Differences in Emotional Labor Across Cultures: A Comparison of Chinese and U.S. Service Workers

Journal of Business and Psychology

Volumn 29, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 21-35

  Allen, Joseph A ^a   Diefendorff, James M ^b   Ma, Yufeng ^c  

^a CREIGHTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF AKRON   (United States)

^c SINOPEC   (China)

Author keywords

Affectivity; Cultural differences; Emotional exhaustion; Emotional labor

Indexed keywords

EID: 84893872842     PISSN: 08893268     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10869-013-9288-7     Document Type: Article

References (49)

1. Allen, J. A., Pugh, S. D., Grandey, A. A., & Groth, M. (2010). Display rules and emotional labor: The moderating role of customer orientation. Human Performance, 23(2), 101-115. doi: 10. 1080/08959281003621695.
2. Best, R. G., Downey, R. G., & Jones, R. G. (1997, April). Incumbent perceptions of emotional workrequirements. Paper presented at the 12th annual conference of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, St. Louis, MO.
3. Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is the "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83-93. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 71. 1. 83.
4. Brislin, R. W. (1970). Back-translation for cross-cultural research. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 1(3), 185-216. doi: 10. 1177/135910457000100301.
5. Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of "people work". Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 17-39. doi: 10. 1006/jvbe. 2001. 1815.
6. Brotheridge, C. M., & Lee, R. T. (2003). Development and validation of the Emotional Labour Scale. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 76, 365-379. doi: 10. 1348/096317903769647229.
7. Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion regulation and culture: Are the social consequences of emotion suppression culture-specific? Emotion, 7(1), 30-48. doi: 10. 1037/1528-3542. 7. 1. 30.
8. Byrne, B. M., Shavelson, R. J., & Muthen, B. (1989). Testing for equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105(3), 456-466. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 105. 3. 456.
9. Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (1998). Cross-cultural comparisons using non-invariant measurement items. Applied Behavioral Science Review, 6(1), 93-110. doi: 10. 1016/S1068-8595(99)80006-3.
10. Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (1999). Testing factorial invariance across groups: A reconceptualization and proposed new method. Journal of Management, 25(1), 1-27. doi: 10. 1177/014920639902500101.
11. Cheung, G. W., Murrmann, K. F., Murrmann, S. K., & Becker, C. (2004). Noninvariant measurement versus traditional approaches for studying cultural differences: A case of service expectations. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research, 28, 375-390. doi: 10. 1177/1096348004265282.
12. Cote, S. (2005). A social interaction model of the effects of emotion regulation on work strain. Academy of Management Review, 30(3), 509-530. doi: 10. 5465/AMR. 2005. 17293692.
13. Diefendorff, J. M., & Richard, E. M. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 284-294. doi: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 88. 2. 284.
14. Diefendorff, J. M., Croyle, M. H., & Gosserand, R. H. (2005). The dimensionality and antecedents of emotional labor strategies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66, 339-357. doi: 10. 1016/j. jvb. 2004. 02. 001.
15. Diefendorff, J. M., Erickson, R. E., Grandey, A. A., & Dahling, J. J. (2011). Emotional display rules as work unit norms: A multilevel analysis of emotional labor among nurses. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16, 170-186. doi: 10. 1037/a0021725.
16. Eid, M., & Diener, E. (2001). Norms for experiencing emotions in different cultures: Inter- and intranational differences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(5), 869-885. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 81. 5. 869.
17. Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95-110. doi: 10. 1037/1076-8998. 5. 1. 95.
18. Grandey, A. A. (2003). When "the show must go on": Surface acting and deep acting as determinants of emotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46, 86-96. doi: 10. 2307/30040678.
19. Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., Mattila, A. S., Jansen, K. J., & Sideman, L. A. (2005a). Is "service with a smile" enough? Authenticity of positive displays during service encounters. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 96, 38-55. doi: 10. 1016/j. obhdp. 2004. 08. 002.
20. Grandey, A. A., Fisk, G. M., & Steiner, D. D. (2005b). Must "service with a smile" be stressful? The moderating role of personal control for American and French employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(5), 893-904. doi: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 90. 5. 893.
21. Grandey, A., Rafaeli, A., Ravid, S., Wirtz, J., & Steiner, D. (2010). Emotion display rules at work in the global service economy: The special case of the customer. Journal of Service Management, 21(3), 388-412. doi: 10. 1108/09564231011050805.
22. Grandey, A. A., Diefendorff, J. M., & Rupp, D. E. (2013). Emotional labor: Overview of definitions, theories, and evidence. In A. A. Grandey, J. M. Diefendorff, & D. E. Rupp (Eds.), Emotional labor in the 21st century: Diverse perspectives on emotion regulation at work. New York: Psychology Press/Routledge.
23. Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224-237. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 74. 1. 224.
24. Hanser, A. (2005). The gendered rice bowl: The sexual politics of service work in urban China. Gender & Society, 19(5), 581-600. doi: 10. 1177/0891243205276794.
25. Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press.
26. Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. London: Sage.
27. Hülsheger, U. R., & Shewe, A. F. (2011). On the costs and benefits of emotional labor: A meta-analysis of three decades research. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 16(3), 361-389. doi: 10. 1037/a0022876.
28. Johnson, R. E., Selenta, C., & Lord, R. G. (2006). When organizational justice and the self-concept meet: Consequences for the organization and its members. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99, 175-201. doi: 10. 1016/j. obhdp. 2005. 07. 005.
29. Leu, J., Mesquita, B., Ellsworth, P. C., ZhiYoung, Z., Huijuan, Y., Buchtel, E., et al. (2010). Situational differences in dialectical emotions: Boundary conditions in a cultural comparison of North Americans and East Asians. Cognition and Emotion, 24(3), 419-435. doi: 10. 1080/02699930802650911.
30. Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224-253. doi: 10. 1037/0033-295X. 98. 2. 224.
31. Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The Maslach Burnout Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
32. Masuda, T., Ellsworth, P. C., Mesquita, B., Leu, J., Tanida, S., & van de Veerdonk, E. (2008). Placing the face in context: Cultural differences in the perception of facial emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(3), 365-381. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 94. 3. 365.
33. Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Nakagawa, S. (2008). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925-937. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 94. 6. 92.
34. Mesquita, B. (2000). Emotions in collectivist and individualist contexts. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 68-74. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 80. 1. 68.
35. Mesquita, B., & Delvaux, E. (2013). A cultural perspective on emotion labor. In A. A. Grandey, J. M. Diefendorff, & D. E. Rupp (Eds.), Emotional labor in the 21st century: Diverse perspectives on emotion regulation at work. New York: Psychology Press/Routledge.
36. Mesquita, B., & Frijda, N. H. (1992). Cultural variations in emotions: A review. Psychological Bulletin, 112(2), 179-204. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 112. 2. 179.
37. Mesquita, B., & Walker, R. (2003). Cultural differences in emotions: A context for interpreting emotional experiences. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 777-793. doi: 10. 1016/S0005-7967(02)00189-4.
38. Milfont, T. L., & Fischer, R. (2010). Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3(1), 111-121.
39. Noon, J. M., & Lewis, J. R. (1992). Therapeutic strategies and outcomes: Perspectives from different cultures. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 65, 107-117. doi: 10. 1111/j. 2044-8341. 1992. tb01691. x.
40. Oetzel, J., Ting-Toomey, S., Masumoto, T., Yokochi, Y., Pan, X., Takai, J., et al. (2001). Face and facework in conflict: A cross-cultural comparison of China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Communication Monographs, 68(3), 235-258. doi: 10. 1080/03637750128061.
41. Otis, E. M. (2008). Beyond the industrial paradigm: Market-embedded labor and the gender organization of global service work in China. American Sociological Review, 73, 15-36. doi: 10. 1177/000312240807300102.
42. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903. doi: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 88. 5. 879.
43. Rafaeli, A., & Sutton, R. I. (1987). Expression of emotion as part of the work role. Academy of Management Review, 12(1), 23-37. doi: 10. 2307/i302988.
44. Reise, S. P., Widaman, K. F., & Pugh, R. H. (1993). Confirmatory factor analysis and item response theory: Two approaches for exploring measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 114, 552-566. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 114. 3. 552.
45. Rupp, D. E., & Spencer, S. (2006). When customers lash out: The effects of customer interactional injustice on emotional labor and the mediating role of discrete emotions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(4), 971-978. doi: 10. 1037/0021-9010. 91. 4. 971.
46. Safdar, S., Friedlmeier, W., Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., Kwantes, C. T., Kakai, H., et al. (2008). Variations of emotional display rules within and across cultures: A comparison between Canada, USA, and Japan. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 41(1), 1-10. doi: 10. 1037/a0014387.
47. Uchida, Y., Kitayama, S., Mesquita, B., Reyes, J. A. S., & Morling, B. (2008). Is perceived emotional support beneficial? Well-being and health in independent and interdependent cultures. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 741-754. doi: 10. 1177/0146167208315157.
48. Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A Review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4-70. doi: 10. 1177/109442810031002.
49. Yoo, B., & Donthu, N. (2011). Testing cross-cultural invariance of the brand equity creation process. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 11(6), 380-398. doi: 10. 1108/10610420210445505.