Ketamine as Antidepressant? Current State and Future Perspectives

Current Neuropharmacology

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 57-70

  Hasselmann, H W W ^a  

^a MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

Antidepressants; Glutamate; Ketamine; Major depression; Monoamines; NMDAR

Indexed keywords

ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; GLUTAMIC ACID; KETAMINE; MONOAMINE; MONOAMINE OXIDASE A INHIBITOR; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR; NORADRENALIN; PLACEBO; SEROTONIN; SEROTONIN NORADRENALIN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT;

ABDOMINAL PAIN; ABNORMAL SENSATION; AUDITORY HALLUCINATION; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); CYSTITIS; DEPRESSION; ELECTROCONVULSIVE THERAPY; HAMILTON SCALE; HUMAN; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MEMORY; MEMORY DISORDER; NERVE CELL PLASTICITY; NEUROTOXICITY; PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SCHIZOPHRENIA; VISUAL HALLUCINATION; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME;

EID: 84896720531     PISSN: 1570159X     EISSN: 18756190     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1570159X113119990043     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Kessler, R. C.; Berglund, P.; Demler, O.; Jin, R.; Koretz, D.; Merikangas, K. R.; Rush, A. J.; Walters, E. E.; Wang, P. S. The epidemiology of major depressive disorder: results from the national comorbidity survey replication (NCS-R). JAMA, 2003, 289(23), 3095-3105. doi: 10. 1001/jama. 289. 23. 3095.
2. Simon, G. E. Social and economic burden of mood disorders. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 54(3), 208-215. doi: 10. 1016/S0006-3223(03) 00420-7.
3. Obsy, U.; Brandt, L.; Correia, N.; Ekbom, A.; Sparen, P. Excess mortality in bipolar and unipolar disorder in Sweden. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry, 2001, 58(9), 844-850. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 58. 9. 844.
4. Lepiné, J.-P.; Briley, M. The increasing burden of depression. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 2001, 7(1), 3-7. doi: 10. 2147/NDT. S19617.
5. Broadhead, W. E.; Blazer, D. G.; George, L. K.; Tse, C. K. Depression, disability days, and days lost from work in a prospective epidemiologic study. JAMA, 1990, 264(19), 2524-2528.
6. Pape, K.; Bjorngaard, J. H.; Holmen, T. L.; Krokstad, S. The welfare burden of adolescent anxiety and depression: a prospective study of 7500 young Norwegians and their families: the HUNT study. BMJ Open, in press, 2, doi: 10. 1136/bmjopen-2012-001942.
7. Steffens, D. C.; Krishnan, K. R.; Helms, M. J. Are SSRIs better than TCAs? Comparison of SSRIs and TCAs: a meta-analysis. Depress. Anxiety, 1997, 6(1), 10-18. doi: 10. 1002/(SICI)1520-6394(1997)6: 1<10:: AID-DA2>3. 0. CO; 2-9.
8. Messer, M. M.; Haller, I. V. Maintenance ketamine treatment produces long-term recovery from depression. Primary Psychiatry, 2010, 17(4), 48-50.
9. Schildkraut, J. J.; Kety, S. S. Biogenic amines and emotion. Science, 1967, 156(771), 21-37.
10. Hindmarch, I. Expanding the horizons of depression: beyond the monoamine hypothesis. HumanPsychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 2001, 16(3), 203-218. doi: 10. 1002/hup. 288.
11. Hirschfeld, R. M. A. The epidemiology of depression and the evolution of treatment. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2012, 73(1), 5-9. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. 11096su1c. 01.
12. Crane, G. E. The psychiatric side-effects of iproniazid. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1956, 112(7), 494-501.
13. Ban, T. A. The role of serendipity in drug discovery. Dial. Clin. Neuroscience, 2006, 8(3), 335-344.
14. Amsterdam, J. D.; Berwish, N. Treatment of refractory depression with combination reserpine and tricyclic antidepressant therapy. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 1987, 7(4), 238-242.
15. Lee, S.; Jeong, J.; Kwak, Y.; Park, S. K. Depression research: where are we now? Mol. Brain, 2010, 3(8), 3-8. doi: 10. 1186/1756-6606-3-8.
16. Smith, D. F.; Jakobsen, S. Molecular neurobiology of depression: PET findings on the elusive correlation with symptom severity. Front. Psychiatry, in press. doi: 10. 3389/fpsyt. 2013. 00008.
17. Linda, G. The biology of antidepressants. Ann. Fam. Med., 2005, 3, 449-456.
18. Shytle, R. D.; Silver, A. A.; Sanberg, P. R. Comorbid bipolar depression in tourette syndrome responds to nicotinic receptor antagonist, mecamylamine (Inversine). Biol. Psychiatry, 2000, 48(10), 1028-1031. doi: 10. 1016/S0006-3223(00)00945-8.
19. Mill, J.; Petronis, A. Molecular studies of major depressive disorder: the epigenetic perspective. Mol. Psychiatry, 2007, 12(9), 799-814. doi: 10. 1038/sj. mp. 4001992.
20. Shytle, R. D.; Silver, A. A.; Lukas, R. J.; Newman, M. B.; Sheehan, D. V.; Sanberg, P. R. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as targets for antidepressants. Mol. Psychiatry, 2002, 7(6), 525-535. doi: 10. 1038/sj. mp. 4001035.
21. Fink, M. Meduna and the origins of convulsive therapy. Am. J. Psychiatry, 1984, 141(9), 1034-1041.
22. Ernst, E. Herbal remedies for depression anxiety. Adv. Psych. Treatment, 2007, 13, 312-316. doi: 10. 1192/apt. bp. 105. 001735.
23. Dupuy, J. M.; Ostacher, M. J.; Huffman, J.; Perlis, R. H.; Nierenberg, A. A. A critical review of pharmacotherapy for major depressive disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2011, 14(10), 1417-1431. doi: 10. 1017/S1461145711000083.
24. Yildiz, A.; Gönül, A. S.; Tamam, L. Mechanism of actions of antidepressants: beyond the receptors. Bull. Clin. Psychopharmacol., 2002, 12(4), 194-200.
25. Barbui, C.; Hotopf, M.; Freemantle, N.; Boynton, J.; Churchill, R.; Eccles, M. P.; Geddes, J. R.; Hardy, R.; Lewis, G.; Mason, J. M. Treatment discontinuation with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) vs. tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2003, 3, Art. No. CD002791.
26. Guaiana, G.; Barbui, C.; Hotopf, M. Amitriptyline for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2007, 3, Art. No. CD004186.
27. Ferguson, J. M. SSRI antidepressant medications: adverse effects and tolerability. Prim. Care Companion to J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2001, 3(1), 22-27. doi: 10. 4088/PCC. v03n0105.
28. Duncan, J.; Johnson, S.; &Ou, X.-M. Monoamine oxidases in major depressive disorder and alcoholism. Drug Discov. Therap., 2012, 6(3), 112-122. doi: 10. 5582/ddt. 2012. v6. 3. 112.
29. Flockhart, D. A. Dietary restrictions and drug interactions with monoamine oxidase inhibitors: an update. J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2012, 73(1), 17-24. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. 11096su1c. 03.
30. Grady, M. M.; Stahl, S. M. Practical guide for prescribing MAOIs: debunking myths and removing barriers. CNS Spectrums, 2012, 17(1), 2-10. doi: 10. 1017/S109285291200003X.
31. Thase, M. E. The role of monoamine oxidase inhibitors in depression treatment guidelines. J. C. Psychiatry, 2012, 73(1), 10-16. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. 11096su1c. 02.
32. Fiedorowicz, J. G.; Swartz, K. L. The role of monoamine oxidase inhibitors in current psychiatric practice. J. Psych. Pract., 2004, 10(4), 239-248. doi: 10. 1097/00131746-200407000-00005.
33. Barbui, C.; Butler, R.; Cipriani, A.; Geddes, J.; Hatcher, S. Depression in adults: drug and physical treatments. Clin. Evidence, 2007, 6, 1003.
34. Helms, R. A.; Eric, T. (2006). Textbook of therapeutics: drug and disease management. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, 2006.
35. Zhou, Z.; Zhen, J.; Karpowich, N. K.; Law, C. J.; Reith, M. E. A.; Wang, D.-N. Antidepressant specificity of serotonin transporter suggested by three LeuT-SSRI structures. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol., 2009, 16(6), 652-657. doi: 10. 1038/nsmb. 1602.
36. Stahl, S. M. Mechanism of action of serotonin selective reuptake inhibitors-Serotonin receptors and pathways mediate therapeutic effects and side effects. J. Affect. Disord., 1998, 51(3), 215-135. doi: 10. 1016/S0165-0327(98)00221-3.
37. Charney, D. S.; Delgade, P. L.; Price, L. H.; Henninger, G. R. The receptor sensitivity hypothesis of antidepressant action: a review of antidepressant effects on serotonin function. In: The role of serotonin in psychiatric disorders; S. L. Brown & H. M. van Praag (Eds.); Brunner/Mazel: New York, 1991.
38. Uzbekov, M. G. Antidepressant action of tianeptine is connected with acceleration of serotonin turnover in the synapse: a hypothesis. NeuropsychopharmacologicaHungarica, 2009, 11(2), 83-87.
39. Geddes, J. R.; Freemantle, N.; Mason, J.; Eccles, M. P.; Boyton, J. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) for depression. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2002, 2, Art. No. CD00185.
40. Wilson, K.; Mottram, P.; Sivanranthan, A.; Nightingale, A. Antidepressants vs. placebo for the depressed elderly. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2003, 2, Art. No. CD000561.
41. Kirsch, I.; Deacon, B. J.; Huedo-Medina, T. B.; Scoboria, A.; Moore, T. J.; Johnson, B. T. Initial severity and antidepressant benefits: a meta-analysis of data submitted to the Food and Drug Administration. PLoS Medicine, 2008, 5(2), 260-268. doi: 10. 1371/journal. pmed. 0050045.
42. Walsh, B. T.; Seidman, S. N.; Sysko, R.; Gould, M. Placebo response in studies of major depression: variable, substantial, and growing. JAMA, 2002, 287(14), 1840-1847. doi: 10. 1001/jama. 287. 14. 1840.
43. Barbui, C.; Esposito, E.; Cipriani, A. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and risk of suicide: a systematic review of observational studies. CMAJ, 2009, 180(3), 291-297. doi: 10. 1503/cmaj. 081514.
44. Jain, R. Single-action versus dual-action antidepressants. Prim. Care Companion to J. Clin. Psychiatry, 2004, 6(1), 7-11.
45. Papakostas, G. I.; Thase, M. E.; Fava, M.; Nelson, J. C.; Shelton, R. C. Are antidepressant drugs that combine serotonergic and noradrenergic mechanisms of action more effective than the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors in treating major depressive disorder? A meta-analysis of studies of newer agents. Biol. Psychiatry, 2007, 62(11), 1217-1227. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2007. 03. 027.
46. Meldrum, B. S. Glutamate as a neurotransmitter in the brain: review of physiology and pathology. J. Nutr., 2000, 130(4), 1007-1015.
47. Fonnum, F. Glutamate: a neurotransmitter in mammalian brain. J. Neurochem., 1984, 42(1), 1-11.
48. Mark, L. P.; Prost, R. W.; Ulmer, J. L.; Smith, M. M.; Daniels, D. L.; Strottmann, J. M.; Brown, W. D.; Hacein-Bey, L. Pictorial review of glutamate excitotoxicity: fundamental concepts for neuroimaging. Am. J. Neuroradiol., 2001, 22(10), 1813-1824.
49. Sanacora, G.; Treccani, G.; Popoli, M. Towards a glutamate hypothesis of depression: An emerging frontier of neuropsychopharmacology for mood disorders. Neuropharmacology, 2012, 62(1), 63-77. doi: 10. 1016/j. neuropharm. 2011. 07. 036.
50. Mitani, H.; Shirayama, Y.; Yamada, T.; Maeda, K.; Ashby, C. R.; Kawahara, R. Correlation between plasma levels of glutamate, alanine and serine with severity of depression. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psychiatry, 2006, 30(6), 1155-1158. doi: 10. 1016/j. pnpbp. 2006. 03. 036.
51. Kendell, S. F.; Krystal, J. H.; Sanacora, G. GABA and glutamate systems as therapeutic targets in depression and mood disorders. Expert Opinion on Therapeutic Targets, 2005, 9(1), 153-168. doi: 10. 1517/14728222. 9. 1. 153.
52. Sanacora, G.; Gueorguieva, R.; Epperson, C. N.; Wu, Y.-T.; Appel, M.; Rothman D. L.; Krystal, J. H.; Mason, G. F. Subtype-specific alterations of {gamma}-aminobutyric acid and glutamate in patients with major depression. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2004, 61(7), 705-713. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 61. 7. 705.
53. Bhagwagar, Z.; Wylezinska, M.; Jezzard, P.; Evans, J.; Ashworth, F.; Sule, A.; Matthews, P. M.; Cowen, P. J. Reduction in occipital cortex gamma-aminobutyric acid concentrations in medication-free recovered unipolar depressed and bipolar subjects. Biol. Psychiatry, 2007, 61(6), 806-812. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2006. 08. 048.
54. Hasler, G.; van der Veen, J. W.; Tumonis, T.; Meyers, N.; Shen, J.; Drevets, W. C. Reduced prefrontal glutamate/glutamine and gammaaminobutyric acid levels in major depression determined by magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2007, 64(2), 193-200. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 64. 2. 193.
55. Grimm, S.; Luborzewski, A.; Schubert, F.; Merki, A.; Kronenberg, G.; Colla, M.; Heuser, I.; Bajbouj, M. Region-specific glutamate changes in patients with unipolar depression. J. Psych. Res., 2012, 46(8), 1059-1065. doi: 10. 1016/j. jpsychires. 2012. 04. 018.
56. Frye, M. A.; Watzl, J.; Banakar, S.; O'Neill, J.; Mintz, J.; Davanzo, P.; Fischer, J.; Chirichigno, J. W.; Ventura, J.; Elman, S.; Tsuang, J.; Walot, I.; Thomas, M. A. Increased anterior cingulate/medial prefrontal cortical glutamate and creatine in bipolar depression. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2007, 32(12), 2490-2499. doi: 10. 1038/sj. npp. 1301387.
57. Wang, X.; Li, Y. H.; Li, M. H.; Lu, J.; Zhao, J. G.; Sun, X. J.; Zhang, B.; Ye, J. L. Glutamate level detection by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in patients with post-stroke depression. Eur. Arch. Psych. Clin. Neurosci., 2012, 262(1), 33-38. doi: 10. 1007/s00406-011-0209-3.
58. Rajkowska, G.; Miguel-Hidalgo, J. J. Gliogenesis and glial pathology in depression. CNS & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets, 2007, 6(3), 219-233. doi: 10. 2174/187152707780619326.
59. Miguel-Hidalgo, J. J.; Waltzer, R.; Whittom, A. A.; Austin, M. C.; Rajkowska, G.; Stockmeier, C. A. Glial and glutamatergic markers in depression, alcoholism, and their comorbidity. J. Affect. Disord., 2010, 127(1-3), 240-240. doi: 10. 1016/j. jad. 2010. 06. 003.
60. John, C. S.; Smith, K. L.; Van'T Veer, A.; Gompf, H. S.; Carlezon, W. A.; Cohen, B. M.; Öngür, D; Bechtholt-Gompf, A. J. Blockade of astrocytic glutamate uptake in the prefrontal cortex induces anhedonia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2012, 37(11), 2467-2475. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2012. 105.
61. Bernard, R.; Kerman, I. A.; Thompson, R. C.; Jones, E. G.; Bunney, W. E.; Barchas, J. D.; Schatzberg, A. F.; Myers, R. M.; Akil, H.; Watson, S. J. Altered expression of glutamate signaling, growth factor and glia genes in the locus coeruleus of patients with major depression. Mol. Psych., 2011, 16(6), 634-646. doi: 10. 1038/mp. 2010. 44.
62. Tordera, R. M.; Totterdell, S.; Wojcik, S. M.; Brose, N.; Elizalde, N.; Lasheras, B. Enhanced anxiety, depressive-like behavior and impaired recognition memory in mice with reduced expression of the vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1). Eur. J. Neurosci., 2007, 25(1), 281-290. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1460-9568. 2006. 05259. x.
63. Garcia-Garcia, A. L.; Elizalde, N.; Matrov, D.; Harro, J.; Wojcik, S. M.; Venzala, E.; Ramirez, M. J.; Del Rio, J.; Tordera, R. M. Increased vulnerability to depressive-like behaviour of mice with decreased expression of VGLUT1. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 66(3), 275-282. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2009. 02. 027.
64. Uezato, A.; Meador-Woodruff, J. H.; McCullumsmith, R. E. Vesicular glutamate transporter mRNA expression in the medial temporal lobe in major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and schizophrenia. Bipolar Disord., 2009, 11(7), 711-725. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1399-5618. 2009. 00752. x.
65. Wang, S. J.; Su, C. F.; Kuo, Y. H. Fluoxetine depresses glutamate exocytosis in the rat cerebrospinal nerve terminals (synaptosomes) via inhibition of P/Q-type Ca2+ channels. Synapse, 2003, 48(4), 170-177. doi: 10. 1002/syn. 10200.
66. Lin, T. Y.; Yang, T. T.; Lu, C. W.; Wang, S. J. Inhibition of glutamate release by bupropion in rat cerebral cortex nerve terminals. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psych., 2011, 35(2), 598-606. doi: 10. 1016/j. pnpbp. 2010. 12. 029.
67. Lin, T. Y.; Lu, C. W.; Wang, C.-C.; Wang, Y.-C.; Wang, S.-J. Curcumin inhibits glutamate release in nerve terminals from rat prefrontal cortex: possible relevance to its antidepressant mechanism. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psych., 2011, 35(7), 1785-1793. doi: 10. 1016/j. pnpbp. 2011. 06. 012.
68. Michael-Titus, A. T.; Bains, S.; Jeetle, J.; Whelpton, R. Imipramine and phenelzine decrease glutamate overflow in the prefrontal cortex: a possible mechanism of neuroprotection in major depression. Neuroscience, 2000, 100(4), 681-684. doi: 10. 1016/S0306-4522(00)00390-0.
69. Harvey, B. H.; McEwen, B. S.; Stein, D. J. Neurobiology of antidepressant withdrawal: implications for the longitudinal outcome of depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 2003, 54(10), 1105-1117. doi: 10. 1016/S0006-3223(03)00528-6.
70. Krystal, J. H.; Sanacora, G.; Blumberg, H.; Anand, A.; Charney, D. S.; Marek, G.; Epperson, C. N.; Goddard, A.; Mason, G. F. Glutamate and GABA systems as targets for novel antidepressant and mood-stabilizing treatments. Mol. Psych., 2002, 7(1), 71-80. doi: 10. 1038/sj/mp/4001021.
71. Feyissa, A. M.; Chandran, A.; Stockmeier, C. A.; Karolewicz, B. Reduced levels of NR2A and NR2B subunits of NMDA receptor and PSD-95 in the prefrontal cortex in major depression. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psych., 2009, 33(1), 70-75. doi: 10. 1016/j. pnpbp. 2008. 10. 005.
72. Järnum, H.; Eskildsen, S. F.; Steffensen, E. G.; Lundbye-Christensen, S.; Simonsen, C. W.; Thomsen, I. S.; Fründ, E. T.; Theberge, J. Longitudinal MRI study of cortical thickness, perfusion, and metabolite levels in major depressive disorder. ActaPsychiatr. Scand., 2011, 124(6), 435-446. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1600-0447. 2011. 01766. x.
73. Auer, D. P.; Pütz, B.; Kraft, E.; Lipinski, B.; Schill, J.; Holsboer, F. Reduced glutamate in the anterior cingulate cortex in depression: an in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psychiatry, 2000, 47(4), 305-313.
74. Rosenberg, D. R.; Macmaster, F. P.; Mirza, Y.; Smith, J. M.; Easter, P. C.; Banerjee, S. P.; Bhandari, R.; Boyd, C.; Lynch, M.; Rose, M.; Ivey, J.; Villafuerte, R. A.; Moore, G. J.; Renshaw, P. Reduced anterior cingulate glutamate in pediatric major depression: a magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol. Psych., 2005, 58(9), 700-704. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2005. 05. 007.
75. Price, R. B.; Shungu, D. C.; Mao, X.; Nestadt, P.; Kelly, C.; Collins, K. A.; Morrough, J. W.; Charney, D. S.; Mathew, S. J. Amino acid neurotransmitters assessed by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy: relationship to treatment resistance in major depressive disorder. Biol. Psych., 2009, 65(9), 792-800. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2008. 10. 025.
76. Michael, N.; Erfurth, A.; Ohrmann, P.; Arolt, V.; Heindel, W.; Pfleiderer, B. Metabolic changes within left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex occurring with electroconvulsive therapy in patients with treatment resistant unipolar depression. Psychol. Med., 2003, 33(7), 1277-1284.
77. Brennan, B. P.; Hudson, J. I.; Jensen, J. E.; McCarthy, J.; Roberts, J. L.; Prescot, A. P.; Cohen, B. M.; Pope, H. G.; Renshaw, P. F.; Ongür, D. Rapid enhancement of glutamatergic neurotransmission in bipolar depression following treatment with riluzole, Neuropsychopharmacology, 2010, 35(3), 843-846. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2009. 191.
78. Walter, M.; Henning, A.; Grimm, S.; Schulte, R. F.; Beck, J.; Dydak, U.; Schnepf, B.; Boeker, H.; Boesinger, P.; Northoff, G. The relationship between aberrant neuronal activation in the pregenual anterior cingulate, altered glutamatergic metabolism, and anhedonia in major depression. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2009, 65(5), 476-486. doi: 10. 1001/archgenpsychiatry. 2009. 39.
79. Zarate, C. A.; Quiroz, J.; Payne, J.; Manji, H. K. Modulators of the glutamatergic system: implications for the development of improved therapeutics in mood disorders. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 2002, 36(4), 35-83.
80. McNally, J.; Bhagwagar, Z.; Hannestad, J. Inflammation, glutamate, and glia in depression: a literature review. CNS Spectrums, 2008, 13(6), 501-510.
81. Reich, D. L.; Silvay, G. Ketamine: an update on the first twentyfive years of clinical experience. Can. J. Anesth., 1989, 36(2), 186-197.
82. Morgan, C. J.; Curran, H. V. Ketamine use: a review. Addiction, 2011, 107, 27-38. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1360-0443. 2011. 03576. x.
83. Lorrain, D. S.; Baccei, C. S.; Bristow, L. J.; Anderson, J. J.; Varney, M. A. Effects of ketamine and N-methyl-D-aspartate on glutamate and dopamine release in the rat prefrontal cortex: modulation by a group II selective metabotropic glutamate receptor agonist LY379268. Neuroscience, 2003, 117(3), 697-706. doi: 10. 1016/S0306-4522(02)00652-8.
84. Rowland, L. M.; Bustillo, J. R.; Mullins, P. G.; Jung, R. E.; Rhoshel, L.; Landgraf, E.; Barrow, R.; Yeo, R.; Lauriello, J.; Brooks, W. M. Effects of ketamine on anterior cingulate glutamate metabolism in healthy humans: A 4-T proton MRS study. Am. J. Psych., 2005, 162(2), 394-396. doi: 10. 1176/appi. ajp. 162. 2. 394.
85. Stone, J. M.; Dietrich, C.; Edden, R.; Mehta, M. A.; De Simoni, S.; Reed, L. J.; Krystal, J. H.; Nutt, D.; Barker, G. J. Ketamine effects on brain GABA and glutamate levels with 1H-MRS: relationship to ketamine-induced psychopathology. Mol. Psych., 2012, 17, 664-665. doi: 10. 1038/mp. 2011. 171.
86. Robson, M. J.; Elliott, M.; Seminerio, M. J.; Matsumoto, R. R. Evaluation of sigma () receptors in the antidepressant-like effects of ketamine in vitro and in vivo. Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2012, 22(4), 306-317. doi: 10. 1016/j. euroneuro. 2011. 08. 002.
87. Berman, R. M.; Cappiello, A.; Anand, A.; Oren, D. A.; Heninger, G. R.; Charney, D. S.; Krystal, J. H. Antidepressant effects of ketamine in depressed patients. Biol. Psych., 2000, 47(4), 351-354.
88. Zarate, C. A.; Singh, J. B.; Carlson, P. J.; Brutsche, N. E.; Ameli, R.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Charney, D. S.; Manji, H. K. A randomized trial of an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant major depression. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2006, 63(8), 856-64. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 63. 8. 856.
89. Duman, R. S.; Li, N. A neurotrophic hypothesis of depression: role of synaptogenesis in the actions of NMDA receptor antagonists. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci., 2012, 367(1601), 2475-2484. doi: 10. 1098/rstb. 2011. 0357.
90. Beurel, E.; Song, L.; Jope, R. S. Inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 is necessary for the rapid antidepressant effect of ketamine in mice. Mol. Psych., 2011, 16(11), 1068-1070. doi: 10. 1038/mp. 2011. 47.
91. Oye, I.; Paulsen, O.; Maurset, A. Effects of ketamine on sensory perception: evidence for a role of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., 1992, 260, 1209-1213.
92. Kapur, S.; Seeman, P. NMDA receptor antagonists ketamine and PCP have direct effects on the dopamine D2 and serotonin 5-HT2receptors-implications for models of schizophrenia. Mol. Psych., 2002, 7(8), 837-844. doi: 10. 1038/sj. mp. 4001093.
93. Morgan, C. J.; Muetzelfeldt, L.; Curran, H. V. Consequences of chronic ketamine self-administration upon neurocognitive function and psychological well-being: a 1-year longitudinal study. Addiction, 2009, 105(1), 121-133. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1360-0443. 2009. 02761. x.
94. Rabiner, E. A. Imaging of striatal dopamine release elicited with NMDA antagonists: Is anything there to be seen? J. Pharmacol., 2007, 21(3), 251-258. doi: 10. 1177/0269881107077767.
95. Smith, G. S.; Schloesser, R.; Brodie, J. D.; Dewey, S. L.; Logan, J.; Vitkun, S. A.; Simkowitz, P.; Hurley, A.; Cooper, T.; Volkow, N. D.; Cancro, R. Glutamate modulation of dopamine measured in vivo with positron emission tomography (PET) and 11-raclopride in normal human subjects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 1998, 18(1), 18-25. doi: 10. 1016/S0893-133X(97)00092-4.
96. Nishimura, M.; Sato, K. Ketamine stereoselectively inhibits rat dopamine transporter. NeurosciLett, 1999, 274(2), 131-134. doi: 10. 1016/S0304-3940(99)00688-6.
97. Martin, D. C.; Imtrona, R. P.; Aronstam, R. S. Inhibition of neuronal 5-HT uptake by ketamine, but not halothane, involves disruption of substrate recognition by the transporter. NeurosciLett, 1990, 112(1), 99-103. doi: 10. 1016/0304-3940(90)90329-8.
98. Quibell, R.; Prommer, E. E.; Mihalyo, M.; Twycross, R.; Wilcock, A. Ketamine. J. Pain Symptom Manage., 2011, 41(3), 640-649. doi: 10. 1016/j. jpainsymman. 2011. 01. 001.
99. Moghaddam, B.; Adams, B.; Verma, A.; Daly, D. Activation of glutamatergic neurotransmission by ketamine: a novel step in the pathway from NDAM receptor blockade to dopaminergic and cognitive disruptions associated with the prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci., 1997, 17, 2921-2927.
100. Anand, A.; Charney, D. S.; Oren, D. A.; Berman, R. M.; Hu, X. S.; Cappiello, A.; Krystal, J. H. Attenuation of the neuropsychiatric effects of ketamine with lamotrigine: support for the hyperglutamatergic effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2000, 57(3), 270-276. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 57. 3. 270.
101. Li, N.; Lee, B.; Liu, R. J.; Banasr, M.; Dwyer, M.; Iwata, M.; Li, X.-Y.; Aghajanian, G.; Duman, R. S. mTOR-dependent synapse formation underlies the rapid antidepressant effects of NMDA antagonists. Science, 2010, 329 (5994), 959-964. doi: 10. 1126/science. 1190287.
102. Dolye, O. M.; De Simoni, S.; Schwarz, A. J.; Brittain, C.; O'Daly, O. G.; Williams, S. C. R.; Mehta, M. A. Quantifying the attenuation of the ketamine phMRI response in humans: a validation using antipsychotic and glutamatergic agents. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther., in press. doi: 10. 1124/jpet. 112. 201665.
103. Yang, J. J.; Zhou, Z. Q.; Yang, C. Letter to the editor: does ketamine exert a fast-acting antidepressant effect via inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines? Psycholog. Med., 2011, 41(8), 1787-1789. doi: 10. 1017/S0033291711000699.
104. Doucet, M. V.; Levine, H.; Dev, K. K.; Harkin, A. Small molecule inhibitors at the PSD-95/nNOS interface have antidepressant-like properties in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology, in press. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2013. 57.
105. Maeng, S.; Zarate, C. A.; Du, J.; Schloesser, R. J.; McCammon, J.; Chen, G.; Manji, H. K. Cellular mechanisms underlying the antidepressant effects of ketamine: role of alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylsioxazole-4-propionic acid receptors. Biol. Psychiatry, 2008, 63(4), 349352. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2007. 05. 028.
106. Machado-Vieira, R.; Yuan, R.; Brutsche, N.; DiazGranados, N.; Luckenbaugh, D.; Manji, H. K.; Zarate, C. A. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor and initial antidepressant response to an Nmethyl-D-aspartate antagonist. J. Clin. Psych., 2009, 70(12), 1662-1670. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. 08m04659.
107. Phelps, L. E.; Brutsche, N.; Moral, J. R.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Manji, H. K.; Zarate, C. A. Family history of alcohol dependence and initial antidepressant response to an NMDA antagonist. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 65(2), 181-184. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2008. 09. 029.
108. DiazGranados, N.; Ibrahim, L. A.; Brutsche, N. E.; Ameli, R.; Henter, I. D.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Machado-Vieira, R.; Zarate, C. A. Rapid resolution of suicidal ideation after a single infusion of an Nmethyl-D-aspartate antagonist in patients with treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. J. Clin. Psych., 2010, 71(12), 1605-1611. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. 09m05327blu.
109. Ibrahim, L.; Diazgranados, N.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Machado-Vieira, R.; Baumann, J.; Mallinger, A. G.; Zarate, C. A. Rapid decrease in depressive symptoms with an N-methyl-D-aspartate antagonist in ECT-resistant major depression. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psych., 2011, 35(4), 1155-1159. doi: 10. 1016/j. pnpbp. 2011. 03. 019.
110. Correll, G. E.; Futter, G. E. Two case studies of patients with major depressive disorder given low-dose (subanesthetic) ketamine infusions. Pain Med. J., 2006, 7(1), 92-95. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1526-4637. 2006. 00101. x.
111. Paul, R.; Schaaff, N.; Padberg, F.; Moller, H. J.; Frodl, T. Comparison of racemic ketamine and S-ketamine in treatmentresistant major depression: report of two cases. World J. Biol. Psych., 2009, 10(3), 241-244. doi: 10. 1080/15622970701714370.
112. Pagnin, D.; deQueiroz, V.; Pini, S.; Cassano, G. B. Efficacy of ECT in depression: a meta-analytic review. J. ECT, 2004, 20(1), 13-20. doi: 10. 1097/00124509-200403000-00004.
113. Mathew, S. J.; Murrough, J. W.; Aan Het Rot, M.; Collins, K. A.; Reich, D. L.; Charney, D. S. Riluzole for relapse prevention following intravenous ketamine in treatment-resistant depression: a pilot randomized, placebo-controlled continuation trial. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2010, 13(1), 71-82. doi: 10. 1017/S1461145709000169.
114. Salvadore, G.; Cornwell, B. R.; Colon-Rosario, V.; Coppola, R.; Grillon, C.; Zarate, C. A.; Manji, H. K. Increased anterior cingulate cortical activity in response to fearful faces: a neurophysiological biomarker that predicts rapid antidepressant response to ketamine. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 65(4), 289-295. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2008. 08. 014.
115. Price, R. B.; Nock, M. K.; Charney, D. S.; Mathew, S. J. Effects of intravenous ketamine on explicit and implicit measures of suicidality in treatment-resistant depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 2009, 66(5), 522-526. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2009. 04. 029.
116. Kudoh, A.; Takahira, Y.; Katagai, H.; Takazawa, T. Small-dose ketamine improves the postoperative state of depressed patients. Anesth. Analg., 95(1), 2002, 114-118. doi: 10. 1213/01. ANE. 0000020693. 65934. B7.
117. DiazGranados, N.; Ibrahim, L.; Brutsche, N. E.; Newberg, A.; Kronstein, P.; Khalife, S.; Kammerer, W. A.; Quezado, Z.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Salvadore, G.; Machado-Vieiera, R.; Manji, H. K.; Zarate, C. A. A randomized add-on trial of an N-methyl-daspartate antagonist in treatment-resistant bipolar depression. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2010, 67(8), 793-802. doi: 10. 1001/archgenpsychiatry. 2010. 90.
118. Salvadore, G.; Cornwell, B. R.; Sambataro, F.; Latov, D.; Colon-Rosario, V.; Carver, F.; Holroyd, T.; Diaz-Granados, N.; Machado-Vieira, R.; Grillon, C.; Drevets, W. C.; Zarate, C. A. Anterior cingulate desynchronization and functional connectivity with the amygdala during a working memory task predict rapid antidepressant response to ketamine. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2010, 35(7), 1415-1422. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2010. 24.
119. Valentine, G. W.; Mason, G. F.; Gomez, R.; Fasula, M.; Watzl, J.; Pittman, B.; Krystal, J. H.; Sanacora, G. The antidepressant effect of ketamine is not associated with changes in occipital amino acid neurotransmitter content as measured by [(1)H]-MRS. J. Psych. Res., 2011, 191(2), 122-127. doi: 10. 1016/j. pscychresns. 2010. 10. 009.
120. Larkin, G. K.; Beautrais, A. L. A preliminary naturalistic study of low-dose ketamine for depression and suicide ideation in the emergency department. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2011, 14(8), 1128-1131. doi: 10. 1017/S1461145711000629.
121. Salvadore, G.; van der Ween, J. W.; Zhang, Y.; Marenco, S.; Machado-Vieira, R.; Baumann, J.; Ibrahim, L. A.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Shen, J.; Drevets, W. C.; Zarate, C. A. An investigation of amino-acid neurotransmitters as potential predictors of clinical improvement to ketamine in depression. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2011, 15(8), 1063-1072. doi: 10. 1017/S1461145711001593.
122. Cornwell, B. R.; Salvadore, G.; Furey, M.; Marquardt, C. A.; Brutsche, N. E.; Grillon, C.; Zarate, C. A. Synaptic potentiation is critical for rapid antidepressant response to ketamine in treatmentresistant major depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 2012, 72(7), 555-561. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2012. 03. 029.
123. Duncan, W. C.; Sarasso, S.; Ferrarelli, F.; Selter, J.; Riedner, B. A.; &Hejazi, N. S. Concomitant BDNF and sleep slow wave changes indicate ketamine-induced plasticity in major depressive disorder. Int. J. Neuropsychopharmacol., 2013, 16(2), 301-311. doi: 10. 1017/S1461145712000545.
124. Thakurta, R. G.; Das, R.; Bhattarcharya, A. K.; Saha, D.; Sen, S.; Singh, O. P. Rapid response with ketamine on suicidal cognition in resistant depression. Ind. J. Psychol. Med., 2012, 34(2), 170-175. doi: 10. 4103/0253-7176. 101793.
125. Aan Het Rot, M.; Collins, K. A.; Murrough, J. W.; Perez, A. M.; Reich, D. L.; Charney, D. S.; Mathew, S. J. Safety and efficacy of repeated-dose intravenous ketamine for treatment-resistant depression. Biol. Psychiatry, 2010, 67(2), 139-145. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2009. 08. 038.
126. Rybakowski, J. K.; Permoda-Osip, A.; Skibinska, M.; Adamski, R.; Bartkowska-Sniatkowska, A. Single ketamine infusion in bipolar depression resistant to antidepressants: are neurotrophins involved? Hum. Psychopharmacol.: Clin. Exp., 2013, 28(1), 87-90 doi: 10. 1002/hup.
127. Zarate, C. A.; Mathews, D.; Ibrahim, L.; Chaves, J. F.; Marquardt, C.; Ukoh, I.; Jolkovsky, L.; Brutsche, N. E.; Smith, M. A.; Luckenbaugh, D. A. A randomized trial of a low-trapping nonselective N-Methyl-D-Aspartate channel blocker in major depression. Biol. Psychiatry, in press. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2012. 10. 019.
128. Rasmussen, K. G.; Lineberry, T. W.; Galardy, C. W.; Kung, S.; Lapid, M. I.; Palmer, B. A.; Ritter, M. J.; Schak, K. M.; Sola, C. L.; Hanson, A. J.; Frye, M. A. Serial infusions of low-dose ketamine for major depression. J. Psychopharmacol., 2013, 27(5), 444-450. doi: 10. 1177/0269881113478283.
129. Laje, G.; Lally, N.; Mathews, D.; Brutsche, N.; Chemerinski, A.; Akula, N.; Kelmendi, B.; Simen, A.; McMahon, F. J.; Sanacora, G.; Zarate, C. A. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor val66Met polymorphism and antidepressant efficacy of ketamine in depressed. Biol. Psychiatry, 2012, 72(11), 27-28. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2012. 05. 031.
130. Pattwell, S. S.; Bath, K. G.; Perez-Castro, R.; Lee, F. S.; Chao, M. V.; Ninan, I. The BDNF Val66Met polymorphism impairs synaptic transmission and plasticity in the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex. J. Neurosci., 2012, 32(7), 2410-2421. doi: 10. 1523/JNEUROSCI. 5205-11. 2012.
131. Liu, R.-J.; Lee, F. S.; Li, X.-Y.; Bambico, F.; Duman, R. S.; Aghajanian, G. K. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met allele basal and ketamine-stimulated synaptogenesis in prefrontal cortex. Biol. Psychiatry, 2012, 71(11), 996-1005. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2011. 09. 030.
132. Carrier, N.; Kabbaj, M. Sex differences in the antidepressant-like effects of ketamine. Neuropsychopharmacology, in press. doi: 10. 1016/j. neuropharm. 2012. 12. 009.
133. Woolley, C. S.; McEwen, B. S. Estradiol regulates hippocampal dendritic spine density via an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptordependent mechanism. J. Neurosci., 1994, 14(12), 7680-7687.
134. Smith, C. C.; Vedder, L. C.; McMahon, L. L. Estradiol and the relationship between dendritic spines, NR2B containing NMDA receptors, and the magnitude of long-term potentiation at hippocampal CA3-CA1 synapses. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 2009, 34(1), 130-142. doi: 10. 1016/j. psyneuen. 2009. 06. 003.
135. Mathews, D. C.; Henter, I. D.; Zarate, C. A. Targeting the glutamatergic system to treat major depressive disorder: rationale and progress to date. Drugs, 2012, 72(10), 1313-1333. doi: 10. 2165/11633130-000000000-00000.
136. Fletcher, P. C.; Honey, G. D. Schizophrenia, ketamine and cannabis: evidence of overlapping memory deficits. Trends Cogn. Sci., 2006, 10(4), 167-183. doi: 10. 1016/j. tics. 2006. 02. 008.
137. Long, H. N. L. S.; Hofmann, R. S. Ketamine medication error resulting in death. J. Toxicol.-Clin. Toxicol., 1988, 40 (1), 614.
138. Morgan, C. J.; Riccelli, M.; Maitland, C. H.; Curran, H. V. Longterm effects of ketamine: evidence of a persisting impairment of source memory in recreational users. Drug Alcohol Depend, 2004, 75(3), 301-308. doi: 10. 1016/j. drugalcdep. 2004. 03. 006.
139. Newcomer, J. W.; Farber, N. B.; Jevtovic-Todorovic, V.; Selke, G.; Melson, A. K.; Hershey, T.; Craft, S.; Olney, J. W. Ketamineinduced NMDA receptor hypofunction as a model of memory impairment and psychosis. Neuropsychopharmacology, 1999, 20(2), 106-118. doi: 10. 1016/S0893-133X(98)00067-0.
140. Krystal, J. H.; Karper, L. P.; Seibyl, J. P.; Freeman, G. K.; Delaney, R.; Bremner, J. D.; Heninger, G. R.; Bowers, M. B.; Charney, D. S. Subanesthetic effects of the noncompetitive NMDA antagonist ketamine in humans-psychotomimetic, perceptual, cognitive and neuroendocrine responses. Arch. Gen. Psych., 1994, 51(3), 199-214. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 1994. 03950030035004.
141. Morgan, C. J.; Rees, H.; Curran, H. V. Attentional bias to incentive stimuli in frequent ketamine users. Psychol. Med., 2008, 38(9), 1331-1340. doi: 10. 1017/S0033291707002450.
142. Holcomb, H. H.; Lahti, A. C.; Medoff, D. R.; Weiler, M.; Tamminga, C. A. Sequential regional cerebral blood flow brain scans during PET with H2(15)O demonstrate ketamine actions in CNS dynamically. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2001, 25(2), 165-172. doi: 10. 1016/S0893-133X(01)00229-9.
143. Breier, A.; Malhotra, A. K.; Pinals, D. A.; Weisenfeld, N. I.; Pickar, D. Association of ketamine-induced psychosis with focal activation of the prefrontal cortex in healthy volunteers. Am. J. Psych., 1997, 154(6), 805-811.
144. Honey, R. A.; Honey, G. D.; O'Loughlin, C.; Sharar, S. R.; Kumaran, D.; Bullmore, E. T.; Menon, D. K.; Donovan, T.; Lupson, V. C.; Bisbrown-Chippendale, R.; Fletcher, P. C. Acute ketamine administration alters the brain responses to executive demands in a verbal working memory task: an fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2004, 29(6), 1203-1214. doi: 10. 1038/sj. npp. 1300438.
145. Honey, G. D.; Honey, R. A.; O'Loughlin, C.; Sharar, S. R.; Kumaran, D.; Suckling, J.; Menon, D. K.; Sleator, C.; Bullmore, E. T.; Fletcher, P. C. Ketamine disrupts frontal and hippocampal contribution to encoding and retrieval of episodic memory: an fMRI study. Cereb. Cortex, 2005, 15(6), 749-759. doi: 10. 1093/cercor/bhh176.
146. Corlett, P. R.; Honey, G. D.; Aitken, M. R.; Dickinson, A.; Shanks, D. R.; Absalom, A. R.; Lee, M.; Pomarol-Clotet, E.; Murray, G. K.; McKenna, P. J.; Robbins, T. W.; Bullmore, E. T.; Fletcher, P. C. Frontal responses during learning predict vulnerability to the psychotogenic effects of ketamine: linking cognition, brain activity, and psychosis. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2006, 63(6), 611-621. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 63. 6. 611.
147. Deakin, J. F.; Lees, J.; McKie, S.; Hallak, J. E.; Williams, S. R.; Dursun, S. M. Glutamate and the neural basis of the subjective effects of ketamine: a pharmaco-magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch. Gen. Psych., 2008, 65(2), 154-164. doi: 10. 1001/archgenpsychiatry. 2007. 37.
148. Scheidegger, M.; Walter, M.; Lehmann, M.; Metzger, C.; Grimm, S.; Boeker, H.; Boesinger, P.; Henning, A.; Seifritz, E. Ketamine decreases resting state functional network connectivity in healthy subjects: implications for antidepressant drug action. PLOS ONE, 2012, 7(9), e44799doi: 10. 1371/journal. pone. 0044799.
149. Olney, J. W. Neurotoxicity of NMDA receptor antagonists: an overview. Psychopharmacol. Bull., 1994, 30, 533-540.
150. Mak, Y. T.; Lam, W. P.; Lu, L.; Wong, Y. W.; Yew, D. T. The toxic effect of ketamine on SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cell line and human neuron. Microsc. Res. Tech., 2010, 73(3), 195-201. doi: 10. 1002/jemt. 20774.
151. Chan, W. M.; Liang, Y.; Wai, M. S. M.; Hung, A. S. M.; Yew, D. T. Cardiotoxicity induced in mice by long term ketamine and ketamine plus alcohol treatment. Toxicol. Lett., 2011, 207(2), 191-196. doi: 10. 1016/j. toxlet. 2011. 09. 008.
152. Muetzelfeldt, L.; Kamboj, S. K.; Rees, H.; Taylor, J.; Morgan, C. J.; Curran, H. V. Journey through the K-hole: phenomenological aspects of ketamine use. Drug Alcohol Depend., 2008, 95(3), 219-229. doi: 10. 1016/j. drugalcdep. 2008. 01. 024.
153. Curran, H. V.; Monaghan, L. In and out of the K-hole: a comparison of the acute and residual effects of ketamine in frequent and infrequent ketamine users. Addiction, 2001, 96(5), 749-760. doi: 10. 1046/j. 1360-0443. 2001. 96574910. x.
154. Sun, L.; Lam, W. P.; Wong, Y. W.; Lam, L. H.; Tang, H. C.; Wai, M. S. Permanent deficits in brain functions caused by long-term ketamine treatment in mice. Hum. Exp. Toxicol., 2011, 30(9), 1287-1296. doi: 10. 1177/0960327110388958.
155. Ricci, V.; Martinotti, G.; Gelfo, F.; Tonioni, F.; Caltagirone, C.; Bria, P.; Angelucci, F. Chronic ketamine use increases serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Psychopharmacology, 2011, 215(1), 143-148. doi: 10. 1007/s00213-010-2121-3.
156. Dwyer, J. M.; Duman, R. S. Activation of mammalian target of rapamycin and synaptogenesis: role in the actions of rapid-acting antidepressants. Biol. Psychiatry, in press. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2012. 11. 011.
157. Narendran, R.; Frankle, W. G.; Keefe, R.; Gil, R.; Martinez, D.; Slifstein, M.; Kegeles, L. S.; Talbot, P. S.; Huang, Y.; Hwang, D. R.; Khenissi, L.; Cooper, T. B.; Laruelle, M.; Abi-Dargham, A. Altered prefrontal dopaminergic function in chronic recreational ketamine users. Am. J. Psych., 2005, 162(12), 2352-2359. doi: 10. 1176/appi. ajp. 162. 12. 2352.
158. Liao, Y.; Tang, J.; Ma, M.; Wu, Z.; Yang, M.; Wang, X.; Liu, T.; Chen, X.; Fletcher, P. C.; Hao, W. Frontal white matter abnormalities following chronic ketamine use: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Brain, 2010, 133, 2115-2122. doi: 10. 1093/brain/awq131.
159. Liao, Y.; Tang, J.; Corlett, P. R.; Wang, Y.; Yang, M.; Chen, H.; Liu, T.; Chen, X.; Hao, W.; Fletcher, P. C. Reduced dorsal prefrontal gray matter after chronic ketamine use. Biol. Psychiatry, 2011, 69, 42-48. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2010. 08. 030.
160. Yuan, Y.; Zhu, Z.; Shi, J.; Zou, Z.; Yuan, F.; Liu, Y.; Lee, T. M.; Weng, X. Gray matter density negatively correlates with duration of heroin use in young lifetime heroin-dependent individuals. Brain Cogn., 2009, 71(3), 223-228. doi: 10. 1016/j. bandc. 2009. 08. 014.
161. Zuo, D. Y.; Wu, Y. L.; Yao, W. X.; Cao, Y.; Wu, C. F.; Tanaka, M. Effect of MK-801 and ketamine on hydroxyl radical generation in the posterior cingulate and retrosplenial cortex of free-moving mice, as determined by in vivo microdialysis. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav., 2007, 86(1), 1-7. doi: 10. 1016/j. pbb. 2006. 05. 010.
162. Yeung, L. Y.; Wai, M. S. M.; Fan, M.; Mak, Y. T.; Lam, W. P.; Li, Z.; Lu, G.; Yew, D. T. Hyperphosphorylated tau in the brains of mice and monkeys with long-term administration of ketamine. Toxicol. Lett., 2010, 193, 189-193. doi: 10. 1016/j. toxlet. 2010. 01. 008.
163. Yu, H.; Li, Q.; Wang, D.; Shi, L.; Lu, G.; Sun, L.; Wang, L.; Zhu, W.; Mak, Y. T.; Wong, N.; Wang, Y.; Pan, F.; Yew, D. T. Mapping the central effects of chronic ketamine administration in an adolescent primate model by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). NeuroToxicology, 2012, 33(1), 70-77. doi: 10. 1016/j. neuro. 2011. 11. 001.
164. Lahti, A. C.; Weiler, M. A.; Michaelidis, T.; Parwani, A.; Tamminga, C. A. Effects of ketamine in normal and schizophrenic volunteers. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2001, 25(4), 455-467.
165. Radant, A. D.; Bowdle, T. A.; Cowley, D. S.; Kharasch, E. D.; Roy-Byrne, P. P. Does ketamine-mediated n-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonism cause schizophrenia-like oculomotor abnormalities? Neuropsychopharmacology, 1998, 19(5), 434-444. doi: 10. 1016/S0893-133X(98)00030-X.
166. Thoma, R. J.; Hanlon, F. M.; Moses, S. N.; Ricker, D.; Huang, M.; Edgar, C.; Irwin, J.; Torres, F.; Weisend, M. P.; Adler, L. E.; Miller, G. A.; Canive, J. M. M50 sensory gating predicts negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophr. Res., 2005, 73(2-3), 311-318. doi: 10. 1016/j. schres. 2004. 07. 001.
167. Kegeles, L. S.; Abi-Dargham, A.; Zea-Ponce, Y.; Rodenhiser-Hill, J.; Mann, J. J.; Van Heertum, R. L.; Cooper, T. B.; Carlsson, A.; Laruelle, M. Modulation of amphetamine-induced striatal dopamine release by ketamine in humans. Biol. Psychiatry, 2000, 48(7), 627-640. doi: 10. 1016/S0006-3223(00)00976-8.
168. Coyle, J. T. Glutamate and schizophrenia: beyond the dopamine hypothesis. Cell. Mol. Neurobiol., 2006, 26(4-6), 365-384. doi: 10. 1007/s10571-006-9062-8.
169. Zoncu, R.; Efeyan, A.; Sabatini, D. M. mTOR: from growth signal integration to cancer, diabetes and ageing. Nat. Rev.: Mol. Cell Biol., 2011, 12(1), 21-35. doi: 10. 1038/nrm3025.
170. Curran, H. V.; Morgan, L. Cognitive, dissociative and psychotogenic effects of ketamine in recreational users on the night of drug use and 3 days later. Addiction, 2000, 95(4), 575-590. doi: 10. 1046/j. 1360-0443. 2000. 9545759. x.
171. Becker, A.; Peters, B.; Schroeder, H.; Mann, T.; Huether, G.; Grecksch, G. Ketamine-induced changes in rat behaviour: a possible animal model of schizophrenia. Prog. Neuro-Psychopharmacol. & Biol. Psych., 2003, 27(4), 687-700. doi: 10. 1016/S0278-5846(03)00080-0.
172. Kellhoff, G.; Bernstein, H. G.; Becker, A.; Grecksch, G.; Wolf, G. Increased neurogenesis in a rat ketamine model of schizophrenia. Biol. Psychiatry, 2004, 56(5), 317-322. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2004. 06. 010.
173. Paslakis, G.; Gilles, M.; Meyer-Lindenberg, A.; Deuschle, M. Oral administration of the NMDA receptor antagonist S-ketamine as add-on therapy on depression: A case series. Pharmacopsychiatry, 2010, 43(1), 33-35. doi: 10. 1055/s-0029-1237375.
174. Irwin, S. A.; Iglewicz, A.; Nelesen, R. A.; Lo, J. Y.; Carr, C. H.; Romero, S. D.; Lloyd, L. S. Daily oral ketamine for the treatment of depression and anxiety in patients receiving hospice care: a 28-day open-label proof-of-concept trial. J. Palliat. Med., 2013, 13(7), 903-908. doi: 10. 1089/jpm. 2012. 0617.
175. Bisaga, A.; Evans, S. M. Acute effects of memantine in combination with alcohol in moderate drinkers. Psychopharmacology, 2004, 172(1), 16-24. doi: 10. 1007/s00213-003-1617-5.
176. Zarate, C. A.; Singh, J. B.; Quiroz, J. A.; De Jesus, G.; Denicoff, K. K.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Manji, H. K.; Charney, D. S. A doubleblind, placebo-controlled study of memantine in the treatment of major depression. Am. J. Psych., 2006, 163(1), 153-155. doi: 10. 1176/appi. ajp. 163. 1. 153.
177. Wang, X.; Chen, Y.; Zhou, X.; Liu, F.; Zhang, T.; Zhang, C. Effects of propofol and ketamine as combined anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy in patients with depressive disorder. J ECT, 2012, 28(2), 128-132. doi: 10. 1097/YCT. 0b013e31824d1d02.
178. Okamoto, N.; Nakai, T.; Sakamoto, K.; Nagafusa, Y.; Higuchi, T.; Nishikawa, T. Rapid antidepressant effect of ketamine anesthesia during electroconvulsive therapy of treatment-resistant depression. J. ECT., 2010, 26(3), 223-227. doi: 10. 1097/YCT. 0b013e3181c3b0aa.
179. Fountoulakis, K. N.; Kelsoe, J. R.; Akiskal, H. Receptor targets for antidepressant therapy in bipolar disorders: an overview. J. Affect. Disord., 2012, 138(3), 22-238. doi: 10. 1016/j. jad. 2011. 04. 043.
180. Burgdorf, J.,; Zhang, X.-L.; Nicholson, K. L.; Balster, R. L.; Leander, J. D.; Stanton, P. K.; Gross, A. L.; Kroes, R. A.; Moskal, J. R. GLYX-13 an NMDA receptor glycine-site functional partial agonist induces antidepressant-like effects without ketamine-like side effects. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2013, 38(5), 729-742. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2012. 246.
181. Duncan, W. C.; Selter, J.; Brutsche, N.; Sarasso, S.; Zarate, C. A. Baseline delta sleep ratio predicts acute ketamine mood response in major depressive disorder. J. Affect. Disord., 2013, 145(1), 115-119. doi: 10. 1016/j. jad. 2012. 05. 042.
182. Ibrahim, L.; DiazGranados, N.; Chaves, J. F.; Brutsche, N.; Henter, I. D.; Kronstein, P.; Moaddel, R.; Wainer, I.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Manji, H. K.; Zarate, C. A. Course of improvement in depressive symptoms to a single intravenous infusion of ketamine vs. add-on riluzole: results from a 4-week, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Neuropsychopharmacology, 2012, 37(6), 1526-1533. doi: 10. 1038/npp. 2011. 338.
183. Murrough, J. W.; Perez, A. M.; Pillemer, S.; Stern, J.; Parides, M. K.; Aan Het Rot, M.; Collins, K. A.; Mathew, S. J.; Charney, D. S.; Iosifescu, D. V. Rapid and longer-term antidepressant effects of repeated ketamine infusions in treatment-resistant major depression. Biol. Psychiatry, in press. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2012. 06. 022.
184. Carlson, P. J.; Diazgranados, N.; Nugent, A. C.; Ibrahim, L.; Luckenbaugh, D. A.; Brutsche, N.; Herscovitch, P.; Manji, H. K.; Zarate, C. A.; Drevets, W. C. Neural correlates of rapid antidepressant response to ketamine in treatment-resistant unipolar depression: a preliminary positron emission tomography study. Biol. Psychiatry, 2013, 73(12), 1213-1221. doi: j. biopsych. 2013. 02. 008.