Overview of spirulina: Biotechnological, biochemical and molecular biological aspects

Handbook on Cyanobacteria: Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2009, Pages 51-103

  Hongsthong, Apiradee ^a   Bunnag, Boosya ^b  

^a NATIONAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AGENCY   (Thailand)

^b KING MONGKUT'S UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY THONBURI   (Thailand)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84896228423     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (159)

1. Alsher, RG, Donahue, JL, & Cramer, CL (1997). Reactive oxygen species and antioxidants: relationship in green cells. Physiol. Plant, 100.
2. Anderson, RG, Hussey, H, & Braddiley, J (1972). The mechanism of wall synthesis in bacteria. Biochem. J., 127, 11-25.
3. Ausubel, FM, Brent, R, Kingston, RE, Moore, DD, Seidman, JG, & Struhl, K (1993). Current Protocols in Molecular Biology. In: (Eds.), Wiley, New York.
4. Ayehunie, S, Belay, A, & Baba, TW (1998). Inhibition of HIV-1 replicaiton by an aqueous extract of Spirulina platensis. J. Aquir. Immun. Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol., 18, 7-12.
5. Bae, W, Xia, B, Inouye, M, & Severinov, K (2000). Escherichia coli CspA-family RNA chaperones are transcription antiterminators. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 97, 7784-7789.
6. Baier, K, Lehmann, H, Stephan, DP, & Lockau, W (2004). NblA is essential for phycobilisome degradation in Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 but not for development of functional heterocysts. Microbiol., 150, 2739-2749.
7. Baier, K, Nicklisch, S, Grundner, C, Reinecke, J, & Lockau, W (2001). Expression of two nblA-homologous genes is required for phycobilisome degradation in nitrogenstarved Synechocystis sp. PCC6803. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 195, 35-39.
8. Barker-Astrom, K, Schelin, J, Gustafsson, P, Clarke, AK, & Campbell, DA (2005). Chlorosis during nitrogen starvation is altered by carbon dioxide and temperature status and is mediated by the ClpP1 protease in Synechococcus elongatus. Arch. Microbiol., 183, 66-69.
9. Belay, A (1997). Mass culture of Spirulina outdoors-The Earthrise Farm experience. Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira): Physiology, Cell-biology and Biotechnology.). London, Taylor & Francis.
10. Belay, A, Ota, Y, Miyakawa, K, & Shimamatsu, H (1993). Current knowledge on potential health benefits of Spirulina. J. Appl. Phycol., 5, 235-241.
11. Belay, A, Toshimitsu, K, & Ota, Y (1996). Spirulina (Arthrospira): potential application as an animal feed supplement. J. Appl. Phycol., 8, 303-311.
12. Bhat, VB & Madyastha, KM (2000). C-Phycocyanin: A potent peroxyl radical scavenger in vivo and in vitro. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 275, 20-25.
13. Broadwater, JA, Whittle, E, & Shanklin, J (2002). Desaturation and Hydroxylation; residue 148 and 324 of Arabidopsis FAD2, in addition to substrate chain length, exert a major influence in partitioning of catalytic specificity. Biol.Chem., 277, 15613-15620.
14. Cahoon, E, Mills, LA, & Shanklin, J (1996). Modification of the fatty acid composition of Escherichia coli by coexpression of a plant acyl-acyl carrier protein desaturase and feredoxin. J.Bacteriol., 178, 936-939.
15. Cahoon, EB, Shah, S, Shanklin, J, & Browse, J (1998). A determinant of substrate specificity predicted from the acyl-acyl carrier protein desaturase of developing cat's claw seed. Plant Physiol., 117, 593-598.
16. Ceriello, A & Motz, E (2004). Is oxidative stress the pathogenic mechanism underlying insulin resistance, diabetes and cardiovascular disease? The common soil hypothesis revisited. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vas. Biol., 24, 816-823.
17. Chamot, D & Owttrim, GW (2000). Regulation of cold shock-induced RNA helicase gene expression in the cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. strain PCC7120. J. Bacteriol., 182, 1251-1256.
18. Cheng, Y, Li, JH, Shi, L, Wang, L, Latifi, A, & Zhang, CC (2006). A pair of ironresponsive genes encoding protein kinases with a Ser/Thr kinase domain and a His kinase domain are regulated by NtcA in the Cyanobacterium Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120. J. Bacteriol., 188, 4822-4829.
19. Cherng, SC, Cheng, SN, Tarn, A, & Chou, TC (2007). Anti-inflammatory activity of cphycocyanin in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Life Sciences, 81, 1431-1435.
20. Ciferri, O (1983). Spirulina, the edible microorganism. Microbiol. Rev., 47, 551-578.
21. Clarke, AK & Eriksson, MJ (2000). The truncated form of the bacterial heat shock protein ClpB/HSP100 contributes to development of thermotolerance in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7942. J. Bacteriol., 7092-7096.
22. Collier, JL & Grossman, AR (1992). Chlorosis induced by nutrient deprivation in Synechococcus sp. strain PCC 7942: not all bleaching is the same. J. Bacteriol., 174, 4718-4726.
23. Collier, JL & Grossman, AR (1994). A small polypeptide triggers complete degradation of light-harvesting phycobiliproteins in nutrient-deprived cyanobacteria. EMBO J., 13, 1039-1047.
24. Creighton, TE (1993). Proteins: Structures and molecular properties. New York, W. H. Freeman and company.
25. Curry, JM, Whalan, R, Hunt, DM, Gohil, K, Strom, M, Rickman, L, Colston, MJ, Smerdon, SJ, & Buxton, RS (2005). An ABC transporter containing a Forkheadassociated domain interacts with a Serine-Threonine kinase and is required for growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice. Infect. Immun., 73, 4471-4477.
26. Dainippon Ink and Chemicals, ID, Anti-tumeral agents containing phycobillin. 1983: Japan.
27. Deshnium, P, Paithoonrangsarid, K, Suphatrakul, A, Meesapyodsuk, D, Tanticharoen, M, & Cheevadhanarak, S (2000). Temperature-independent and -dependent expression of desaturase genes in filamentous cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis strain C1 (Arthrospira sp. PCC 99438). FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 184, 207-213.
28. Devi, MA & Venkataraman, LV (1983). Hypocholestemic effect of bluegreen algae Spirulina platensis in albino rats. Nutr. Rep. Int., 28, 519-530.
29. Dolganov, N & Grossman, AR (1999). A polypeptide with similarity to phycocyanin alpha-subunit phycocyanobilin lyase involved in degradation of phycobilisomes. J. Bacteriol., 181, 610-617.
30. Domergue, F, Abbadi, A, Ott, C, Zank, TK, Zahringer, U, & Heinz, E (2003). Acyl carriers used as substrates by the desaturases and elongases involved in very long-chain polyunsatuated fatty acids biosynthesis reconstituted in yeast. J.Biol.Chem., 278, 35115-35126.
31. Ehling-Schulz, M, Schulz, S, Wait, R, Angelika, G, & Scherer, S (2002). The UV-B stimulon of the terrestrial cyanobacterium Nostoc commune comprises early shock proteins and late acclimation proteins. Mol. Microbiol., 46, 827-843.
32. Esfahani, M, Barnes, EMJ, & Wakil, S (1969). Control of fatty acid composition in phospholipids of Escherichia coli: response to fatty acid supplements in a fatty acid auxotroph. Proc.Natl.Acad.Sci.USA, 64, 1057-1064.
33. Fang, F & barnum, SR (2004). Espression of the heat shock gene hsp16.6 and promoter analysis in the cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Curr. Microbiol., 49, 192-198.
34. Fujii, Y, Goldberg, P, & Hussain, SNA (1998). Contribution of macrophages to pulmonary nitric oxide production in septic shock. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 157, 1645-1651.
35. Gombos, Z, Wada, H, & Murata, N (1992). Unsaturation of fatty acids in membrane lipids enhances tolerance of the cyanobacterium Synechocystis PCC6803 to lowtemperature photoinhibition. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 89, 9959-9963.
36. Gozales, R, Rodriguez, S, Romay, C, Ancheta, O, Gonzalez, A, Armesto, J, Remirez, D, & Merino, N (1999). Anti-inflammatory activity of phycocyanin extract in acetic acid-induced colitis in rats. Pharmcological Research, 39, 55-59.
37. Grundner, C, Gay, LM, & Alber, T (2005). Mycobacterium tuberculosis serine/threonine kinases PknB, PknD, PknE and PknF phosphorylated multiple FHA domains. Protein Sci., 14, 1918-1921.
38. Guillou, H, D'Andrea, S, Rioux, V, Barnouin, R, Dalaine, S, Pedrono, F, Jan, S, & Legrand, P (2004). Distinct roles of endoplasmic reticulum cytochrome and fused cytochrome b5-like domain for rat delta 6 desaturase activity. J. Lipid Res., 45, 32-40.
39. Han, G & Zhang, CC (2001). On the origin of Ser/Thr kinases in a prokaryote. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 200, 79-8.
40. Harley, CB & Reynolds, RP (1987). Analysis of E. coli promoter sequences. Nucleic Acids Res., 15, 2343-2361.
41. Hayashi, K, Hayashi, T, & Kojima, I (1996). A natural sulfated polysaccharide, calcium spirulan, isolated from Spirulina platensis: in vitro and ex vivo evaluation of anti-Herpes simplex virus and anti-human immunodeficiency virus activities. AIDS Research and Human Retroviruses, 12, 1463-1471.
42. Hayashi, L, Hayashi, T, & Morita, N (1993). An extract from Spirulina platensis is a selective inhibitor of Herpes simplex virus type I penetration into HeLa cells. Phytother Res., 7, 76-80.
43. Hayashi, T, Hayashi, K, Maedaa, M, & Kojima, I (1996). Calcium spirulan, an inhibitor of enveloped virus replication, from a blue-green alga Spirulina platensis. J. Nat. Prod., 59, 83-87.
44. Hecker, M, Schumann, W, & Volker, U (1996). Heat-shock and general stress response in Bacillus subtilis. Mol. Microbiol., 19, 417-428.
45. Hernandez, JA, Teresa Bes, M, Fillat, MF, Neira, JL, & Peleato, ML (2002). Biochemical analysis of the recombinant Fur (ferric uptake regulator) protein from Anabaena PCC7119: factors affecting its oligomerization state. Biochem. J., 366, 315-322.
46. Hiemstra, H, Nanninga, N, Woldringh, CL, Inouye, M, & Witholt, B (1987). Distribution of newly synthesized lipoprotein over the outer membrane and the peptidoglycan sacculus of an Escherichia coli lac-lpp strain. J.Bacteriol., 169, 5434-5444.
47. Hongsthong, A, Deshnium, P, Paithoonrangsarid, K, Cheevadhanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2003). Differential responses of the three acyl-lipid desaturases to immediate temperature reduction occurred in two lipid membranes of Spirulina platensis strain C1. J. Biosci. Bioeng., 96, 519-524.
48. Hongsthong, A, Paithoonrangsarid, K, Phapugrankul, P, Sirijuntarut, M, Cheevadhanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2004). The expression of three desaturase genes of Spirulina platensis in Escherichia coli DH5α. Mol. Biol. Reports, 31, 177-189.
49. Hongsthong, A, Sirijuntarut, M, Prommeenate, P, Lertladaluck, K, Porkaew, K, Cheevadahanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2008). Proteome analysis at the subcellular level of the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis in response to low temperature stress conditions. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., in press.
50. Hongsthong, A, Sirijuntarut, M, Prommeenate, P, Thammathorn, S, Bunnag, B, Cheevadhanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2007). Revealing differentially expressed proteins in two morphological forms of Spirulina platensis by proteomic analysis. Mol. Biotechnol., 36, 123-130.
51. Hongsthong, A, Subudhi, S, Sirijuntarat, M, & Cheevadhanarak, S (2004). Mutation study of conserved amino acid residues of Spirulina delta 6-acyl-lipid desaturase showing involvement of histidine 313 in the regioselectivity of the enzyme. Appl.Microbiol.Biotechnol., 66, 74-84.
52. Hongsthong, A, Subudhi, S, Sirijuntarat, M, Kurdrid, P, Cheevadhanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2006). Revealing the complementation of ferredoxin by cytochrome b5 in the Spirulina- 6-desaturation reaction by N-terminal fusion and co-expression of the fungal-cytochrome b5 domain and Spirulina- 6-acyl-lipid desaturase. Appl.Microbiol.Biotechnol., 72, 1192-1201.
53. Huang, F, Parmryd, I, Nilsson, F, Persson, A, Pakrasi, HB, Andersson, B, & Norling, B (2002). Proteomics of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803. Molecular and Cellular Proteomics, 1, 956-966.
54. Huckauf, J, Nomura, C, Forchhammer, K, & Hagemann, M (2000). Stress responses of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 mutants impaired in genes encoding putative alternative sigma factors. Microbiol., 146, 2877-2889.
55. Im, CS & Grossman, AR (2001). Identification and regulation of high light-induced genes in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. The Plant Journal, 30, 301-313.
56. Inagaki, N, Maitra, R, Satoh, K, & Pakrasi, HB (2001). Amino acid residues that are critical for in vivo catalytic activity of CtpA, the carboxyl-terminal processing protease for the D1 protein of photosystem II. J. Biol. Chem., 276, 30099-30105.
57. J. van Thor, J, Jeanjean, R, Havaux, M, Sjollema, KA, Joset, F, Hellingwerf, KJ, & Matthijs, HCP (2000). Salt shock-inducible photosystem I cyclic electron trnasfer in Synechocystis PCC6803 relies on binding of ferredoxin: NADP+ reductase to the thylakoid membranes via its CpcD phycobilisome-linker homologous N-terminal domain. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1457, 129-144.
58. Jarrett, JT & Wan, JT (2002). Thermal inactivation of reduced ferredoxin (flavodoxin): NADP+ oxidoreductase from Escherichia coli. FEBS Lett., 529, 237-242.
59. Jeamton, W, Mungpakdee, S, Sirijuntarut, M, Prommeenate, P, Cheevadahanarak, S, Tanticharoen, M, & Hongsthong, A (2008). A combined stress response analysis of Spirulina platensis in terms of global differentially expressed proteins, and mRNA levels and stability of fatty acid biosynthesis genes. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 281, 121-131.
60. Jeeji Bai, N (1985). Competitive exclusion or morpholoical transformation? A case study with Spirulina fusiformis. Arch. Hydro. Biol., 71(suppl), Algol. Stud., 38/39, 191-199.
61. Jeeji Bai, N & Seshadri, CV (1980). On coiling and uncoiling of trichromes in the genus Spirulina. Arch. Hydro. Biol., 60(suppl), Algol. Stud., 26, 32-47.
62. Joy, AW & Emily, S (1977). Regulation of macrophage cytokine production by prostaglandin E2. Distinct roles of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2. J. Biol. Chem., 272, 25693-25699.
63. Kaplan, A, Helman, Y, Tchernov, D, & Reinhold, L (2001). Acclimation of photosynthetic microorganisms to changing ambient carbon dioxide concentration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 98, 4817-4818.
64. Kim, HJ, Kim, YK, Park, JY, & Kim, J (2002). Light signalling mediated by phytochrome plays an important role in cold-induced gene expression through the Crepeat/ dehydration responsive element (C/DRE) in Arabidopsis thaliana. The Plant Journal, 29, 693-704.
65. Kis, M, Zsiros, O, Farkas, T, Wada, H, Nagy, F, & Gombos, Z (1998). Light-induced expression of fatty acid desatrase genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95, 4209-4214.
66. Kojima, K & Nakamoto, H (2005). Post-transcriptional control of the cyanobacterial hspA heat-shock induction. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 331, 583-588.
67. Kojima, K & Nakamoto, H (2002). Specific binding of a protein to a novel DNA element in the cyanobacterial small heat-shock protein gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 297, 616-624.
68. Kurdrid, P, Sirijuntarut, M, Subudhi, S, Cheevadahanarak, S, Tanticharoen, M, & Hongsthong, A (2008). Truncation mutants highlight a critical role for the N- and Ctermini of the Spirulina Delta(6) desaturase in determining regioselectivity. Mol. Biotechnol., 38, 203-209.
69. Kurdrid, P, Subudhi, S, Cheevadahanarak, S, Tanticharoen, M, & Hongsthong, A (2007). Effect of two immediate electron donors, NADPH and FADH(2), on Spirulina delta 6 desaturase co-expressed with two different immediate electron donors, cytochrome b5 and ferredoxin in E. coli. Mol.Biol.Reports, 34, 261-266.
70. Kurdrid, P, Subudhi, S, Hongsthong, A, Ruengjitchatchawalya, M, & Tanticharoen, M (2005). Functional expression of Spirulina-delta 6 desaturase gene in yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol.Biol.Reports, 32, 215-226.
71. Lahmi, R, Sendersky, E, Perelman, A, Hagemann, M, Forchhammer, K, & Schwarz, R (2006). Alanine Dehydrogenase Activity Is Required for Adequate Progression of Phycobilisome Degradation during Nitrogen Starvation in Synechococcus elongatus PCC 7942. J. Bacteriol., 188, 5258-5265.
72. Lehoux, IE & Mitra, B (2000). Role of arginine 277 in (S)-mandelate dehydrogenase from Pseudomonas putida in substrate binding and transition state stabilization. Biochemistry, 39, 10055-10065.
73. Lehoux, IE & Mitra, B (1999). (S)-Mandelate dehydrogenase from Pseudomona putida: Mutations of the catalytic base histidine-274 and chemical rescue activity. Biochemistry, 38, 9948-9955.
74. Lewin, RA (1980). Uncoil variants of Spirulina platensis (Cyanophyceae: Oscillatoriaceae). Arch. Hydro. Biol., 60(suppl), Algol. Stud., 26, 48-52.
75. Li, H & Poulos, TL (1999). Fatty acid metabolism, conformational change, and electron transfer in cytochrome P-450BM-3. Biochim. Biophys. Acta, 1441, 141-149.
76. Li, H & Sherman, LA (2002). Characterization of Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 and nbl mutants under nitrogen-deficient conditions. Arch. Microbiol., 178, 256-266.
77. Lu, C, Winteler, H, Abdelal, A, & Haas, D (1999). The ArgR regulatory protein, a helper to the anaerobic regulator ANR during transcriptional activation of the arcD promoter in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol., 181, 2459-2464.
78. Luque, I, Ochoa De Alda, JA, Richaud, C, Zabulon, G, Thomas, JC, & Houmard, J (2003). The NblAI protein from the filamentous cyanobacterium Tolypothrix PCC 7601: regulation of its expression and interactions with phycobilisome components. Mol. Microbiol., 50, 1043-1054.
79. Luque, I, Zabulon, G, Contreras, A, & Houmard, J (2001). Convergence of two global transcriptional regulators on nitrogen induction of the stress acclimation gene nblA in the cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7942. Mol. Microbiol., 41, 937-947.
80. Maghnouj, A, Sousa Cabral, T, Stalon, V, & Wauven, CV (1998). The arcABCD gene cluster, encoding the arginine deiminase pathway of Bacillus licheniformis, and its activation by arginine repressor ArgR. J.Bacteriol., 180, 6468-6475.
81. Marnett, LJ (1999). Lipid peroxidation-DNA damage by malondialdehyde. Mutation Research, 424, 83-95.
82. Marquez, FJ, Saski, K, Nishio, N, & Nagai, S (1995). Inhibitory effect of oxygen accumulation of the growth of Spirulina platensis. Biotechnol. Lett., 17, 225.
83. Martin-Luna, B, Hernandez, JA, Teresa Bes, M, Fillat, MF, & Peleato, ML (2006). Identification of a ferric uptake regulator from Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806. FEMS Microbiol., 254, 63-70.
84. Mary, I & Vaulot, D (2003). Two-component systems in Prochlorococcus MED4 genomic analysis and differential expression under stress. FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 226, 135-144.
85. Mascher, T, Helmann, JD, & Unden, G (2006). Signal perception in bacterial signaltransducing histidine kinases. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev., 70, 910-938.
86. Michinaka, Y, Aki, T, Inagaki, K, Higashimota, H, Shimada, Y, Nikajima, T, Shimauchi, T, Ono, K, & Suzuki, O (2001). Production of polyunsaturated fatty acids by genetic engineering of yeast. J. Oleo. Sci., 5, 359-365.
87. Mikami, K, Kanesaki, Y, Suzuki, I, & Murata, N (2002). The histidine kinase Hik33 perceives osmotic stress and cold stress in Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Mol. Microbiol., 46, 905-915.
88. Moncada, S, Palmer, RMJ, & Higgs, EA (1991). Nitric oxide: physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology. Pharmacological Reviews, 43, 109-142.
89. Murata, N & Wada, H (1995). Acyl-lipid desaturases and their importance in the tolerance and acclimation to cold of cyanobacteria. Biochem.J., 308, 1-8.
90. Mustady, L, Los, DA, Gombos, Z, & Murata, N (1996). Immunocytochemical localization of acyl-lipid desaturases in cyanobacterial cells: evidence that both thylakoid membranes and cytoplasmic membranes are the sites for lipid desaturation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 10524-27.
91. Nakaya, N, Homma, Y, & Goto, Y (1988). Cholesterol lowering effect of Spirulina. Nutr. Rep. Int., 37, 1329-1337.
92. Napier, J, Michaelson, LV, & Sayanova, O (2003). The role of cytochrome b5 fusion desaturases in the synthesis of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 68, 135-143.
93. Narberhaus, F (2002). mRNA-mediated detection of environmental conditions. Arch. Microbiol., 178, 404-410.
94. Nocker, A, Hausherr, T, Balsiger, S, Krstulovic, NP, Hennecke, H, & Narberhaus, F (2001). A mRNA-based thermosensor controls expression of rhizobial heat shock genes. Nucleic Acids Res., 29, 4800-4807.
95. Nomsawai, P, Tandeau de Marsac, N, Thomas, JC, Tanticharoen, M, & Cheevadahanarak, S (1999). Light regulation of phycobilisome structure and gene expression in Spirulina platensis C1 (Arthrospira sp. PCC 9438). Plant Cell Physiol., 40, 1194-1202.
96. Nubel, U, Garcia-Pichel, F, & Muyzer, G (2000). The halotolerance and phylogeny of cyanobacteria with tightly coiled trichromes (Spirulina Turpin) and the describtion of Halospirulina tapeticola gen. nov., sp. nov. Int. J. Sys. Evol. Microbiol., 50, 1265-1277.
97. Ogawa, T (1991). A gene homologous to the subunit-2 gene of NADH dehydrogenase is essential to inorganic carbon transport of Synechocystis PCC 6803. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88, 4275-4279.
98. Olaizola, M (2003). Commercial development of microalgal biotechnology: from the test tube to the marketplace. Biomolecular Engineering, 20, 459-466.
99. Outten, FW, Wod, MJ, Munoz, FM, & Storz, G (2003). The SufE protein and the SufBCD complex enhance SufS cysteine Desulfurase activity as part of a sulfur transfer pathway for Fe-S Cluster assembly in Escherichia coli. J. Biol. Chem., 278, 45713-45719.
100. Panadero, J, Pallotti, C, Rodriguez-Vargas, S, Randez-Gil, F, & Prieto, JA (2006). A downshift in temperature activates the high osmolarity glycerol (HOG) pathway, which determines freeze tolerance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol. Chem., 281, 4638-4645.
101. Panichkin, VB, Arakawa-Kobayashi, S, Kanaseki, T, Suzuki, I, Los, DA, Shestakov, SV, & Murata, N (2006). Serine/threonine protein kinase SpkA in Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 is a regulator of expression of three putative pilA operons, formation of thick pili, and cell motility. J. Bacteriol., 188, 7696-7699.
102. Parsikh, P, Mani, U, & Iyer, U (2001). Role of Spirulina in the control of glycemia and lipidemia in type 2 diabetes mellitus. J. Med. Food, 4, 193-199.
103. Pattridge, KA, Weber, CH, Friesen, JA, Sanker, S, Kent, C, & Ludwig, ML (2003). Glcerol-3-phosphate cytidylyltransferase: structural changes induced by binding of CDP-glycerol and the role of lysine residues in catalysis. J. Biol. Chem., 278, 51863-51871.
104. Perry, L, Quan, X, Fang, R, Raj, M, Paula, I, Nunomura, A, Zhu, X, Smith, M, & George, A (2007). Prevention and treatment of Alzheimer disease and aging: Antioxidants. Medicinal Chemistry, 7, 171-180.
105. Popelkova, H, Im, MM, & Yocum, CF (2002). N-terminal truncations of Manganese stabilizing protein identify two amino acid sequences required for binding of the eukaryotic protein to photosystem II and reveal the absence of one binding-related sequence in cyanobacteria. Biochemistry, 41, 10038-10045.
106. Promnares, K (2001). Regulation of phycobilisomes expression of Spirulina platensis C1 by nitrogen deprivation. In: School of Bioresources and Technology. Bangkok, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.
107. Ramamoorthy, A & Premakumari, S (1996). Effect of supplementation of Spirulina on hypercholesterolemic patients. J. Food Sci. Technol., 33, 124-128.
108. Reddy, CM, Subhashini, J, Mahipal, SVK, Bhat, BV, Reddy, SP, Kiranmai, G, Madyastha, KM, & Reddanna, P (2003). C-phycocyanin, a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor, induces apoptosis in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 2647 macrophages. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 304, 385-394.
109. Remirez, D, Ledon, N, & Gonzalez, R (2002). Role of histamine in the inhibitory effects of phycocyanin in experimental models of allergic inflammatory response. Mediators of Inflammation, 11, 81-85.
110. Richaud, C, Zabulon, G, Joder, A, & Thomas, JC (2001). Nitrogen or sulfur starvation differentially affects phycobilisome degradation and expression of the nblA gene in Synechocystis strain PCC 6803. J. Bacteriol., 183, 2989-2994.
111. Richmond, A (1986). Microalgae of economic potential. In: Richmond, A (Eds.), CRC Handbook of Microalgal Mass Culture. 199-244). Boca Raton, FL., CRC Press.
112. Romay, C & Gonzalez, R (2000). Phycocyanin is an antioxidant protector of human erythrocytes against lysis by peroxyl radicals. J. Pharm. Pharmacol., 52, 367-368.
113. Romay, C, Gonzalez, R, Ledon, N, Remeirez, D, & Rimbau, V (2003). C-Phycocyanin: A biliprotein with antioxidant, anti-flammatory and neuroprotective effects. Current Protein and Peptide Science, 4, 207-216.
114. Routaboul, J, Fischer, SF, & Browse, J (2000). Trienoic fatty acids are required to maintain chloroplast function at low temperature. Plant Physiol., 124, 1697-1705.
115. Sasata, RJ, Reed, DW, Loewen, MC, & Covello, PS (2004). Domain swapping localizes the structural determinants of regioselectivity in membrane-bound fatty acid desaturases of Caenorhabditis elegans. J. Biol. Chem., 279, 39296-39302.
116. Saxena, PN, Ahmad, MR, Shyam, R, & Amla, DV (1983). Cultivation of Spirulina in sewage for poultry feed. Experientia, 39, 1077.
117. Saxena, PN, Ahmad, MR, Shyam, R, Srivastava, HK, Doval, P, & Shinha, D (1982). Effect of feeding sewage-grown Spirulina on yolk pigmentation of white Leghorn eggs. Avian Research, 66, 41-46.
118. Schwartz, J & Shklar, G (1987). Regression of experimental hamster cancer by beta carotene and algae extracts. J. Oral Maxillofac. Surg., 45, 510-515.
119. Schwartz, J, Shklar, G, Reid, S, & Tricker, D (1988). Prevention of experimental oral cancer by extracts of Spirulina-Dunaliella algae. Nutr. Cancer, 11, 127-134.
120. Schwartzbeck, JL, Jung, S, Abbott, AG, Mosley, E, Lewis, S, Pries, GL, & Powell, GL (2001). Endoplasmic oleoyl-PC desaturase references the second double bond. Phytochemistry, 57, 643-652.
121. Schwarz, R & Forchhammer, K (2005). Acclimation of unicellular cyanobacteria to macronutrient deficiency: emergence of a complex network of cellular responses. Microbiol., 151, 2503-2514.
122. Shanklin, J & Cahoon, EB (1998). Desaturation and related modifications of fatty acids. Annu.Rev.Plant Physiol.Plant Mol. Biol., 49, 611-641.
123. Shibato, J, Agrawal, GK, Kato, H, Asayama, M, & Shirai, M (2002). The 5'-upstream cis-acting sequences of a cyanobacterial psbA gene: analysis of their roles in basal, light-dependent and circadian transcription. Mol. Genet. Genomics, 267, 684-694.
124. Shin-Ru, S, Kun-Nan, T, Yi-Shuane, L, Chuang-Chun, C, & Err-Cheng, C (2003). Inhibition of enterovirus 71-induced apoptosis by allophycocyanin isolated from a bluegreen alga Spirulina platensis. J. Med. Virol., 70, 119-125.
125. Singh, AK & Sherman, LA (2000). Identification of ironresponsive, differential gene expression in the cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. strain PCC 6803 with a customized amplification library. J. Bacteriol., 182, 3536-3543.
126. Singh, DP, Singh, N, & Verma, K (1995). Photooxidative damage to the cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis mediated by singlet oxygen. Curr. Microbiol., 31, 44.
127. Soni, B, Trivedi, U, & Madamwar, D (2008). A novel method of single step hydrophobic interaction chromatography for the purification of phycocyanin from Phormidium fragile and its characterization for antioxidant property. Bioresource Technology, 99, 188-194.
128. Sperling, P, Ternes, P, Zank, TK, & Heinz, E (2003). The evolution of desaturases. Prostaglandins Leukot. Essent. Fatty Acids, 68, 73-95.
129. Subhashini, J, Suraneni, VKM, Reddy, MC, Reddy, MM, Rachamallu, A, & Reddanna, P (2004). Molecular mechanisms in C-Phycocyanin induced apoptosis in human chronic myeloid leukemia cell line-K562. Biochemical Pharmacology, 68, 453-462.
130. Subudhi, S, Kurdrid, P, Hongsthong, A, Sirijuntarut, M, Cheevadahanarak, S, & Tanticharoen, M (2008). Isolation and functional characterization of Spirulina D6D gene promoter: Role of a putative GntR transcription factor in transcriptional regulation of D6D gene expression. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 365, 643-649.
131. Sunnerhagen, M, Nilges, M, Otting, G, & Carey, J (1997). Solution structure of the DNA-binding domain and model for the complex of multifunctional hexameric arginine repressor with DNA. Nat. Struct. Biol., 4, 819-826.
132. Suphatrakul, A, Deshnium, P, Chaisawadi, S, Tanticharoen, M, & Cheevadahanarak, S (1997).The effect of temperature on the expression of the delta12-desaturase gene (desA) in Spirulina platensis C1. In: 3rd Asia-Pacific Conference on Algal Biotechnology. Phuket, Thailand.
133. Suzuki, I, Los, DA, Kanesaki, Y, Mikami, K, & Murata, N (2000). The pathway for perception and transduction of low temperature signals in Synechocystis. EMBO J., 19, 1327-1334.
134. Szarbo, C & Thiemermann, C (1995). Regulation of the expression of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase. Advances in Pharmacology, 34, 113-153.
135. Ta, TD & Vickery, LE (1992). Cloning, sequencing and overexpression of a [2Fe-2S] ferredoxin gene from Escherichia coli. J.Biol.Chem., 267, 11120-11125.
136. Tewari, AK & Tripathy, BC (1998). Temperature-stress-induced impairment of chlorophyll biosynthetic reactions in cucumber and wheat. Plant Physiol., 117, 851-858.
137. Thammathron, S (2001). Factors affecting coiling and uncoiling of Spirulina platensis C1. In: School of Bioresources and Biotechnology. Bangkok, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi.
138. Tirupati, B, Vey, JL, Drennan, CL, & Bollinger, JMJ (2004). Kinetic and structural charactrization of Slr0077/SufS, the essential cysteine desulfurase from Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Biochem., 43, 12210-12219.
139. Tocher, DR, Leaver, MJ, & Hodgson, PA (1998). Recent advances in the biochemistry and molecular biology of fatty acyl desaturases. Pro. Lipid. Res., 37, 73-117.
140. Torres-Duran, PV, Miranda-Zamora, R, Paredes-Carbajal, MC, Mascher, D, Ble-Castillo, J, Diaz-Zagoya, JC, & Juarez-Oropeza, MA (1999). Studies on the preventive effect of Spirulina maxima on fatty liver development induced by carbon tetrachloride, in the rat. J. Ethnopharmacol., 64, 141-147.
141. Trushina, E & McMurray, CT (2007). Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases. Neuroscience, 145.
142. Tsukada, O, Kawahara, T, & Miyachi, S (1977). Mass culture of Chlorella in Asian countries. In: Mitsui, A, Miyachi, S, San Pietro, A, & Tamura, S (Eds.), Biological Solar Energy Conversion. 363-365). New York, Academic Press.
143. Valko, M, Rhodes, B, Moncola, M, Izakovic, A, & Mazura, M (2006). Free radicals, metals and antioxidants in oxidative stress-induced cancer. Chemico-Biological Interactions, 160, 1-40.
144. Vane, JR, Mitchell, JA, Appleton, I, Tomlinson, A, Bishop-Bailey, D, Croxtall, J, & Willoughby, DA (1994). Inducible isoforms of cyclooxygenase and nitric oxide synthase in inflammation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 91, 2046-2050.
145. Varkonyi, Z, Zsiros, O, Farkas, T, Garab, G, & Gombos, Z (2000). The tolerance of cyanobacterium Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii to low-temperature photo-inhibition affected by the induction of polyunsaturated fatty acid synthesis. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 28, 892-894.
146. Vergeres, G, Yen, TSB, Aggeler, J, Lausier, J, & Waskell, L (1993). A model system for studying membrane biogenesis: Overexpression of cytochrome b5 in yeast results in marked proliferation of the intracellular membrane. J.Cell Sci., 106, 249-259.
147. Vijayan, P & Browse, J (2002). Photoinhibition in mutants of Arabidopsis deficient in thylakoid membrane. Plant Physiol., 129, 876-885.
148. Vollmer, M, Thomsen, N, Wiek, S, & Seeber, F (2001). Apicomplexan parasites possess distinct nuclear-encoded, but apicoplast-localized, plant-type ferredoxin-NADP+ reductase and ferredoxin. J. Biol. Chem., 276, 5483-5490.
149. von Meyenburg, K, Jorgensen, B, & Deurs, B (1984). Physiological and morphological effects of overexpression of membrane-bound ATP synthase in Escherichia coli K-12. EMBO J., 3, 1791-1797.
150. Wada, H & Murata, N (1990). Temperature-induced changes in the fatty acid composition of the cyanobacterium, Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803. Plant Physiol., 92, 1062-1069.
151. Wang, Y, Delettre, J, Guillot, A, Corrieu, G, & Beal, C (2005). Influence of cooling temperature and duration on cold adaptation of Lactobacillus acidophilus RD758. Cryobiology, 50, 294-307.
152. Wang, ZP, Chen, SM, Jia, XM, Cui, HR, & Xu, BJ (1997). The effect of environmental factors and gamma-rays on the morphology and growth of Spirulina platensis. J. Zhejiang Agric. Univ., 23, 36-40.
153. Wang, ZP, Cui, HR, Zhu, JX, Jia, XM, & Qian, KX (1998). The comparison of growth rate and photopigments of filament of Spirulina platensis strain Z with different morphology. Acta Microbiol. Sin., 38, 321-324.
154. Wang, ZP & Zhao, Y (2005). Morphological reversion of Spirulina (Arthrospira) platensis (Cyanophyta): from linear to helical. J. Phycol., 41, 622-628.
155. Weerasinghe, JP, Dong, T, Schertzberg, MR, Kirchhof, MG, Sun, Y, & Schellhorn, HB (2006). Stationary phase expression of the arginine biosynthetic operon argCBH in Escherichia coli. BMC Microbiol., 6.
156. Weiner, JH, Lemire, BD, Elmes, ML, Bradley, RD, & Scraba, DG (1984). Overproduction of fumarate reductase in Escherichia coli induces a novel intracellular lipid-protein organelle. J. Bacteriol., 158, 590-596.
157. Whittle, E & Shanklin, J (2001). Engineering delta9-16:0-acyl carrier protein (ACP) desaturase specificity based on combinatorial saturation mutagenesis and logical redesign of the castor delta9-18:0-ACP desaturase. Biol.Chem., 276, 21500-21505.
158. Wu, H, Gao, K, Villafane, VE, Watanabe, T, & Helbling, EW (2005). Effects of solar UV radiation on morphology and photosynthesis of filamentous cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol., 71, 5004-5013.
159. Xia, B, Ke, H, Shinde, U, & Inouye, M (2003). The role of RfbA in 16S rRNA processing and cell growth at low temperature in Escherichia coli. J. Mol. Biol., 332, 575-584.