Glucose absorption in small intestinal diseases

Expert Review of Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 8, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 301-312

  Thazhath, Sony S ^a   Wu, Tongzhi ^a   Young, Richard L ^a,b   Horowitz, Michael ^a   Rayner, Christopher K ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE   (Australia)

Author keywords

bariatric surgery; critical illness induced hyperglyaemia; gastric emptying; GLP 1; GLUT2; SGLT1; short gut syndroM.E.; sweet taste receptor

Indexed keywords

DIABETES MELLITUS, TYPE 2; DUODENAL DISEASES; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; GLUCOSE; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; ILEAL DISEASES; INTESTINAL ABSORPTION; INTESTINE, SMALL; JEJUNAL DISEASES; OBESITY;

EID: 84894175559     PISSN: 17474124     EISSN: 17474132     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/17474124.2014.887439     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Horowitz M, Edelbroek MA, Wishart JM, Straathof JW. Relationship between oral glucose tolerance and gastric emptying in normal healthy subjects. Diabetologia 1993;36:857-62
2. Jones KL, Horowitz M, Carney BI, et al. Gastric emptying in early noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. J Nucl Med 1996;37:1643-8
3. Chang J, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M. Diabetic gastroparesis- backwards and forwards. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011;26(Suppl 1): 46-57
4. Lartigue S, Bizais Y, Des Varannes SB, et al. Inter- and intrasubject variability of solid and liquid gastric emptying parameters. A scintigraphic study in healthy subjects and diabetic patients. Dig Dis Sci 1994;39: 109-15
5. Gonlachanvit S, Hsu CW, Boden GH, et al. Effect of altering gastric emptying on postprandial plasma glucose concentrations following a physiologic meal in Type-II diabetic patients. Dig Dis Sci 2003;48: 488-97
6. Woerle HJ, Albrecht M, Linke R, et al. Importance of changes in gastric emptying for postprandial plasma glucose fluxes in healthy humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2008;294:E103-9
7. Rayner CK, Horowitz M. Gastrointestinal motility and glycemic control in diabetes: the chicken and the egg revisited? J Clin Invest 2006;116:299-302
8. Thazhath SS, Jones KL, Horowitz M, Rayner CK. Diabetic gastroparesis: recent insights into pathophysiology and implications for management. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;7:127-39
9. Russo A, Stevens JE, Chen R, et al. Insulin-induced hypoglycemia accelerates gastric emptying of solids and liquids in long-standing Type 1 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005;90:4489-95
10. Duchman SM, Ryan AJ, Schedl HP, et al. Upper limit for intestinal absorption of a dilute glucose solution in men at rest. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1997;29:482-8
11. Schirra J, Katschinski M, Weidmann C, et al. Gastric emptying and release of incretin hormones after glucose ingestion in humans. J Clin Invest 1996;97:92-103
12. Lewis LD, Fordtran JS. Effect of perfusion rate on absorption, surface area, unstirred water layer thickness, permeability, and intraluminal pressure in the rat ileum in vivo. Gastroenterology 1975;68:1509-16
13. Chaikomin R, Wu KL, Doran S, et al. Concurrent duodenal manometric and impedance recording to evaluate the effects of hyoscine on motility and flow events, glucose absorption, and incretin release. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2007;292:G1099-104
14. Gudmand-Hoyer E, Skovbjerg H. Disaccharide digestion and maldigestion. Scand J Gastroenterol Suppl 1996;216: 111-21
15. Thomas DE, Elliott EJ, Baur L. Low glycaemic index or low glycaemic load diets for overweight and obesity. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007(3):CD005105
16. Spreadbury I. Comparison with ancestral diets suggests dense acellular carbohydrates promote an inflammatory microbiota, and may be the primary dietary cause of leptin resistance and obesity. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2012;5:175-89
17. Derosa G, Maffioli P. Alpha-Glucosidase inhibitors and their use in clinical practice. Arch Med Sci 2012;8(5):899-906
18. Hammer HF, Fine KD, Santa Ana CA, et al. Carbohydrate malabsorption. Its measurement and its contribution to diarrhea. J Clin Invest 1990;86:1936-44
19. Fritz E, Hammer HF, Lipp RW, et al. Effects of lactulose and polyethylene glycol on colonic transit. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2005;21:259-68
20. Dyer J, Salmon KS, Zibrik L, Shirazi-Beechey SP. Expression of sweet taste receptors of the T1R family in the intestinal tract and enteroendocrine cells. Biochem Soc Trans 2005;33:302-5
21. Rozengurt N, Wu S, Chen MC, et al. Co-localization of the alpha subunit of gustducin with PYY and GLP-1 in L cells of human colon. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006;291(5):G792-802
22. Young RL, Sutherland K, Pezos N, et al. Expression of taste molecules in the upper gastrointestinal tract in humans with and without Type 2 diabetes. Gut 2009;58: 337-46
23. Chandrashekar J, Hoon MA, Ryba NJ, Zuker CS. The receptors and cells for mammalian taste. Nature 2006;444:288-94
24. Clapp TR, Trubey KR, Vandenbeuch A, et al. Tonic activity of Galpha-gustducin regulates taste cell responsivity. FEBS Lett 2008;582:3783-7
25. Shirazi-Beechey SP, Daly K, Al-Rammahi M, et al. Role of nutrient-sensing taste 1 receptor (T1R) family members in gastrointestinal chemosensing. Br J Nutr 2014;1-8
26. Young RL. Sensing via intestinal sweet taste pathways. Front Neurosci 2011;5:23
27. Nishizawa M, Nakabayashi H, Uehara K, et al. Intraportal GLP-1 stimulates insulin secretion predominantly through the hepatoportal-pancreatic vagal reflex pathways. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2013;305:E376-87
28. Deane AM, Nguyen NQ, Stevens JE, et al. Endogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 slows gastric emptying in healthy subjects, attenuating postprandial glycemia. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010;95:215-21
29. Baggio LL, Drucker DJ. Biology of incretins: GLP-1 and GIP. Gastroenterology 2007;132:2131-57
30. Trahair LG, Horowitz M, Rayner CK, et al. Comparative effects of variations in duodenal glucose load on glycemic, insulinemic, and incretin responses in healthy young and older subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:844-51
31. Little TJ, Doran S, Meyer JH, et al. The release of GLP-1 and ghrelin, but not GIP and CCK, by glucose is dependent upon the length of small intestine exposed. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2006;291: E647-55
32. Ma J, Chang J, Checklin HL, et al. Effect of the artificial sweetener, sucralose, on small intestinal glucose absorption in healthy human subjects. Br J Nutr 2010;104:803-6
33. Ma J, Bellon M, Wishart JM, et al. Effect of the artificial sweetener, sucralose, on gastric emptying and incretin hormone release in healthy subjects. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2009;296:G735-9
34. Gerspach AC, Steinert RE, Schonenberger L, et al. The role of the gut sweet taste receptor in regulating GLP-1, PYY, and CCK release in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2011;301:E317-25
35. Steinert RE, Gerspach AC, Gutmann H, et al. The functional involvement of gut-expressed sweet taste receptors in glucose-stimulated secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and peptide YY (PYY). Clin Nutr 2011;30:524-32
36. Liddle RA, Rushakoff RJ, Morita ET, et al. Physiological role for cholecystokinin in reducing postprandial hyperglycemia in humans. J Clin Invest 1988;81:1675-81
37. Rehfeld JF. Clinical endocrinology and metabolism. Cholecystokinin. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;18:569-86
38. Ballantyne GH. Peptide YY(1-36) and peptide YY(3-36): part I. Distribution, release and actions. Obes Surg 2006;16: 651-8
39. Kellett GL, Brot-Laroche E, Mace OJ, Leturque A. Sugar absorption in the intestine: the role of GLUT2. Annu Rev Nutr 2008;28:35-54
40. Wright EM, Hirayama BA, Loo DF. Active sugar transport in health and disease. J Intern Med 2007;261:32-43
41. Margolskee RF, Dyer J, Kokrashvili Z, et al. T1R3 and gustducin in gut sense sugars to regulate expression of Na+-glucose cotransporter 1. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2007;104(38):15075-80
42. Stearns AT, Balakrishnan A, Rhoads DB, Tavakkolizadeh A. Rapid upregulation of sodium-glucose transporter SGLT1 in response to intestinal sweet taste stimulation. Ann Surg 2010;251:865-71
43. Wu T, Rayner CK, Jones K, Horowitz M. Dietary effects on incretin hormone secretion. Vitam Horm 2010;84:81-110
44. Gribble FM, Williams L, Simpson AK, Reimann F. A novel glucose-sensing mechanism contributing to glucagon-like peptide-1 secretion from the GLUTag cell line. Diabetes 2003;52:1147-54
45. Wu T, Zhao BR, Bound MJ, et al. Effects of different sweet preloads on incretin hormone secretion, gastric emptying, and postprandial glycemia in healthy humans. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:78-83
46. Moriya R, Shirakura T, Ito J, et al. Activation of sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 ameliorates hyperglycemia by mediating incretin secretion in mice. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2009;297:E1358-65
47. Parker HE, Adriaenssens A, Rogers G, et al. Predominant role of active versus facilitative glucose transport for glucagon-like peptide- 1 secretion. Diabetologia 2012;55:2445-55
48. Rayner CK, Park HS, Wishart JM, et al. Effects of intraduodenal glucose and fructose on antropyloric motility and appetite in healthy humans. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000;278: R360-6
49. Powell DR, Smith M, Greer J, et al. LX4211 increases serum glucagon-like peptide 1 and peptide YY levels by reducing sodium/glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1)- mediated absorption of intestinal glucose. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2013;345:250-9
50. Kaji I, Karaki S, Tanaka R, Kuwahara A. Density distribution of free fatty acid receptor 2 (FFA2)-expressing and GLP-1-producing enteroendocrine L cells in human and rat lower intestine, and increased cell numbers after ingestion of fructo-oligosaccharide. J Mol Histol 2011;42:27-38
51. Gouyon F, Caillaud L, Carriere V, et al. Simple-sugar meals target GLUT2 at enterocyte apical membranes to improve sugar absorption: a study in GLUT2-null mice. J Physiol 2003;552:823-32
52. Mace OJ, Affleck J, Patel N, Kellett GL. Sweet taste receptors in rat small intestine stimulate glucose absorption through apical GLUT2. J Physiol 2007;582:379-92
53. Gorboulev V, Schurmann A, Vallon V, et al. Na(+)-D-glucose cotransporter SGLT1 is pivotal for intestinal glucose absorption and glucose-dependent incretin secretion. Diabetes 2012;61:187-96
54. Tobin V, Le Gall M, Fioramonti X, et al. Insulin internalizes GLUT2 in the enterocytes of healthy but not insulin-resistant mice. Diabetes 2008;57: 555-62
55. Wright EM, Loo DD, Hirayama BA. Biology of human sodium glucose transporters. Physiol Rev 2011;91:733-94
56. Cui XL, Schlesier AM, Fisher EL, et al. Fructose-induced increases in neonatal rat intestinal fructose transport involve the PI3- kinase/Akt signaling pathway. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2005;288: G1310-20
57. Turk E, Zabel B, Mundlos S, et al. Glucose/galactose malabsorption caused by a defect in the Na+/glucose cotransporter. Nature 1991;350:354-6
58. Kim HR, Park SW, Cho HJ, et al. Comparative gene expression profiles of intestinal transporters in mice, rats and humans. Pharmacol Res 2007;56:224-36
59. Balakrishnan A, Stearns AT, Rounds J, et al. Diurnal rhythmicity in glucose uptake is mediated by temporal periodicity in the expression of the sodium-glucose cotransporter (SGLT1). Surgery 2008;143: 813-18
60. Maher F, Davies-Hill TM, Lysko PG, et al. Expression of two glucose transporters, GLUT1 and GLUT3, in cultured cerebellar neurons: evidence for neuron-specific expression of GLUT3. Mol Cell Neurosci 1991;2:351-60
61. Kanai Y, Lee WS, You G, et al. The human kidney low affinity Na+/glucose cotransporter SGLT2. Delineation of the major renal reabsorptive mechanism for D-glucose. J Clin Invest 1994;93:397-404
62. Delaere F, Duchampt A, Mounien L, et al. The role of sodium-coupled glucose co-transporter 3 in the satiety effect of portal glucose sensing. Mol Metab 2012;2: 47-53
63. Holdsworth CD, Dawson AM. The Absorption of Monosaccharides in Man. Clin Sci 1964;27:371-9
64. Modigliani R, Bernier JJ. Absorption of glucose, sodium, and water by the human jejunum studied by intestinal perfusion with a proximal occluding balloon and at variable flow rates. Gut 1971;12:184-93
65. Haidar A, Elleri D, Allen JM, et al. Validity of triple- and dual-tracer techniques to estimate glucose appearance. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2012;302:E1493-501
66. Thomaseth K, Pavan A, Berria R, et al. Model-based assessment of insulin sensitivity of glucose disposal and endogenous glucose production from double-tracer oral glucose tolerance test. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 2008;89:132-40
67. Selz R, Theintz G, Tappy L, Schneiter P. Evaluation of hepatic and whole body glycogen metabolism in humans during repeated administrations of small loads of 13C glucose. Diabetes Metab 2003;29: 643-9
68. Mari A, Wahren J, DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E. Glucose absorption and production following oral glucose: comparison of compartmental and arteriovenous-difference methods. Metabolism 1994;43:1419-25
69. Mari A, Stojanovska L, Proietto J, Thorburn AW. A circulatory model for calculating non-steady-state glucose fluxes. Validation and comparison with compartmental models. Comput Methods Programs Biomed 2003;71:269-81
70. Fordtran JS, Clodi PH, Soergel KH, Ingelfinger FJ. Sugar absorption tests, with special reference to 3-O-methyl-d-glucose and d-xylose. Ann Intern Med 1962;6: 883-90
71. Kuo P, Bellon M, Wishart J, et al. Effects of metoclopramide on duodenal motility and flow events, glucose absorption, and incretin hormone release in response to intraduodenal glucose infusion. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2010;299: G1326-33
72. Hammer HF. Medical complications of bariatric surgery: focus on malabsorption and dumping syndrome. Dig Dis 2012;30: 182-6
73. Picot J, Jones J, Colquitt JL, et al. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of bariatric (weight loss) surgery for obesity: a systematic review and economic evaluation. Health Technol Assess 2009;13: 1-190.215-357, iii-iv
74. Horowitz M, Cook DJ, Collins PJ, et al. Measurement of gastric emptying after gastric bypass surgery using radionuclides. Br J Surg 1982;69:655-7
75. Odstrcil EA, Martinez JG, Santa Ana CA, et al. The contribution of malabsorption to the reduction in net energy absorption after long-limb Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Am J Clin Nutr 2010;92:704-13
76. Dirksen C, Jorgensen NB, Bojsen-Moller KN, et al. Mechanisms of improved glycaemic control after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Diabetologia 2012;55: 1890-901
77. Geer RJ, Richards WO, O'Dorisio TM, et al. Efficacy of octreotide acetate in treatment of severe postgastrectomy dumping syndrome. Ann Surg 1990;212: 678-87
78. Lipp RW, Schnedl WJ, Hammer HF, et al. Evidence of accelerated gastric emptying in longstanding diabetic patients after ingestion of a semisolid meal. J Nucl Med 1997;38: 814-18
79. Buscemi S, Mattina A, Genova G, et al. Seven-day subcutaneous continuous glucose monitoring demonstrates that treatment with acarbose attenuates late dumping syndrome in a woman with gastrectomy for gastric cancer. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2013;99:e1-2
80. Fujita Y, Tamada D, Kozawa J, et al. Successful treatment of reactive hypoglycemia secondary to late dumping syndrome using miglitol. Intern Med 2012;51:2581-5
81. Solaymani-Mohammadi S, Singer SM. Host immunity and pathogen strain contribute to intestinal disaccharidase impairment following gut infection. J Immunol 2011;187:3769-75
82. Murray IA, Smith JA, Coupland K, et al. Intestinal disaccharidase deficiency without villous atrophy may represent early celiac disease. Scand J Gastroenterol 2001;36: 163-8
83. Cummings JH, Macfarlane GT. Role of intestinal bacteria in nutrient metabolism. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1997;21: 357-65
84. Hammer HF, Hammer J. Diarrhea caused by carbohydrate malabsorption. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2012;41: 611-27
85. Montalto M, Curigliano V, Santoro L, et al. Management and treatment of lactose malabsorption. World J Gastroenterol 2006;12:187-91
86. Robayo-Torres CC, Opekun AR, Quezada-Calvillo R, et al. 13C-breath tests for sucrose digestion in congenital sucrase isomaltase-deficient and sacrosidase-supplemented patients. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2009;48:412-18
87. Wright EM. I. Glucose galactose malabsorption. Am J Physiol 1998;275: G879-82
88. Santer R, Hillebrand G, Steinmann B, Schaub J. Intestinal glucose transport: evidence for a membrane traffic-based pathway in humans. Gastroenterology 2003;124:34-9
89. Stechmiller JK, Treloar D, Allen N. Gut dysfunction in critically ill patients: a review of the literature. Am J Crit Care 1997;6: 204-9
90. Nguyen NQ, Besanko LK, Burgstad C, et al. Delayed enteral feeding impairs intestinal carbohydrate absorption in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 2012;40:50-4
91. Hernandez G, Velasco N, Wainstein C, et al. Gut mucosal atrophy after a short enteral fasting period in critically ill patients. J Crit Care 1999;14:73-7
92. Deane AM, Wong GL, Horowitz M, et al. Randomized double-blind crossover study to determine the effects of erythromycin on small intestinal nutrient absorption and transit in the critically ill. Am J Clin Nutr 2012;95:1396-402
93. Lanspa MJ, Hirshberg EL, Phillips GD, et al. Moderate glucose control is associated with increased mortality compared with tight glucose control in critically ill patients without diabetes. Chest 2013;143:1226-34
94. Umpierrez GE, Isaacs SD, Bazargan N, et al. Hyperglycemia: an independent marker of in-hospital mortality in patients with undiagnosed diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:978-82
95. Finfer S, Chittock DR, Su SY, et al. Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 2009;360:1283-97
96. Dahn MS, Lange P. Hormonal changes and their influence on metabolism and nutrition in the critically ill. Intensive Care Med 1982;8:209-13
97. Egi M, Bellomo R, Stachowski E, et al. Blood glucose concentration and outcome of critical illness: the impact of diabetes. Crit Care Med 2008;36:2249-55
98. Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, Matthews G, et al. Glucose absorption and gastric emptying in critical illness. Crit Care 2009;13:R140
99. Deane AM, Rayner CK, Keeshan A, et al. The effects of critical illness on intestinal glucose sensing, transporters, and absorption. Crit Care Med 2014;42(1): 57-65
100. Sim JA, Horowitz M, Summers MJ, et al. Mesenteric blood flow, glucose absorption and blood pressure responses to small intestinal glucose in critically ill patients older than 65 years. Intensive Care Med 2013;39:258-66
101. Deane AM, Summers MJ, Zaknic AV, et al. Exogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 attenuates the glycaemic response to postpyloric nutrient infusion in critically ill patients with Type-2 diabetes. Crit Care 2011;15:R35
102. Deane AM, Summers MJ, Zaknic AV, et al. Glucose absorption and small intestinal transit in critical illness. Crit Care Med 2011;39(6):1282-8
103. Deane AM, Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, et al. Effects of exogenous glucagon-like peptide- 1 on gastric emptying and glucose absorption in the critically ill: relationship to glycemia. Crit Care Med 2010;38:1261-9
104. Deane AM, Chapman MJ, Fraser RJ, et al. The effect of exogenous glucagon-like peptide-1 on the glycaemic response to small intestinal nutrient in the critically ill: a randomised double-blind placebocontrolled cross over study. Crit Care 2009;13:R67
105. Messing B, Crenn P, Beau P, et al. Long-term survival and parenteral nutrition dependence in adult patients with the short bowel syndrome. Gastroenterology 1999;117:1043-50
106. Madsen KB, Askov-Hansen C, Naimi RM, et al. Acute effects of continuous infusions of glucagon-like peptide (GLP)-1, GLP-2 and the combination (GLP-1+GLP- 2) on intestinal absorption in short bowel syndrome (SBS) patients. A placebocontrolled study. Regul Pept 2013;184:30-9
107. Sato S, Hokari R, Kurihara C, et al. Dietary lipids and sweeteners regulate glucagon-like peptide-2 secretion. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2013;304: G708-14
108. Cheeseman CI. Upregulation of SGLT-1 transport activity in rat jejunum induced by GLP-2 infusion in vivo. Am J Physiol 1997;273:R1965-71
109. Au A, Gupta A, Schembri P, Cheeseman CI. Rapid insertion of GLUT2 into the rat jejunal brush-border membrane promoted by glucagon-like peptide 2. Biochem J 2002;367:247-54
110. Burness CB, McCormack PL. Teduglutide: a review of its use in the treatment of patients with short bowel syndrome. Drugs 2013;73:935-47
111. Vipperla K, O'Keefe SJ. Study of teduglutide effectiveness in parenteral nutrition-dependent short-bowel syndrome subjects. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;7(8):683-7
112. Samsom M, Jebbink RJ, Akkermans LM, et al. Abnormalities of antroduodenal motility in Type I diabetes. Diabetes Care 1996;19:21-7
113. Horowitz M, Jones KL, Rayner CK, Read NW. 'Gastric' hypoglycaemia-an important concept in diabetes management. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2006;18:405-7
114. Linnebjerg H, Park S, Kothare PA, et al. Effect of exenatide on gastric emptying and relationship to postprandial glycemia in Type 2 diabetes. Regul Pept 2008;151: 123-9
115. Tolessa T, Gutniak M, Holst JJ, et al. Inhibitory effect of glucagon-like peptide- 1 on small bowel motility. Fasting but not fed motility inhibited via nitric oxide independently of insulin and somatostatin. J Clin Invest 1998;102:764-74
116. Adachi T, Mori C, Sakurai K, et al. Morphological changes and increased sucrase and isomaltase activity in small intestines of insulin-deficient and type 2 diabetic rats. Endocr J 2003;50: 271-9
117. Dyer J, Wood IS, Palejwala A, et al. Expression of monosaccharide transporters in intestine of diabetic humans. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;282: G241-8
118. Gentilcore D, Bryant B, Wishart JM, et al. Acarbose attenuates the hypotensive response to sucrose and slows gastric emptying in the elderly. Am J Med 2005;118:1289
119. Young RL, Chia B, Isaacs NJ, et al. Disordered control of intestinal sweet taste receptor expression and glucose absorption in Type 2 diabetes. Diabetes 2013;62: 3532-41
120. Ait-Omar A, Monteiro-Sepulveda M, Poitou C, et al. GLUT2 accumulation in enterocyte apical and intracellular membranes: a study in morbidly obese human subjects and ob/ob and high fat-fed mice. Diabetes 2011;60:2598-607
121. Turnbaugh PJ, Ley RE, Mahowald MA, et al. An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 2006;444:1027-31