Pharmacogenetic testing: Current evidence of clinical utility

Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety

Volumn 4, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 155-169

  Moaddeb, Jivan ^a   Haga, Susanne B ^a  

^a DUKE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

abacavir; clopidogrel; codeine; pharmacogenetics; testing; warfarin

Indexed keywords

ABACAVIR; CLOPIDOGREL; CODEINE; CYTOCHROME P450 2C19; CYTOCHROME P450 2C9; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; FIBRINOGEN RECEPTOR; GAMMA INTERFERON; HLA B57 ANTIGEN; MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY ANTIGEN CLASS 1; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; WARFARIN;

ANTICOAGULANT THERAPY; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; COST CONTROL; COST EFFECTIVENESS ANALYSIS; DRUG COST; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG RESPONSE; DRUG SAFETY; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETIC POLYMORPHISM; GENETIC SCREENING; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GENOTYPE; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; INSURANCE; INTERNATIONAL NORMALIZED RATIO; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); PATIENT MONITORING; PHARMACOGENETICS; PHENOTYPE; PLATELET REACTIVITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTHROMBIN TIME; PUERPERIUM; REIMBURSEMENT; REVIEW; SLEEP DISORDERED BREATHING; T LYMPHOCYTE ACTIVATION; THROMBOEMBOLISM; TREATMENT OUTCOME; VIRUS LOAD; VULNERABLE POPULATION;

EID: 84890164639     PISSN: 20420986     EISSN: 20420994     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/2042098613485595     Document Type: Article

References (139)

1. Aberg J. Kaplan J. Libman H. Emmanuel P. Anderson J. Stone V. (2009) Primary care guidelines for the management of persons infected with human immunodeficiency virus: 2009 update by the HIV medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis 49: 651–681.
2. Aithal G. Day C. Kesteven P. Daly A. (1999) Association of polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 CYP2C9 with warfarin dose requirement and risk of bleeding complications. Lancet 353: 717–719.
3. Aklillu E. Persson I. Bertilsson L. Johansson I. Rodrigues F. IngelmanSundberg M. (1996) Frequent distribution of ultrarapid metabolizers of debrisoquine in an Ethiopian population carrying duplicated and multiduplicated functional CYP2D6 alleles. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 278: 441–446.
4. Alazraki M. (2011) The 10 Biggest-Selling Drugs That Are About to Lose Their Patent. Available at: http://www.dailyfinance.com/2011/02/27/top-selling-drugs-are-about-to-lose-patent-protection-ready/
5. Anderson J. Horne B. Stevens S. Grove A. Barton S. Nicholas Z. (2007) Randomized trial of genotype-guided versus standard warfarin dosing in patients initiating oral anticoagulation. Circulation 116: 2563–2570.
6. Anderson J. Horne B. Stevens S. Woller S. Samuelson K. Mansfield J. (2012) A randomized and clinical effectiveness trial comparing two pharmacogenetic algorithms and standard care for individualizing warfarin dosing (CoumaGen-II). Circulation 125: 1997–2005.
7. Anderson P. (1991) Drug-use during breast-feeding. Clin Pharm 10: 594–624.
8. Bartholow M. (2011) Top 200 drugs of 2010. Available at: http://www.pharmacytimes.com/publications/issue/2011/May2011/Top-200-Drugs-of-2010.
9. Bauer T. Bouman H. van Werkum J. Ford N. ten Berg J. Taubert D. (2011) Impact of CYP2C19 variant genotypes on clinical efficacy of antiplatelet treatment with clopidogrel: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ 343: d4588.
10. Bernard S. Neville K. Nguyen A. Flockhart D. (2006) Interethnic differences in genetic polymorphisms of CYP2D6 in the U.S. population: clinical implications. Oncologist 11: 126–135.
11. Bhatt D. Cryer B. Contant C. Cohen M. Lanas A. Schnitzer T. (2010) Clopidogrel with or without omeprazole in coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med 363: 1909–1917.
12. Bodin L. Verstuyft C. Tregouet D. Robert A. Dubert L. Funck-Brentano C. (2005) Cytochrome P450 2C9 (CYP2C9) and vitamin K epoxide reductase (VKORC1) genotypes as determinants of acenocoumarol sensitivity. Blood 106: 135–140.
13. Bouwmeester N. Anderson B. Tibboel D. Holford N. (2004) Developmental pharmacokinetics of morphine and its metabolites in neonates, infants and young children. Br J Anaesth 92: 208–217.
14. Bouwmeester N. Hop W. van Dijk M. Anand K. van den Anker J. Tibboel D. (2003) Postoperative pain in the neonate: age-related differences in morphine requirements and metabolism. Intensive Care Med 29: 2009–2015.
15. Bradford L. (2002) CYP2D6 allele frequency in European Caucasians, Asians, Africans and their descendants. Pharmacogenomics 3: 229–243.
16. Brousseau D. McCarver D. Drendel A. Divakaran K. Panepinto J. (2007) The effect of CYP2D6 polymorphisms on the response to pain treatment for pediatric sickle cell pain crisis. J Pediatr 150: 623–626.
17. Caraco Y. Blotnick S. Muszkat M. (2008) CYP2C9 genotype-guided warfarin prescribing enhances the efficacy and safety of anticoagulation: a prospective randomized controlled study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 83: 460–470.
18. Caraco Y. Sheller J. Wood A. (1996) Pharmacogenetic determination of the effects of codeine and prediction of drug interactions. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 278: 1165–1174.
19. Caremark (2010) CVS Caremark and Generation Health Online Target Medications That Will Be the Focus of New Pharmacogenomics Partnership. Available at: http://info.cvscaremark.com/newsroom/press-releases/cvs-caremark-and-generation-health-outline-target-medications-will-be-focus-.
20. Carlquist J. Anderson J. (2011) Using pharmacogenetics in real time to guide warfarin initiation: a clinician update. Circulation 124: 2554–2559.
21. Cascorbi I. (2003) Pharmacogenetics of cytochrome P4502D6: genetic background and clinical implication. Eur J Clin Investig 33: 17–22.
22. Cavallari L. Jeong H. Bress A. (2011) Role of cytochrome P450 genotype in the steps toward personalized drug therapy. Pharmacogenom Personalized Med 4: 123–136.
23. Charlot M. Ahlehoff O. Norgaard M. Jorgensen C. Sorensen R. Abildstrom S. (2010) Proton-pump inhibitors are associated with increased cardiovascular risk independent of clopidogrel use: a nationwide cohort study. Ann Intern Med 153: 378–386.
24. Chessman D. Kostenko L. Lethborg T. Purcell A. Williamson N. Chen Z. (2008) Human leukocyte antigen class I-restricted activation of CD8+ T cells provides the immunogenetic basis of a systemic drug hypersensitivity. Immunity 28: 822–832.
25. Ciszkowski C. Madadi P. Phillips M. Lauwers A. Koren G. (2009) Codeine, ultrarapid-metabolism genotype, and postoperative death. N Engl J Med 361: 827–828.
26. Classen D. Pestotnik S. Evans R. Lloyd J. Burke J. (1997) Adverse drug events in hospitalized patients. Excess length of stay, extra costs, and attributable mortality. JAMA 277: 301–306.
27. CMS (2009) CMS Manual System: Pub 100–03 Medicare National Coverage Determinations. Available at: http://www.cms.gov/Regulations-and-Guidance/Guidance/Transmittals/downloads/R111NCD.pdf.
28. CTAF (2008) Use of Genetic Testing to Guide the Initiation of Warfarin Therapy: A Technology Assessment. Available at: http://www.ctaf.org/sites/default/files/assessments/814_file_WarfarinGenetics_final_W.pdf
29. Cuisset T. Quilici J. Cohen W. Fourcade L. Saut N. Pankert M. (2011) Usefulness of high clopidogrel maintenance dose according to CYP2C19 genotypes in clopidogrel low responders undergoing coronary stenting for non ST elevation acute coronary syndrome. Amer J Cardiol 108: 760–765.
30. De Leon J. Armstrong S. Cozza K. (2006a) Clinical guidelines for psychiatrists for the use of pharmacogenetic testing for CYP450 2D6 and CYP4502C19. Psychosomatics 47: 75–85.
31. de Leon J. Susce M. Murray-Carmichael E. (2006b) The AmpliChip (TM) CYP450 genotyping test - integrating a new clinical tool. Mol Diagn Ther 10: 135–151.
32. Desta Z. Zhao X. Shin J. Flockhart D. (2002) Clinical significance of the cytochrome P450 2C19 genetic polymorphism. Clin Pharmacokinet 41: 913–958.
33. Do E. Lenzini P. Eby C. Bass A. McMillin G. Stevens S. (2011) Genetics informatics trial (GIFT) of warfarin to prevent deep vein thrombosis (DVT): rationale and study design. Pharmacogenomics J 12: 417–424.
34. Eckman M. Rosand J. Greenberg S. Gage B. (2009) Cost-effectiveness of using pharmacogenetic information in warfarin dosing for patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Ann Intern Med 150: 73–83.
35. Ellis K. Stouffer G. McLeod H. Lee C. (2009) Clopidogrel pharmacogenomics and risk of inadequate platelet inhibition: US FDA recommendations. Pharmacogenomics 10: 1799–1817.
36. Epstein R. Moyer T. Aubert R. Dj O. Xia F. Verbrugge R. (2010) Warfarin genotyping reduces hospitalization rates results from the MM-WES (Medco-Mayo Warfarin Effectiveness study). J Am Coll Cardiol 55: 2804–2812.
37. Fargher E. Tricker K. Newman W. Elliott R. Roberts S. Shaffer J. (2007) Current use of pharmacogenetic testing: a national survey of thiopurine methyltransferase testing prior to azathioprine prescription. J Clin Pharm Ther 32: 187–195.
38. Faruki H. Heine U. Brown T. Koester R. Lai-Goldman M. (2007) HLA-B*5701 clinical testing: early experience in the United States. Pharmacogenet Genom 17: 857–860.
39. Faruki H. Lai-Goldman M. (2010) Application of a pharmacogenetic test adoption model to six oncology biomarkers. Personalized Med 7: 441–450.
40. FDA (2005) Summary Minutes of the Clinical Pharmacology Subcommittee Meeting of the Advisory Committee for Pharmaceutical Science. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/AC/05/minutes/2005-4194M1.pdf.
41. FDA (2007a) Coumadin Package Insert. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2007/009218s105lblv2.pdf.
42. FDA (2007b) FDA News Release: FDA Warning on Codeine Use by Nursing Mothers, May Increase Chance of Serious Side Effects in Infants. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/2007/ucm108968.htm.
43. FDA (2007c) Fiorinal with Codeine Package Insert. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/019429s023lbl.pdf.
44. FDA (2008a) Information for Healthcare Professionals: Abacavir (marketed as Ziagen) and Abacavir-Containing Medications. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/ucm123927.htm.
45. FDA (2008b) ZIAGEN (abacavir sulfate) Package Insert. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2008/020977s017,020978s020lbl.pdf
46. FDA (2009) Early Communication about an Ongoing Safety Review of clopidogrel bisulfate (marketed as Plavix). Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/PostmarketDrugSafetyInformationforPatientsandProviders/DrugSafetyInformationforHeathcareProfessionals/ucm079520.htm.
47. FDA (2010a) Coumadin Package Insert. Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/009218s108lbl.pdf.
48. FDA (2010b) PLAVIX (clopidogrel bisulfate) Package Insert (revised August 2010) Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/020839s048lbl.pdf.
49. FDA (2010c) PLAVIX (clopidogrel bisulfate) Package Insert (revised March 2010). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2010/020839s042lbl.pdf.
50. FDA (2012a) Codeine Package Insert (revised April 2012). Available at: http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2012/022402s003lbl.pdf
51. FDA (2012b) FDA Drug Safety Communication: Codeine use in certain children after tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy may lead to rare, but life-threatening adverse events or death. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm313631.htm
52. FDA (2012c) Table of Pharmacogenomic Biomarkers in Drug Labels. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/Pharmacogenetics/ucm083378.htm.
53. Flockhart D. O–Kane D. Williams M. Watson M. Flockhart D. Gage B. (2008) Pharmacogenetic testing of CYP2C9 and VKORC1 alleles for warfarin. Genet Med 10: 139–150.
54. Flowers C. Veenstra D. (2004) The role of cost-effectiveness analysis in the era of pharmacogenomics. PharmacoEconomics 22: 481–493.
55. French B. Joo J. Geller N. Kimmel S. Rosenberg Y. Anderson J. (2010) Statistical design of personalized medicine interventions: The Clarification of Optimal Anticoagulation through Genetics (COAG) trial. Trials 11: 108.
56. Frueh F. (2009) Back to the future: why randomized controlled trials cannot be the answer to pharmacogenomics and personalized medicine. Pharmacogenomics 10: 1077–1081.
57. Frueh F. Amur S. Mummaneni P. Epstein R. Aubert R. DeLuca T. (2008) Pharmacogenomic biomarker information in drug labels approved by the United States food and drug administration: prevalence of related drug use. Pharmacotherapy 28: 992–998.
58. Gasche Y. Daali Y. Fathi M. Chiappe A. Cottini S. Dayer P. (2004) Codeine intoxication associated with ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolism. N Engl J Med 351(27): 2827–2831.
59. Gilard M. Arnaud B. Cornily J. Le Gal G. Lacut K. Le Calvez G. (2008) Influence of omeprazole on the antiplatelet action of clopidogrel associated with aspirin: the randomized, double-blind OCLA (Omeprazole CLopidogrel Aspirin) study. J Am Coll Cardiol 51: 256–260.
60. Gilard M. Arnaud B. Le Gal G. Abgrall J. Boschat J. (2006) Influence of omeprazol on the antiplatelet action of clopidogrel associated to aspirin. J Thrombosis Haemostasis 4: 2508–2509.
61. Gong I. Tirona R. Schwarz U. Crown N. Dresser G. Larue S. (2011) Prospective evaluation of a pharmacogenetics-guided warfarin loading and maintenance dose regimen for initiation of therapy. Blood 118: 3163–3171.
62. Guyatt G. Akl E. Crowther M. Schunemann H. Gutterman D. Zelman Lewis S. (2012) Introduction to the ninth edition: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141(2 Suppl.): 48S–52S.
63. Hale T. (2004) Maternal medications during breastfeeding. Clin Obstet Gynecol 47: 696–711.
64. Heneghan C. Ward A. Perera R. Bankhead C. Fuller A. Stevens R. (2012) Self-monitoring of oral anticoagulation: systematic review and meta-analysis of individual patient data. Lancet 379: 322–334.
65. Hetherington S. McGuirk S. Powell G. Cutrell A. Naderer O. Spreen B. (2001) Hypersensitivity reactions during therapy with the nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor abacavir. Clin Therapeut 23: 1603–1614.
66. Higashi M. Veenstra D. Kondo L. Wittkowsky A. Srinouanprachanh S. Farin F. (2002) Association between CYP2C9 genetic variants and anticoagulation-related outcomes during warfarin therapy. JAMA 287: 1690–1698.
67. Higgs J. Gambhir N. Ramsden S. Poulton K. Newman W. (2010) Pharmacogenetic testing in the United Kingdom genetics and immunogenetics laboratories. Genet Test Mol Biomarkers 14: 121–125.
68. Hirsh J. Guyatt G. Albers G. Harrington R. Schunemann H. (2008) Executive summary: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (8th Edition). Chest 133(6 Suppl.): 71S–109S.
69. Holbrook A. Schulman S. Witt D. Vandvik P. Fish J. Kovacs M. (2012) Evidence-based management of anticoagulant therapy: Antithrombotic Therapy and Prevention of Thrombosis, 9th ed: American College of Chest Physicians Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines. Chest 141(2 Suppl.): e152S–e184S.
70. Holmes M. Perel P. Shah T. Hingorani A. Casas J. (2011) CYP2C19 genotype, clopidogrel metabolism, platelet function, and cardiovascular events: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 306: 2704–2714.
71. Hoop J. Lapid M. Paulson R. Roberts L. (2010) Clinical and ethical considerations in pharmacogenetic testing: views of physicians in 3 “early adopting” departments of psychiatry. J Clin Psychiatry 71: 745–753.
72. Hresko A. Haga S. (2012) Insurance coverage policies for personalized medicine. J Personalized Med 2: 201–216.
73. Hughes D. Vilar F. Ward C. Alfirevic A. Park B. Pirmohamed M. (2004) Cost-effectiveness analysis of HLA B*5701 genotyping in preventing abacavir hypersensitivity. Pharmacogenetics 14: 335–342.
74. Hulot J. Bura A. Villard E. Azizi M. Remones V. Goyenvalle C. (2006) Cytochrome P450 2C19 loss-of-function polymorphism is a major determinant of clopidogrel responsiveness in healthy subjects. Blood 108: 2244–2247.
75. Ito S. Lee A. (2003) Drug excretion into breast milk - Overview. Adv Drug Delivery Rev 55: 617–627.
76. Jeong Y. Kim I. Park Y. Kang M. Koh J. Hwang S. (2010) Carriage of cytochrome 2C19 polymorphism is associated with risk of highpost-treatment platelet reactivity on high maintenance-dose clopidogrel of 150 mg/day results of the ACCEL-DOUBLE (Accelerated Platelet Inhibition by a Double Dose of Clopidogrel According to Gene Polymorphism) study. JACC - Cardiovasc Intervent 3: 731–741.
77. Jneid H. Anderson J. Wright R. Adams C. Bridges C. Casey D. Jr. (2012) 2012 ACCF/AHA focused update of the guideline for the management of patients with unstable angina/non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction (updating the 2007 guideline and replacing the 2011 focused update): a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 60: 645–681.
78. Johnson J.A. (2012) Warfarin pharmacogenetics: a rising tide for its clinical value. Circulation 1259: 1964–1966.
79. Johnson J. Gong L. Whirl-Carrillo M. Gage B. Scott S. Stein C. (2011) Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium Guidelines for CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes and warfarin dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther 90: 625–629.
80. Juurlink D. Gomes T. Ko D. Szmitko P. Austin P. Tu J. (2009) A population-based study of the drug interaction between proton pump inhibitors and clopidogrel. Can Med Assoc J 180: 713–718.
81. Kelly L. Rieder M. van den Anker J. Malkin B. Ross C. Neely M. (2012) More codeine fatalities after tonsillectomy in North American children. Pediatrics 129: e1343–e1347.
82. Klein T. Altman R. Eriksson N. Gage B. Kimmel S. Lee M. (2009) Estimation of the warfarin dose with clinical and pharmacogenetic data. N Engl J Med 360: 753–764.
83. Koren G. Cairns J. Chitayat D. Gaedigk A. Leeder S. (2006) Pharmacogenetics of morphine poisoning in a breastfed neonate of a codeine-prescribed mother. Lancet 368: 704.
84. Lai E. (2008) Presentation to FDA Advisory Committee for Pharmaceutical Science and Clinical Pharmacology: Incorporation of Pharmacogenetic in Healthcare, www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/08/slides/2008-4351s1-01-GuestSpeakers-corepresentation.ppt.
85. Lazarou J. Pomeranz B. Corey P. (1998) Incidence of adverse drug reactions in hospitalized patients: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. JAMA 279: 1200–1205.
86. Lesko L. Johnson J. (2012) Academia at the crossroads: education and training in pharmacogenomics. Personalized Med 9(5): 10.
87. Lesko L. Zineh I. Huang S. (2010) What is clinical utility and why should we care? Clin Pharmacol Ther 88: 729–733.
88. Li T. Chang C. Jin D. Lin P. Khvorova A. Stafford D. (2004) Identification of the gene for vitamin K epoxide reductase. Nature 427: 541–544.
89. Limdi N. McGwin G. Goldstein J. Beasley T. Arnett D. Adler B. (2008) Influence of CYP2C9 and VKORC1 1173C/T genotype on the risk of hemorrhagic complications in African-American and European-American patients on warfarin. Clin Pharmacol Ther 83: 312–321.
90. Lindh J. Lundgren S. Holm L. Alfredsson L. Rane A. (2005) Several-fold increase in risk of overanticoagulation by CYP2C9 mutations. Clin Pharmacol Ther 78: 540–550.
91. Liou S. Stringer F. Hirayama M. (2012) The impact of pharmacogenomics research on drug development. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 27: 2–8.
92. Lunshof J. Gurwitz D. (2012) Pharmacogenomic testing: knowing more, doing better. Clin Pharmacol Ther 91: 387–389.
93. Madadi P. Hildebrandt D. Gong I. Schwarz U. Ciszkowski C. Ross C. (2010) Fatal hydrocodone overdose in a child: pharmacogenetics and drug interactions. Pediatrics 126: e986–e989.
94. Madadi P. Ross C. Hayden M. Carleton B. Gaedigk A. Leeder J. (2009) Pharmacogenetics of neonatal opioid toxicity following maternal use of codeine during breastfeeding: a case-control study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 85: 31–35.
95. Mallal S. Nolan D. Witt C. Masel G. Martin A. Moore C. (2002) Association between presence of HLA-B*5701, HLA-DR7, and HLA-DQ3 and hypersensitivity to HIV-1 reverse-transcriptase inhibitor abacavir. Lancet 359: 727–732.
96. Mallal S. Phillips E. Carosi G. Molina J. Workman C. Tomazic J. (2008) HLA-B*5701 screening for hypersensitivity to abacavir. N Engl J Med 358(6): 568–579, http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18256392.
97. Marin-Leblanc M. Perreault S. Bahroun I. Lapointe M. Mongrain I. Provost S. (2012) Validation of warfarin pharmacogenetic algorithms in clinical practice. Pharmacogenomics 13: 21–29.
98. Martin M. Klein T. Dong B. Pirmohamed M. Haas D. Kroetz D. (2012) Clinical pharmacogenetics implementation consortium guidelines for HLA-B genotype and abacavir dosing. Clin Pharmacol Ther 91: 734–738.
99. Meckley L. Gudgeon J. Anderson J. Williams M. Veenstra D. (2010) A policy model to evaluate the benefits, risks and costs of warfarin pharmacogenomic testing. PharmacoEconomics 28: 61–74.
100. Medco (2012) Express Scripts: Our programs. Available at: http://www.medcohealth.com/medco/corporate/home.jsp?BV_SessionID=1584666560.1347849007-mm387541470449&BV_EngineID=ccicadfhklgjmjhcfklcgffdghfdffn.0&articleID=CorpPM_PersonalizedMedicine.
101. Mega J. Close S. Wiviott S. Shen L. Hockett R. Brandt J. (2009) Cytochrome p-450 polymorphisms and response to clopidogrel. N Engl J Med 360: 354–362.
102. Mega J. Hochholzer W. Frelinger A. Kluk M. Angiolillo D. Kereiakes D. (2011) Dosing clopidogrel based on CYP2C19 genotype and the effect on platelet reactivity in patients with stable cardiovascular disease. JAMA 306: 2221–2228.
103. Mega J. Simon T. Collet J. Anderson J. Antman E. Bliden K. (2010) Reduced-function CYP2C19 genotype and risk of adverse clinical outcomes among patients treated with clopidogrel predominantly for PCI: a meta-analysis. JAMA 304: 1821–1830.
104. Mrazek D. Lerman C. (2011) Facilitating clinical implementation of pharmacogenomics. JAMA 306: 304–305.
105. O–Donoghue M. Braunwald E. Antman E. Murphy S. Bates E. Rozenman Y. (2009) Pharmacodynamic effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel and prasugrel with or without a proton-pump inhibitor: an analysis of two randomised trials. Lancet 374: 989–997.
106. PAGAA (2012) Panel on Antiretroviral Guidelines for Adults and Adolescents Guidelines for the use of antiretroviral agents in HIV-1 infected adults and adolescents. Available at: http://www.aidsinfo.nih.gov/ContentFiles/AdultandAdolescentGL.pdf.
107. Patrick A. Avorn J. Choudhry N. (2009) Cost-effectiveness of genotype-guided warfarin dosing for patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes 2: U429–U451.
108. Perlis R. Patrick A. Smoller J. Wang P. (2009) When is pharmacogenetic testing for antidepressant response ready for the clinic? A cost-effectiveness analysis based on data from the STAR*D study. Neuropsychopharmacology 34: 2227–2236.
109. Rasmussen M. Skov J. Bladbjerg E. Sidelmann J. Vamosi M. Jespersen J. (2012) Multivariate analysis of the relation between diet and warfarin dose. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 68: 321–328.
110. Ray W. Murray K. Griffin M. Chung C. Smalley W. Hall K. (2010) Outcomes with concurrent use of clopidogrel and proton-pump inhibitors: a cohort study. Ann Intern Med 152: 337–345.
111. Relling M. Klein T. (2011) CPIC: Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium of the Pharmacogenomics Research Network. Clin Pharmacol Ther 89: 464–467.
112. Rieder M. Reiner A. Gage B. Nickerson D. Eby C. McLeod H. (2005) Effect of VKORC1 haplotypes on transcriptional regulation and warfarin dose. N Engl J Med 352: 2285–2293.
113. Roberts J. Wells G. Le May M. Labinaz M. Glover C. Froeschl M. (2012) Point-of-care genetic testing for personalisation of antiplatelet treatment (RAPID GENE): a prospective, randomised, proof-of-concept trial. Lancet 379: 1705–1711.
114. Rosove M. Grody W. (2009) Should we be applying warfarin pharmacogenetics to clinical practice? No, not now. Ann Intern Med 151: 270–273, W295.
115. Rost S. Fregin A. Ivaskevicius V. Conzelmann E. Hortnagel K. Pelz H. (2004) Mutations in VKORC1 cause warfarin resistance and multiple coagulation factor deficiency type 2. Nature 427: 537–541.
116. Saag M. Balu R. Phillips E. Brachman P. Martorell C. Burman W. (2008) High sensitivity of human leukocyte antigen-b*5701 as a marker for immunologically confirmed abacavir hypersensitivity in white and black patients. Clin Infect Dis 46: 1111–1118.
117. SACGHS (2006) Coverage and Reimbursement of Genetic Tests and Services. Available at: http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/sacghs/reports/CR_report.pdf.
118. SACGT (2000) Enhancing the oversight of genetic tests: Recommendations of the SACGT. Available at: http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/sacgt/reports/oversight_report.pdf.
119. Schildcrout J. Denny J. Bowton E. Gregg W. Pulley J. Basford M. (2012) Optimizing drug outcomes through pharmacogenetics: a case for preemptive genotyping. Clin Pharmacol Ther 92: 235–242.
120. Schirm E. Schwagermann M. Tobi H. de Jong-van den Berg L. (2004) Drug use during breastfeeding. A survey from the Netherlands. Eur J Clin Nutrit 58: 386–390.
121. Schnoll R. Shields A. (2011) Physician barriers to incorporating pharmacogenetic treatment strategies for nicotine dependence into clinical practice. Clin Pharmacol Ther 89: 345–347.
122. Scott S. (2011) Personalizing medicine with clinical pharmacogenetics. Genet Med 13: 987–995.
123. Scott S. Sangkuhl K. Gardner E. Stein C. Hulot J. Johnson J. (2011) Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines for cytochrome P450-2C19 (CYP2C19) genotype and clopidogrel therapy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 90: 328–332.
124. Shah J. (2004) Criteria influencing the clinical uptake of pharmacogenomic strategies. BMJ 328: 1482–1486.
125. Shuldiner A. O–Connell J. Bliden K. Gandhi A. Ryan K. Horenstein R. (2009) Association of cytochrome P450 2C19 genotype with the antiplatelet effect and clinical efficacy of clopidogrel therapy. JAMA 302: 849–857.
126. Siller-Matula J. Spiel A. Lang I. Kreiner G. Christ G. Jilma B. (2009) Effects of pantoprazole and esomeprazole on platelet inhibition by clopidogrel. Amer Heart J 157: 148, e141–e145.
127. Simon T. Verstuyft C. Mary-Krause M. Quteineh L. Drouet E. Meneveau N. (2009) Genetic determinants of response to clopidogrel and cardiovascular events. N Engl J Med 360: 363–375.
128. Small D. Farid N. Payne C. Weerakkody G. Li Y. Brandt J. (2008) Effects of the proton pump inhibitor lansoprazole on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of prasugrel and clopidogrel. J Clin Pharmacol 48: 475–484.
129. Steward D. Haining R. Henne K. Davis G. Rushmore T. Trager W. (1997) Genetic association between sensitivity to warfarin and expression of CYP2C9*3. Pharmacogenetics 7: 361–367.
130. Stultz E. Stokes J. Shaffer M. Paul I. Berlin C. (2007) Extent of medication use in breastfeeding women. Breastfeed Med 2: 145–151.
131. Taube J. Halsall D. Baglin T. (2000) Influence of cytochrome P-450 CYP2C9 polymorphisms on warfarin sensitivity and risk of over-anticoagulation in patients on long-term treatment. Blood 96: 1816–1819.
132. Thorn C. Klein T. Altman R. (2009) Codeine and morphine pathway. Pharmacogenet Genom 19: 556–558.
133. van Schie R. de Boer A. Maitland-van der Zee A. (2011) Implementation of pharmacogenetics in clinical practice is challenging. Pharmacogenomics 12: 1231–1233.
134. Voronov P. Przybylo H. Jagannathan N. (2007) Apnea in a child after oral codeine: a genetic variant - an ultra-rapid metabolizer. Paediatr Anaesth 17: 684–687.
135. Wadelius M. Chen L. Lindh J. Eriksson N. Ghori M. Bumpstead S. (2009) The largest prospective warfarin-treated cohort supports genetic forecasting. Blood 113: 784–792.
136. Wen M. Lee M. Chen J. Chuang H. Lu L. Chen C. (2008) Prospective study of warfarin dosage requirements based on CYP2C9 and VKORC1 genotypes. Clin Pharmacol Ther 84: 83–89.
137. Wolf E. Blankenburg M. Bogner J. Becker W. Gorriahn D. Mueller M. (2010) Cost impact of prospective HLA-B*5701-screening prior to abacavir/lamivudine fixed dose combination use in Germany. Eur J Med Res 15: 145–151.
138. Zineh I. Mummaneni P. Lyndly J. Amur S. La Grenade L. Chang S. (2011) Allopurinol pharmacogenetics: assessment of potential clinical usefulness. Pharmacogenomics 12: 1741–1749.
139. Zineh I. Pebanco G. Aquilante C. Gerhard T. Beitelshees A. Beasley B. (2006) Discordance between availability of pharmacogenetics studies and pharmacogenetics-based prescribing information for the top 200 drugs. Ann Pharmacother 40: 639–644.