?. J. Neurochem. 2000, 74:457-471.
122. Wasner G., Schattschneider J., Heckmann K., Maier C., Baron R. Vascular abnormalities in reflex sympathetic dystrophy (CRPS I): mechanisms and diagnostic value. Brain 2001, 124:587-599.
123. Weber M., Birklein F., Neundorfer B., Schmelz M. Facilitated neurogenic inflammation in complex regional pain syndrome. Pain 2001, 91:251-257.
124. Wei T., Li W.W., Guo T.Z., Zhao R., Wang L., Clark D.J., Oaklander A.L., Schmelz M., Kingery W.S. Post-junctional facilitation of Substance P signaling in a tibia fracture rat model of complex regional pain syndrome type I. Pain 2009, 144:278-286.
125. Weiner H.L., Mackin G.A., Matsui M., Orav E.J., Khoury S.J., Dawson D.M., Hafler D.A. Double-blind pilot trial of oral tolerization with myelin antigens in multiple sclerosis. Science 1993, 259:1321-1324.
126. Woolf C.J., Safieh-Garabedian B., Ma Q.P., Crilly P., Winter J. Nerve growth factor contributes to the generation of inflammatory sensory hypersensitivity. Neuroscience 1994, 62:327-331.
127. Xie J., Ho L.Y., Wang C., Mo C.J., Chung K. Differential expression of alpha1-adrenoceptor subtype mRNAs in the dorsal root ganglion after spinal nerve ligation. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 2001, 93:164-172.
128. Yen L.D., Bennett G.J., Ribeiro-Da-Silva A. Sympathetic sprouting and changes in nociceptive sensory innervation in the glabrous skin of the rat hind paw following partial peripheral nerve injury. J. Comp. Neurol. 2006, 495:679-690.
129. Zhao P., Barr T.P., Hou Q., Dib-Hajj S.D., Black J.A., Albrecht P.J., Petersen K., Eisenberg E., Wymer J.P., Rice F.L., Waxman S.G. Voltage-gated sodium channel expression in rat and human epidermal keratinocytes: evidence for a role in pain. Pain 2008, 139:90-105.