Contaminants in organic and conventional food: The missing link between contaminant levels and health effects

Health Benefits of Organic Food: Effects of the Environment

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 119-144

  Svendsen, C ^a   Ragas, A M J ^b   Dorne, J L C M ^c  

^a CENTRE FOR ECOLOGY AND HYDROLOGY   (United Kingdom)

^b RADBOUD UNIVERSITY NIJMEGEN   (Netherlands)

^c EUROPEAN FOOD SAFETY AUTHORITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890298163     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (107)

1. Altenburger, R., Backhaus, T., Boedeker, W., Faust, M., Scholz, M. and Grimme, L.H. (2000) Predictability of the toxicity of multiple chemical mixtures to Vibrio fischeri: mixtures composed of similarly acting chemicals. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19, 2341-2347.
2. Axelrod, D., Burns, K., Davis, D., Von Larebeke, N. (2004) 'Hormesis' - an inappropriate extrapolation from the specific to the universal. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 10, 335-339.
3. Backhaus, T., Altenburger, R., Boedeker, W., Faust, M., Scholze, M. and Grimme, L.H. (2000) Predicitability of the toxicity of a multiple mixture of dissimilarly acting chemicals to Vibrio fischeri. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 19, 2348-2356.
4. Backhaus, T., Arrhenius, A. and Blank, H. (2004) Toxicity of a mixture of dissimilarly acting substances to natural algal communities: predictive power and limitations of independent action and concentration addition. Environmental Science and Technology 38, 6363-6370.
5. Baker, B.P., Benbrook, C.M., Groth, III E. and Lutz Benbrook, K. (2002) Pesticide residues in conventional, integrated pest management (IPM)-grown and organic foods: insights from three US data sets. Food Additives and Contaminants 19, 427-446.
6. Baert, K., De Meulenaer, B., Verdonck, F., Huybrechts, I., De Henauw, S., Vanrolleghem, P.A., Debevere, J. and Devlieghere, F. (2007) Variability and un - certainty assessment of patulin exposure for preschool children in Flanders. Food and Chemical Toxicology 45, 1745-1751.
7. Bernard, A., Hermans, C., Broeckaert, F., De Poorter, G., De Cock, A. and Houins, G. (1999) Food contamination by PCBs and dioxins. Nature 401, 231-232.
8. Bitaud, C. (2000) Study on pesticide residues in organic food products in France. In: Alfoldi, T., Lockeretz, W. and Niggli, U. (eds) IFOAM 2000 - The World Grows Organic - Proceedings of the 13th International IFOAM Scientific Conference. IOS Press, Basel, Switzerland.
9. Bliss, C.I. (1939) The toxicity of poisons applied jointly. Annals of Applied Biology 26, 585-615.
10. Bourn, D. and Prescott, J. (2002) A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 42, 1-34.
11. Brake, A. and Krause, W. (1992) Decreasing quality of semen. British Medical Journal 305, 1498.
12. BVL (Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit) (2007) Nationale Berichterstattung Pflanzenschutzmittel-Rückstände 2005. Zusammenfassung der Ergebnisse des Jahres 2005 aus Deutschland. Braunschweig, Germany (in German). Available at: http://www.bvl.bund.de/
13. Calabrese, E.J. and Baldwin, L.A. (2001) The frequency of U-shaped dose responses in the toxicological literature. Toxicological Sciences 62, 330-338.
14. Calabrese, E.J. and Baldwin, L.A. (2002) Hormesis and high-risk groups. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 35, 414-428.
15. Calabrese, E.J. and Baldwin, L.A. (2003a) Toxicology rethinks its central belief. Nature 421, 691-692.
16. Calabrese, E.J. and Baldwin, L.A. (2003b) The hormetic dose-response model is more common than the threshold model in toxicology. Toxicological Sciences 71, 246-250.
17. Calabrese, E.J., Staudenmayer, J.W., Stanek, E.J. and Hoffmann, G.R. (2006) Hormesis outperforms threshold model in National Cancer Institute antitumor drug screening database. Toxicological Sciences 94, 368-378.
18. Calabrese, E.J., Bachmann, K.A., Bailer, A.J. et al. (2007) Biological stress response terminology: integrating the concepts of adaptive response and preconditioning stress within a hormetic dose-response framework. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 222, 122-128.
19. Carlsen, E., Giwercman, A., Keiding, N. and Skakkebaek, N.E. (1992) Evidence for decreasing quality of semen during past 50 years. British Medical Journal 305, 609-613.
20. Carpy, S.A., Kobel, W. and Doe, J. (2000) Health risk of low-dose pesticides mixtures: a review of the 1985-1998 literature on combination toxicology and health risk assessment. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Part B Critical Reviews 3, 1-25.
21. CEC (Commission of the European Communities) (2007) Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Products of Plant Origin in the European Union, Norway, Iceland and Liechtenstein 2005. Part II - Annex 1. Commission Staff Working Document, SEC(2007) 1411, Brussels.
22. Cedergreen, N., Ritz, C. and Streibig, J.C. (2005) Improved empirical models describing hormesis. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24, 3166-3172.
23. Colborn, T., Dumanoski, D. and Myers, J.P. (1996) Our Stolen Future: Are We Threatening Our Fertility, Intelligence, and Survival? - A Scientific Detective Story. Penguin Books, London.
24. Crump, K.S. (1984) A new method for determining allowable daily intakes. Fundamental and Applied Toxicology 4, 854-871.
25. Curl, C.L., Fenske, R.A. and Elgethun, K. (2003) Organophosphorus pesticide exposure of urban and suburban preschool children with organic and conventional diets. Environmental Health Perspectives 111, 377-382.
26. CVBW (Chemische und Veterinäruntersuchu ngsämter Baden-Württemberg) (2007) Organic Monitoring Summary Report 2002-2006. Stuttgart, Germany.
27. De Martin, S. and Restani, P. (2003) Determination of nitrates by a novel ion chromatographic method: occurrence in leafy vegetables (organic and conventional) and exposure assessment for Italian consumers. Food Additives and Contaminants 20, 787-792.
28. Dorne, J.L.C.M. (2004) Impact of interindividual differences in drug metabolism and pharmacokinetics on safetyevaluation. Fundamental and Clinical Pharmacology 18, 609-620.
29. Dorne, J.L.C.M. (2007) Human variability in hepatic and renal elimination: implications for risk assessment. Journal of Applied Toxicology 27, 411-420.
30. Dorne, J.L.C.M. and Renwick, A.G. (2005) The refinement of uncertainty/safety factors in risk assessment by the incorporation of data on toxicokinetic variability in humans. Toxicological Sciences 86, 20-26.
31. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Walton, K. and Renwick, A.G. (2001a) Uncertainty factors for chemical risk assessment: human variability in the pharmacokinetics of CYP1A2 probe substrates. Food and Chemical Toxicology 39, 681-696.
32. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Walton, K. and Renwick, A.G. (2001b) Human variability in glucuronidation in relation to uncertainty factors for risk assessment. Food and Chemical Toxicology 39, 1153-1173.
33. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Walton, K., Slob, W. and Renwick, A.G. (2002) Human variability in polymorphic CYP2D6 metabolism: is the kinetic default uncertainty factor adequate? Food and Chemical Toxicology 40, 1633-1656.
34. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Walton, K. and Renwick, A.G. (2003) Polymorphic CYP2C19 and Nacetylation: human variability in kinetics and pathway-related uncertainty factors. Food and Chemical Toxicology 41, 225-245.
35. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Walton, K. and Renwick, A.G. (2005) Human variability in xenobiotic metabolism and pathway-related uncertainty factors for chemical risk assessment: a review. Food and Chemical Toxicology 43, 203-216.
36. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Ragas, A.M.J. and Lokke, H. (2006) Harmonisation of uncertainty factors in human and ecological risk assessment. Toxicology, 226, 77-78.
37. Dorne, J.L.C.M., Skinner, L., Frampton, G.K., Spurgeon, D.J. and Ragas, A.M.J. (2007) Human and environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals: differences, similarities, lessons from toxicology. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, 387, 1259-1268.
38. Dourson, M.L., Felter, S.P. and Robinson, D. (1996) Evolution of science-based uncertainty factors in noncancer risk assessment. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 24, 108-120.
39. Drotman, D.P., Baxter, P.J., Liddle, J.A., Brokopp, C.D. and Skinner, M.D. (1983) Contamination of the food chain by polychlorinated biphenyls from a broker transformer. American Journal of Public Health 73, 290-292.
40. EC (European Commission) (2008) What is organic farming? Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/qual/organic/def/index_en.htm
41. EFSA (European Food Safety Authority) (2005) Opinion of the scientific committee on a request from EFSA related to a harmonized approach for risk assessment of substances which are both genotoxic and carcinogenic. The EFSA Journal 282, 1-31.
42. EFSA (2008) Panel on contaminants in the food chain. Available at: http://www.efsa. europa.eu/EFSA/ScientificPanels/efsa_ locale-1178620753812_CONTAM.htm
43. Elbaz, A. and Tranchant, C. (2007) Epidemiologic studies of environmental exposures in Parkinson's disease. Journal of the Neurological Sciences 262, 37-44.
44. Fontcuberta, M., Arques, J.F., Villalbi, J.R., Martinez, M., Centrich, F., Serrahima, E., Pineda, L., Duran, J. and Casas, C. (2007) Chlorinated organic pesticides in marketed food: Barcelona, 2001-06. Science of the Total Environment 389, 52-57.
45. Fries, G.F. and Paustenbach, D.J. (1990) Evaluation of potential transmission of 2, 3, 7, 8-tetrachlorodibenzo-pdioxin-contaminated incinerator emissions to humans via foods. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 29, 1-43.
46. Fürst, P., Fürst, C. and Wilmer, K. (1993) PCDD/PCDF in commercial chicken eggs - dependence on the type of housing. Organohalogen Compounds 13, 31-34.
47. Hajslova, J., Schulzova, V., Slanina, P., Janne, K., Hellenas, K.E. and Andersson, C. (2005) Quality of organically and conventionally grown potatoes: four-year study of micronutrients, metals, secondary metabolites, enzymic browning and organoleptic properties. Food Additives and Contaminants 22, 514-534.
48. Harcz, P., De Temmerman, L., De Voghel, S., Waegeneers, N., Wilmart, O., Vromman, V., Schmit, J.F., Moons, E., Van Peteghem, C., De Saeger, S., Schneider, Y.J., Larondelle, Y. and Pussemier, L. (2007a) Contaminants in organically and conventionally produced winter wheat (Triticum aestivum) in Belgium. Food Additives and Contaminants 24, 713-720.
49. Harcz, P., Tangni, E.K., Wilmart, O., Moons, E., Van Peteghem, C., De Saeger, S., Schneider, Y.J., Larondelle, Y. and Pussemier, L. (2007b) Intake of ochratoxin A and deoxynivalenol through beer consumption in Belgium. Food Additives and Contaminants 24, 910-916.
50. Hoogenboom, L.A.P., Bokhorst, J.G., Northolt, M.D., Broex, N.J.G., Mevius, D., Meijs, J. A.C. and Van der Roest, J. (2006) Contaminanten en micro-organismen in biologische producten. Vergelijking met gangbare producten. Report nr. 2006.002, RIKILT - Institute of Food Safety, Wageningen, The Netherlands (in Dutch).
51. Jolly, D.A., Schutz, H.G., Diazknauf, K.V. and Johal, J. (1989) Organic foods - Consumer attitudes and use. Food Technology 43, 60-66.
52. Jonker, M.J., Svendsen, C., Bedaux, J.J.M., Bongers, M. and Kammenga, J.E. (2005) Significance testing of synergistic/antagonistic, dose level-dependent, or dose ratio-dependent effects in mixture dose-response analysis. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 24, 2701-2713
53. Kaiser, J. (2003) Sipping from a poisoned chalice. Science 302, 376-379.
54. Karavoltsos, S., Sakellari, A., Dassenakis, M. and Scoullos, M. (2008) Cadmium and lead in organically produced foodstuffs from the Greek market. Food Chemistry 106, 843-851.
55. Khanjani, N., Hoving, J.L., Forbes, A.B. and Sim, M.R. (2007) Systematic review and meta-analysis of cyclodiene insecticides and breast cancer. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part C - Environmental Carcinogenesis and Ecotoxicology Reviews 25, 23-52.
56. Kooijman, S.A.L.M. and Troost, T.A. (2007) Quantitative steps in the evolution of metabolic organisation as specified by the dynamic energy budget theory. Biological Reviews 82, 113-142.
57. Kumpulainen, J. (2001) Organic and conventional grown foodstuffs: nutritional and toxicological quality comparisons. Proceedings of the International Fertiliser Society 472, 1-20.
58. Lea, E. and Worsley, T. (2005) Australians' organic food beliefs, demographics and values. British Food Journal 107, 855-869.
59. Leblanc, J.C., Malmauret, L., Delobel, D. and Verger, P. (2002) Simulation of the exposure to deoxynivalenol of French consumers of organic and conventional foodstuffs. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 36, 149-154.
60. Lehman, A.J. and Fitzhugh, O.G. (1954) 100-fold margin of safety. Association of Food and Drug Officials. US Quarterly Bulletin 18, 33-35.
61. Loewe, S. and Muischnek, H. (1926) Über Kombinations-wirkungen. Mitteiling: Hilfsmittel der Fragestellung. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Archiv für Experimentelle Pathoogie und Pharmakologie 114, 313-326.
62. Lu, C.S., Toepel, K., Irish, R., Fenske, R.A., Barr, D.B. and Bravo, R. (2006a) Organic diets significantly lower children's dietary exposure to organophosphorus pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 114, 260-263.
63. Lu, C.S., Barr, D.B., Pearson, M., Bartell, S. and Bravo, R. (2006b) A longitudinal approach to assessing urban and suburban children's exposure to pyrethroid pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 114, 1419-1423.
64. Magkos, F., Arvaniti, F. and Zampelas, A. (2006) Organic food: buying more safety or just peace of mind? A critical review of the literature. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 46, 23-56.
65. Malmauret, L., Parent-Massin, D., Hardy, J.L. and Verger, P. (2002) Contaminants in organic and conventional foodstuffs in France. Food Additives and Contaminants 19, 524-532.
66. Mathur, V., Bhatnagar, P., Sharma, R.G., Acharya, V. and Sexana, R. (2002) Breast cancer incidence and exposure to pesticides among women originating from Jaipur. Environment International 28, 331-336.
67. McCarty, L.S. and Borgert, C.J. (2006) Review of the toxicity of chemical mixtures containing at least one organochlorine. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 45, 104-118.
68. McGowan, R. (2003) Victorian Produce Monitoring 2002 - Results of Victorian Government Chemical Residue Testing of Fresh Produce. State Government of Victoria, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia. Available at: http://www.dpi.vic.gov.au/
69. Moser, V.C., Simmons, J.E. and Gennings, C. (2006) Neurotoxicological interactions of a five-pesticide mixture in preweanling rats. Toxicological Sciences 92, 235-245.
70. O'Brien, J., Renwick, A.G., Constable, A., Dybing, E., Muller, D.J.G., Schlatter, J., Slob, W., Tueting, W., Van Benthem, J., Williams, G.M. and Wolfreys, A. (2006) Approaches to the risk assessment of genotoxic carcinogens in food: a critical appraisal. Food and Chemical Toxicology 44, 1613-1635.
71. Oliva, A., Spira, A. and Multigner, L. (2001) Contribution of environmental factors to the risk of male infertility. Human Reproduction 16, 1768-1776.
72. Olsson, I.M., Jonsson, S. and Oskarsson, A. (2001) Cadmium and zinc in kidney, liver, muscle and mammary tissue from dairy cows in conventional and organic farming. Journal of Environmental Monitoring 3, 531-538.
73. Piemontese, L., Solfrizzo, M. and Visconti, A. (2005) Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment. Food Additives and Contaminants 22, 437-442.
74. PSD (Pesticide Safety Directorate) (2001) Data Requirements Handbook. Available at: http://www.pesticides.gov.uk
75. Pussemier, L., Mohimont, L., Huyghebaert, A. and Goeyens, L. (2004) Enhanced levels of dioxins in eggs from free range hens; a fast evaluation approach. Talanta 63, 1273-1276.
76. Pussemier, L., Larondelle, Y., Carlos, V.P.C. and Huyghebaert, A. (2006) Chemical safety of conventionally and organically produced foodstuffs: a tentative comparison under Belgian conditions. Food Control 17, 14-21.
77. Ragas, A.M.J. (2000) Uncertainty in environmental quality standards. PhD thesis, Radboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
78. Renwick, A.G. (1993) Data-derived safety factors for the evaluation of food additives and environmental contaminants. Food Additives and Contaminants 10, 275-305.
79. Renwick, A.G. (2002) Pesticide residue analysis and its relationship to hazard characterisation (ADI/RfD) and intake estimations (NEDI/NESTI). Pest Management Science 58, 1073-1082.
80. Renwick, A.G. and Lazarus, N.R. (1998) Human variability and noncancer risk assessment - An analysis of the default uncertainty factor. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 27, 3-20.
81. Rohner Thielen, E. (2005) Statistics in Focus, Agriculture and Fisheries, 31/2005. Eurostat, Luxembourg.
82. Schoeters, G. and Hoogenboom, R. (2006) Contamination of free-range chicken eggs with dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Molecular Nutrition and Food Research 50, 908-914.
83. Schuler, F., Schmid, P. and Schlatter, C. (1997) The transfer of PCDD and PCDF from soil into eggs of foraging chicken. Chemosphere 34, 711-718.
84. Sherins, R.J. (1995) Are semen quality and male fertility changing? The New England Journal of Medicine 332, 327-328.
85. Soil Association (2008) Our organic standards. Available at: http://www.soilassociation.org/web/sa/saweb.nsf/Living/organic_standards.html
86. Spadaro, D., Ciavorella, A., Frati, S., Garibaldi, A. and Gullino, M.L. (2007) Incidence and level of patulin contamination in pure and mixed apple juices marketed in Italy. Food Control 18, 1098-1102.
87. Stebbing, A.R.D. (1981) Hormesis - Stimulation of colony growth in Campanularia-Flexuosa (Hydrozoa) by copper, cadmium and other toxicants. Aquatic Toxicology 1, 227-238.
88. Stebbing, A.R.D. (2003) A mechanism for hormesis - A problem in the wrong discipline. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 33, 463-467.
89. Tasiopoulou, S., Chiodini, A.M., Vellere, F. and Visentin, S. (2007) Results of the monitoring program of pesticide residues in organic food of plant origin in Lombardy (Italy). Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B - Pesticides, Food Contaminants and Agricultural Waste 42, 835-841.
90. Thayer, K.A., Melnick, R., Burns, K., Davis, D. and Huff, J. (2005) Fundamental flaws of hormesis for public health decisions. Environmental Health Perspectives 113, 1271-1276.
91. Truhaut, R. (1991) The concept of the acceptable daily intake: an historical review. Food Additives and Contaminants 8, 151-162.
92. UK Pesticide Residues Committee (2007) Annual Report of the Pesticide Residues Committee 2006. Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, UK.
93. USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) (2007) Organic production. USDA Economic Research Service Data Sets. Available at: http://www.ers.usda.gov/Data/Organic/index.htm#tables
94. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2000) Supplementary Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures. EPA/630/R-00/002, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
95. US EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) (2003) Framework for Cumulative Risk Assessment. EPA/630/P-02/001F, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
96. Vermeire, T., Stevenson, H., Pieters, M.N., Rennen, M., Slob, W. and Hakkert, B.C. (1999) Assessment factors for human health risk assessment: a discussion paper. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 29, 439-490.
97. VWA (Voedsel en Waren Autoriteit) (2006) Report of Pesticide Residue Monitoring Results of the Netherlands for 2006. Food and Consumer Product Safety Authority (VWA), Den Haag, The Netherlands.
98. Wade, M.G., Foster, W.G., Younglai, E.V., Mcmahon, A., Leingartner, K., Yagminas, A., Blakey, D., Fournier, M., Desaulniers, D. and Hughes, C.L. (2002) Effects of subchronic exposure to a complex mixture of persistent contaminants in male rats: systemic, immune, and reproductive effects. Toxicological Sciences 67, 131-143.
99. Wikipedia contributors (2007) Organic farming. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_farming.
100. Williams, C.M. (2002) Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 61, 19-24.
101. Williams, P.R.D. and Hammitt, J.K. (2001) Perceived risks of conventional and organic produce: pesticides, pathogens, and natural toxins. Risk Analysis 21, 319-330.
102. WHO (World Health Organization) (1987) Principles for the Safety Assessment of Food Additives and Contaminants in Food. International Programme on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria 70. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
103. WHO (World Health Organization) (2006) Principles for Evaluating Health Risks in Children Associated with Exposure to Chemicals. International Programme on Chemical Safety, Environmental Health Criteria 237. WHO, Geneva, Switzerland.
104. Woese, K., Lange, D., Boess, C. and Bogl, K.W. (1997) A comparison of organically and conventionally grown foods - results of a review of the relevant literature. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 74, 281-293.
105. Wolff, M.S., Toniolo, P.G., Lee, E.W., Rivera, M. and Dubin, N. (1993) Blood levels of organochlorine residues and risk of breast cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 85, 648-652.
106. Worthington, V. (1998) Effect of agricultural methods on nutritional quality: a comparison of organic with conventional crops. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine 4, 58-69.
107. Worthington, V. (2001) Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and grains. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 7, 161-173.