Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems in cancer medicine: Emphasis on RNAi-containing nanoliposomes

Pharmaceuticals

Volumn 6, Issue 11, 2013, Pages 1361-1380

  Díaz, Mónica Rivera ^a   Vivas Mejia, Pablo E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PUERTO RICO   (Puerto Rico)

Author keywords

miRNA; Nanoliposomes; Nanoparticles; RNAi; siRNA

Indexed keywords

ASPARAGINYLGLYCYLARGININE; CARBON NANOTUBE; CHITOSAN; CISPLATIN; CPX 351; CYTARABINE; DAUNORUBICIN; DENDRIMER; DIOLEOYLPHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINE; DOXORUBICIN; DRUG CARRIER; EPIDERMAL GROWTH FACTOR RECEPTOR 2; FULLERENE; IHL 305; IRINOTECAN; KINESIN; KINESIN SPINDLE PROTEIN; LIPOPLATIN; LIPOSOME; MACROGOL; METAL NANOPARTICLE; MICRORNA; MIRAVIRSEN; MITOGEN ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE 1; NANOFIBER; NANOPARTICLE; PEPTIDE; POLO LIKE KINASE 1; POLYGLACTIN; QUANTUM DOT; SMALL INTERFERING RNA; THERMODOX; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; UNINDEXED DRUG; VASCULOTROPIN;

ACUTE GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA; ADVANCED CANCER; ANGIOGENESIS; BREAST CANCER; DOWN REGULATION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG STABILITY; DRUG SYNTHESIS; GENE EXPRESSION; GENE SILENCING; GLIOMA; HEPATITIS C; HUMAN; KAPOSI SARCOMA; LIPOSOMAL DELIVERY; LIVER CELL CARCINOMA; LIVER TUMOR; LUNG NON SMALL CELL CANCER; METASTASIS; MICELLE; NANOTECHNOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OVARY CANCER; REVIEW; RNA INTERFERENCE; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SOLID TUMOR; TUMOR INVASION; TUMOR SUPPRESSOR GENE; UPREGULATION;

EID: 84887143967     PISSN: None     EISSN: 14248247     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ph6111361     Document Type: Review

References (131)

1. Wang, A.Z.; Langer, R.; Farokhzad, O.C.; Nanoparticle delivery of cancer drugs. Annu. Rev. Med. 2012, 63, 185-198.
2. Chaudhary, U.B.; Haldas, J.R. Long-term complications of chemotherapy for germ cell tumours. Drugs 2003, 63, 1565-1577.
3. Lipshultz, S.E.; Lipsitz, S.R.; Mone, S.M.; Goorin, A.M.; Sallan, S.E., Sanders, S.P.; Orav, E.J.; Gelber, R.D.; Colan, S.D. Female sex and drug dose as risk factors for late cardiotoxic effects of doxorubicin therapy for childhood cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995, 332, 1738-1743.
4. Matsumura, Y.; Maeda, H. A new concept for macromolecular therapeutics in cancer chemotherapy: mechanism of tumoritropic accumulation of proteins and the antitumor agent smancs. Cancer Res. 1986, 46, 6387-6392.
5. Ochekpe N.A.; Olorunfemi P.O.; Ngwuluka, N. Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery Part 1: Background and Applications. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2009, 8, 265-274.
6. Bangham, A.D.; Standish, M.M.; Watkins, J.C. Diffusion of univalent ions across the lamellae of swollen phospholipids. J. Mol. Biol. 1965, 13, 238-252.
7. Torchilin, V.P. Recent advances with liposomes as pharmaceutical carriers. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2005, 4, 145-160.
8. Danhier, F.; Vroman, B.; Lecouturier, N.; Crokart, N.; Pourcelle, V.; Freichels, H.; Jérôme, C.; Marchand-Brynaert, J.; Feron, O.; Préat, V. Targeting of tumor endothelium by RGD-grafted PLGA-nanoparticles loaded with paclitaxel. J. Control. Release 2009, 140, 166-173.
9. Ochekpe, N.A.; Olorunfemi, P.O.; Ngwuluka, N. Nanotechnology and Drug Delivery Part 2: Nanostructures for Drug Delivery. Trop. J. Pharm. Res. 2009, 8, 275-287.
10. Rawat, M.; Singh, D.; Saraf, S.; Saraf, S. Nanocarriers: promising vehicle for bioactive drugs. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 2006, 29, 1790-1798.
11. Perche, F.; Torchilin, V.P. Recent trends in multifunctional liposomal nanocarriers for enhanced tumor targeting. J. Drug Deliv. 2013, 2013, 705265.
12. Qiao, W.; Wang, B.; Wang, Y.; Yang, L.; Zhang, Y.; Shao, P. Cancer Therapy Based on Nanomaterials and Nanocarrier Systems. J. Nanomater. 2010, 2010, 1-9.
13. Calvo, P.; Remuñan-López, C.; Vila-Jato, J.L.; Alonso, M.J. Chitosan and chitosan/ethylene oxide-propylene oxide block copolymer nanoparticles as novel carriers for proteins and vaccines. Pharm. Res. 1997, 14, 1431-1436.
14. El-Samaligy, M.S.; Rohdewald, P. Reconstituted collagen nanoparticles, a novel drug carrier delivery system. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1983, 35, 537-539.
15. 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Biomaterials 1997, 18, 27-30.
16. Fonseca, C.; Simões, S.; Gaspar, R. Paclitaxel-loaded PLGA nanoparticles: preparation, physicochemical characterization and in vitro anti-tumoral activity. J. Control. Release 2002, 83, 273-286.
17. Chaudhury, A.; Das, S. Recent advancement of chitosan-based nanoparticles for oral controlled delivery of insulin and other therapeutic agents. AAPS Pharm. Sci. Tech. 2011, 12, 10-20.
18. Islam, M.A.; Firdous, J.; Choi, Y.-J.; Yun, C.-H.; Cho, C.-S. Design and application of chitosan microspheres as oral and nasal vaccine carriers: An updated review. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2012, 7, 6077-6093.
19. Janes, K.A.; Fresneau, M.P.; Marazuela, A.; Fabra, A.; Alonso, M.J. Chitosan nanoparticles as delivery systems for doxorubicin. J. Control. Release 2001, 73, 255-267.
20. Yousefpour, P.; Atyabi, F.; Vasheghani-Farahani, E.; Movahedi, A.A.M.; Dinarvand, R. Targeted delivery of doxorubicin-utilizing chitosan nanoparticles surface-functionalized with anti-Her2 trastuzumab. Int. J. Nanomed. 2011, 6, 1977-1990.
21. Wang, Y.; Li, P.; Kong, L. Chitosan-modified PLGA nanoparticles with versatile surface for improved drug delivery. AAPS Pharm. Sci. Tech. 2013, 14, 585-592.
22. Cho, K.; Wang, X.; Nie, S.; Chen, Z.G.; Shin, D.M. Therapeutic nanoparticles for drug delivery in cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2008, 14, 1310-1316.
23. Huh, K.M.; Min, H.S.; Lee, S.C.; Lee, H.J.; Kim, S.; Park, K. A new hydrotropic block copolymer micelle system for aqueous solubilization of paclitaxel. J. Control. Release 2008, 126, 122-129.
24. Liu, B.; Yang, M.; Li, R.; Ding, Y.; Qian, X.; Yu, L.; Jiang, X. The antitumor effect of novel docetaxel-loaded thermosensitive micelles. Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 2008, 69, 527-534.
25. Rapoport, N. Physical stimuli-responsive polymeric micelles for anti-cancer drug delivery. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2007, 32, 962-990.
26. Kagaya, H.; Oba, M.; Miura, Y.; Koyama, H.; Ishii, T.; Shimada, T.; Takato, T.; Kataoka, K.; Miyata, T. Impact of polyplex micelles installed with cyclic RGD peptide as ligand on gene delivery to vascular lesions. Gene Ther. 2012, 19, 61-69.
27. Yamamoto, T.; Yokoyama, M.; Opanasopit, P.; Hayama, A.; Kawano, K.; Maitani, Y. What are determining factors for stable drug incorporation into polymeric micelle carriers? Consideration on physical and chemical characters of the micelle inner core. J. Control. Release 2007, 123, 11-18.
28. Seow, W.Y.; Xue, J.M.; Yang, Y.-Y. Targeted and intracellular delivery of paclitaxel using multi-functional polymeric micelles. Biomaterials 2007, 28, 1730-1740.
29. Sanvicens, N.; Marco, M.P. Multifunctional nanoparticles--properties and prospects for their use in human medicine. Trends Biotechnol. 2008, 26, 425-433.
30. Ruiz, M.E.; Gantner, M.E.; Talevi, A. Applications of Nanosystems to Anticancer Drug Therapy (Part II. Dendrimers, Micelles, Lipid-based Nanosystems). Recent Pat. Anticancer Drug Discov. 2013, 9, 1-30.
31. Yang, W.; Cheng, Y.; Xu, T.; Wang, X.; Wen, L.P. Targeting cancer cells with biotin-dendrimer conjugates. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2009, 44, 862-868.
32. Svenson, S.; Tomalia, D.A. Dendrimers in biomedical applications-Reflections on the field. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2005, 57, 2106-2129.
33. Choi, Y.; Thomas, T.; Kotlyar, A.; Islam, M.T.; Baker, J.R. Synthesis and functional evaluation of DNA-assembled polyamidoamine dendrimer clusters for cancer cell-specific targeting. Chem. Biol. 2005, 12, 35-43.
34. De Jong, W.H.; Borm, P.J.A. Drug delivery and nanoparticles:applications and hazards. Int. J. Nanomedicine 2008, 3, 133-149.
35. Ekimov, A.; OAA, I. Quantum size effect in three-dimensional microscopic semiconductor crystals. JETP Lett. 1981, 34, 345-349.
36. Qi, L.; Gao, X. Emerging application of quantum dots for drug delivery and therapy. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 2008, 5, 263-267.
37. Hardman, R. A Toxicologic Review of Quantum Dots: Toxicity Depends on Physicochemical and Environmental Factors. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 165-172.
38. Morrow, K.J.; Bawa, R.; Wei, C. Recent advances in basic and clinical nanomedicine. Med. Clin. North Am. 2007, 91, 805-843.
39. Alivisatos, P. The use of nanocrystals in biological detection. Nat. Biotechnol. 2004, 22, 47-52.
40. Chan, W.C.W.; Maxwell, D.J.; Gao, X.; Bailey, R.E.; Han, M.; Nie, S. Luminescent quantum dots for multiplexed biological detection and imaging. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2002, 13, 40-46.
41. Vardharajula, S.; Ali, S.Z.; Tiwari, P.M.; Eroǧlu, E.; Vig, K.; Dennis, V.A. et al. Functionalized carbon nanotubes: biomedical applications. Int. J. Nanomed. 2012, 7, 5361-5374.
42. Liu, Z.; Chen, K.; Davis, C.; Sherlock, S.; Cao, Q.; Chen, X., et al. Drug delivery with carbon nanotubes for in vivo cancer treatment. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 6652-6660.
43. Lam, C.-W.; James, J.T.; McCluskey, R.; Arepalli, S.; Hunter, R.L. A review of carbon nanotube toxicity and assessment of potential occupational and environmental health risks. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 2006, 36, 189-217.
44. Zakharian, T.Y.; Seryshev, A.; Sitharaman, B.; Gilbert, B.E.; Knight, V.; Wilson, L.J. A fullerene-paclitaxel chemotherapeutic: synthesis, characterization, and study of biological activity in tissue culture. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2005, 127, 12508-12509.
45. Nakamura, E.; Isobe, H.; Tomita, N.; Sawamura, M.; Jinno, S.; Okayama, H. Functionalized Fullerene as an Artificial Vector for Transfection. Angew. Chem. 2000, 39, 4254-4257.
46. Cancino, J.; Paino, I.M.M.; Micocci, K.C.; Selistre-de-Araujo, H.S.; Zucolotto, V. In vitro nanotoxicity of single-walled carbon nanotube-dendrimer nanocomplexes against murine myoblast cells. Toxicol. Lett. 2013, 219, 18-25.
47. Oberdörster, E. Manufactured nanomaterials (fullerenes, C60) induce oxidative stress in the brain of juvenile largemouth bass. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112, 1058-1062.
48. Dahlin, R.L.; Kasper, F.K. Polymeric Nanofibers in Tissue Engineering. Tissue Eng. 2011, 17, 349-364.
49. Ma, P.X.; Zhang, R. Synthetic nano-scale fibrous extracellular matrix. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 1999, 46, 60-72.
50. Vasita, R.; Katti, D.S. Nanofibers and their applications in tissue engineering. Int. J. Nanomed. 2006, 1, 15-30.
51. Hegde, R.R.; Dahiya, A.; Kamath, M.G. Nanofiber Nonwovens database. Available online: http://www.engr.utk.edu/mse/Textiles/NanofiberNonwovens.htm (accessed on 29 October 2013).
52. Wang, M.; Hsieh, A.J.; Rutledge, G.C. Electrospinning of poly(MMA-co-MAA) copolymers and their layered silicate nanocomposites for improved thermal properties. Polymer 2005, 46, 3407-3418.
53. Tseng, Y.-Y.; Kao, Y.-C.; Liao, J.-Y.; Chen, W.-A.; Liu, S.-J. Biodegradable Drug-Eluting Poly[lactic-co-glycol acid] Nanofibers for the Sustainable Delivery of Vancomycin to Brain Tissue: In Vitro and in Vivo Studies. ACS Chem. Neurosci. 2013, 4, 1314-1321.
54. Doria, G.; Conde, J.; Veigas, B.; Giestas, L.; Almeida, C.; Assunção, M.; Rosa, J.; Baptista, P.V. Noble metal nanoparticles for biosensing applications. Sensors 2012, 12, 1657-1687.
55. Tourinho, P.S.; van Gestel, C.A.M.; Lofts, S.; Svendsen, C.; Soares, A.M.V.M.; Loureiro, S. Metal-based nanoparticles in soil: fate, behavior, and effects on soil invertebrates. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2012, 31, 1679-1692.
56. Xu, Z.P.; Zeng, Q.H.; Lu, G.Q.; Yu, A.B. Inorganic nanoparticles as carriers for efficient cellular delivery. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2006, 61, 1027-1040.
57. Wong, K.K.Y.; Liu, X.L. Nanomedicine: A primer for surgeons. Pediatr. Surg. Int. 2012, 28, 943-951.
58. Qian, X.; Peng, X.H.; Ansari, D.O.; Yin-Goen, Q.; Chen, G.Z.; Shin, D.M.; Yang, L.; Young, A.N.; Wang, M.D.; Nie, S. In vivo tumor targeting and spectroscopic detection with surface-enhanced Raman nanoparticle tags. Nat. Biotechnol. 2008, 26, 83-90.
59. Abreu, A.S.; Castanheira, E.M.; Queiroz, M.J.R.; Ferreira, P.M.; Vale-Silva, L.A.; Pinto, E. Nanoliposomes for encapsulation and delivery of the potential antitumoral methyl 6-methoxy-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)-1H-indole-2-carboxylate. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2011, 6, 482.
60. Bangham A.D.; Horne, R. Negative staining of phospholipids and their structural modification by surface-active agents as observed in the electron microscope. J. Mol. Biol. 1964, 8, 660-668.
61. Khosravi-Darani, K.; Mozafari, M.R. Nanoliposome Potentials in Nanotherapy: A Concise Overview. Int. J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. 2010, 6, 3-13.
62. Mozafari, M.R.; Johnson, C.; Hatziantoniou, S.; Demetzos, C. Nanoliposomes and their applications in food nanotechnology. J. Liposome Res. 2008, 18, 309-327.
63. Moussaoui, N.; Cansell, M.; Denizot, A. Marinosomes, marine lipid-based liposomes: physical characterization and potential application in cosmetics. Int. J. Pharm. 2002, 242, 361-365.
64. Allen, T.M.; Hansen, C.; Martin, F.; Redemann, C.; Yau-Young, A. Liposomes containing synthetic lipid derivatives of poly(ethylene glycol) show prolonged circulation half-lives in vivo. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1991, 1066, 29-36.
65. Jesorka, A.; Orwar, O. Liposomes: Technologies and analytical applications. Annu. Rev. Anal. Chem. 2008, 1, 801-832.
66. Drummond, D.C.; Meyer, O.; Hong, K.; Kirpotin, D.B.; Papahadjopoulos, D. Optimizing liposomes for delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to solid tumors. Pharmacol. Rev. 1999, 51, 691-743.
67. Doll, T.; Raman, S. Nanoscale assemblies and their biomedical applications. J. R. Soc. Interface 2013, doi.10.1098/rsif.2012.0740.
68. Colbern, G.T.; Hiller, A.J.; Musterer, R.S.; Working, P.K.; Henderson, I.C. Antitumor activity of Herceptin in combination with STEALTH liposomal cisplatin or nonliposomal cisplatin in a HER2 positive human breast cancer model. J. Inorg. Biochem. 1999, 77, 117-120.
69. Lee, R.J.; Low, P.S. Delivery of liposomes into cultured KB cells via folate receptor-mediated endocytosis. J. Biol. Chem. 1994, 269, 3198-3204.
70. Miele, E.; Spinelli, G.P.; Miele, E.; Tomao, F.T.S. Albumin-bound formulation of paclitaxel (Abraxane ABI-007) in the treatment of breast cancer. Int. J. Nanomed. 2009, 4, 99-105.
71. A Phase I Trial of Nanoliposomal CPT-11 (NL CPT-11) in Patients With Recurrent High-Grade Gliomas. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00734682/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
72. Drummond, D.C.; Noble, C.O.; Guo, Z.; Hong, K.; Park, J.W.; Kirpotin, D.B. Development of a highly active nanoliposomal irinotecan using a novel intraliposomal stabilization strategy. Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 3271-3277.
73. Matsuzaki, T.; Takagi, A.; Furuta, T.; Ueno, S.; Kurita, A.; Nohara, G.; Kodaira, H.; Sawada, S.; Hashimoto, S. Antitumor activity of IHL-305, a novel pegylated liposome containing irinotecan, in human xenograft models. Oncol. Rep. 2012, 27, 189-197.
74. Safety Study of IHL-305 (Irinotecan Liposome Injection) to Treat Advanced Solid Tumors. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/show/NCT00364143/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
75. Fire, A.; Xu, S.; Montgomery, M.K.; Kostas, S.A.; Driver, S.E.; Mello, C.C. Potent and specific genetic interference by double-stranded RNA in Caenorhabditis elegans. Nature 1998, 391, 806-811.
76. Elbashir, S.M.; Lendeckel, W.; Tuschl, T. RNA interference is mediated by 21- and 22-nucleotide RNAs. Genes Dev. 2001, 15, 188-200.
77. Lee, R.C.; Feinbaum, R.L.; Ambros, V. The C elegans heterochronic gene lin-4 encodes small RNAs with antisense complementarity to lin-14. Cell 1993, 75, 843-854.
78. Bartel, B. MicroRNAs directing siRNA biogenesis. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2005, 12, 569-571.
79. Van Kouwenhove, M.; Kedde, M.; Agami, R. MicroRNA regulation by RNA-binding proteins and its implications for cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2011, 11, 644-656.
80. Di Leva, G.; Croce, C.M. The Role of microRNAs in the Tumorigenesis of Ovarian Cancer. Front. Oncol. 2013, 3, 153.
81. Shi, L.; Chen, J.; Yang, J.; Pan, T.; Zhang, S.; Wang, Z. MiR-21 protected human glioblastoma U87MG cells from chemotherapeutic drug temozolomide induced apoptosis by decreasing Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and caspase-3 activity. Brain Res. 2010, 1352, 255-264.
82. Saini, S.; Majid, S.; Yamamura, S.; Tabatabai, L.; Suh, S.O.; Shahryari, V.; Chen, Y.; Deng, G.; Tanaka, Y.; Dahiya, R. Regulatory Role of mir-203 in Prostate Cancer Progression and Metastasis. Clin. Cancer Res. 2011, 17, 5287-5298.
83. Zhang, Y.; Dutta, A.; Abounader, R. The role of microRNAs in glioma initiation and progression. Front. Biosci. 2012, 17, 700-712.
84. Olson, P.; Lu, J.; Zhang, H.; Shai, A.; Chun, M.G.; Wang, Y.; Libutti, S.K.; Nakakura, E.K.; Golub, T.R.; Hanahan, D. MicroRNA dynamics in the stages of tumorigenesis correlate with hallmark capabilities of cancer. Genes Dev. 2009, 23, 2152-2165.
85. Zhang, Q.-Q.; Xu, H.; Huang, M.-B.; Ma, L.-M.; Huang, Q.-J.; Yao, Q.; Zhou H.; Qu L.H. MicroRNA-195 plays a tumor-suppressor role in human glioblastoma cells by targeting signaling pathways involved in cellular proliferation and invasion. Neuro. Oncol. 2012, 14, 278-287.
86. Guan, Y.; Mizoguchi, M.; Yoshimoto, K.; Hata, N.; Shono, T.; Suzuki, S.O.; Araki, Y.; Kuga, D.; Nakamizo, A.; Amano, T. et al. MiRNA-196 is upregulated in glioblastoma but not in anaplastic astrocytoma and has prognostic significance. Clin. Cancer Res. 2010, 16, 4289-4297.
87. Iorio M.V.; Croce, C.M. MicroRNA dysregulation in cancer: Diagnostics, monitoring and therapeutics. A comprehensive review. EMBO Mol. Med. 2012, 4, 143-159.
88. Flintoft, L. RNA world: Back and forth for microRNA regulation. Nat. Rev. Genet. 2008, 9, 84.
89. Aagaard, L.; Rossi, J.J. RNAi therapeutics: principles, prospects and challenges. Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 2007, 59, 75-86.
90. Bumcrot, D.; Manoharan, M.; Koteliansky, V.; Sah, D.W.Y. RNAi therapeutics: A potential new class of pharmaceutical drugs. Nat. Chem. Biol. 2006, 2, 711-719.
91. Alexopoulou, L.; Holt, A.C.; Medzhitov, R.; Flavell, R.A. Recognition of double-stranded RNA and activation of NF-kappaB by Toll-like receptor 3. Nature 2001, 413, 732-738.
92. Wu, S.Y.; McMillan, N.A.J. Lipidic systems for in vivo siRNA delivery. AAPS J. 2009, 11, 639-652.
93. Landen, C.N.; Chavez-Reyes, A.; Bucana, C.; Schmandt, R.; Deavers, M.T.; Lopez-Berestein, G.; Sood, A.K. Therapeutic EphA2 gene targeting in vivo using neutral liposomal small interfering RNA delivery. Cancer Res. 2005, 65, 6910-6918.
94. Woodrow, K.A.; Cu, Y.; Booth, C.J.; Saucier-Sawyer, J.K.; Wood, M.J.; Saltzman, W.M. Intravaginal gene silencing using biodegradable polymer nanoparticles densely loaded with small-interfering RNA. Nat. Mater. 2009, 8, 526-533.
95. Chen, Y.; Wu, J.J.; Huang, L. Nanoparticles targeted with NGR motif deliver c-myc siRNA and doxorubicin for anticancer therapy. Mol. Ther. 2010, 18, 828-834.
96. Tanaka, T.; Mangala, L.S.; Vivas-Mejia, P.E.; Nieves-Alicea, R.; Mann, A.P.; Mora, E.; Han, H.D.; Shahzad, M.M.; Liu, X.; Bhavane, R. et al. Sustained small interfering RNA delivery by mesoporous silicon particles. Cancer Res. 2010, 70, 3687-3696.
97. Vivas-Mejia, P.E.; Rodriguez-Aguayo, C.; Han, H.D.; Shahzad, M.M.; Valiyeva, F.; Shibayama, M.; Chavez-Reyes, A.; Sood, A.K.; Lopez-Berestein, G. Silencing survivin splice variant 2B leads to antitumor activity in taxane--resistant ovarian cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2011, 17, 3716-3726.
98. Aleku, M.; Schulz, P.; Keil, O.; Santel, A.; Schaeper, U.; Dieckhoff, B.; Janke, O.; Endruschat, J.; Durieux, B.; Röder, N. et al. Atu027, a liposomal small interfering RNA formulation targeting protein kinase N3, inhibits cancer progression. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 9788-9798.
99. Lee, J.-M.; Yoon, T.-J.; Cho, Y.-S. Recent developments in nanoparticle-based siRNA delivery for cancer therapy. Biomed. Res. Int. 2013, 2013, 782041.
100. Yuan, X.; Naguib, S.; Wu, Z. Recent advances of siRNA delivery by nanoparticles. Expert Opin. Drug Deliv. 2011, 8, 521-536.
101. Wang, Y.; Li, Z.; Han, Y.; Liang, L.H.; Ji, A. Nanoparticle-based delivery system for application of siRNA in vivo. Curr. Drug Metab. 2010, 11, 182-196.
102. Nanda, A.; Buckhaults, P.; Seaman, S.; Agrawal, N.; Boutin, P.; Shankara, S.; Nacht, M.; Teicher, B.; Stampfl, J.; Singh, S. et al. Identification of a binding partner for the endothelial cell surface proteins TEM7 and TEM7R. Cancer Res. 2004, 64, 8507-8511.
103. Han, H.D.; Mangala, L.S.; Lee, J.W.; Shahzad, M.M.K.; Kim, H.S.; Shen, D.; Nam, E.J.; Mora, E.M.; Stone, R.L.; Lu, C. et al. Targeted gene silencing using RGD-labeled chitosan nanoparticles. Clin. Cancer Res. 2010, 16, 3910-3922.
104. Bader, A.G.; Lammers, P. The Therapeutic Potential of microRNAs. Available online: http://www.mirnatherapeutics.com/pdfs/The%20Therapeutic%20Potential%20of%20microRNAs.pdf/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
105. Trang, P.; Medina, P.P.; Wiggins, J.F.; Ruffino, L.; Kelnar, K.; Omotola, M.; Homer, R.; Brown, D.; Bader, A.G.; Weidhaas, J.B. et al. Regression of murine lung tumors by the let-7 microRNA. Oncogene 2010, 29, 1580-1587.
106. Johnson, S.M.; Grosshans, H.; Shingara, J.; Byrom, M.; Jarvis, R.; Cheng, A.; Labourier, E.; Reinert, K.L.; Brown, D.; Slack, F.J. RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family. Cell 2005, 120, 635-647.
107. Liu, C.; Kelnar, K.; Liu, B.; Chen, X.; Calhoun-Davis, T.; Li, H.; Patrawala L.; Yan H.; Jeter C.; Honorio, S. et al. The microRNA miR-34a inhibits prostate cancer stem cells and metastasis by directly repressing CD44. Nat. Med. 2011, 17, 211-215.
108. Wiggins, J.F.; Ruffino, L.; Kelnar, K.; Omotola, M.; Patrawala, L.; Brown, D.B.A. Development of a lung cancer therapeutic based on the tumor suppressor microRNA-34. Cancer Res. 2010, 70, 5923-5930.
109. Van Rooij, E.; Sutherland, L.B.; Liu, N.; Williams, A.H.; McAnally, J.; Gerard, R.D.; Richardson, J.A.; Olson, E.N. A signature pattern of stress-responsive microRNAs that can evoke cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 18255-18260.
110. Richardson, J.A.; Olson, E.N. A signature pattern of stress-responsive microRNAs that can evoke cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2006, 103, 18255-18260.
111. Van Rooij, E.; Sutherland, L.B.; Qi, X.; Richardson, J.A.; Hill, J.; Olson, E.N. Control of stress-dependent cardiac growth and gene expression by a microRNA. Science 2007, 316, 575-579.
112. Van Rooij, E. The art of microRNA research. Circ. Res. 2011, 108, 219-234.
113. Liang, G.F.; Zhu, Y.L.; Sun, B.; Hu, F.H.; Tian, T.; Li, S.C.; Xiao, Z.D. PLGA-based gene delivering nanoparticle enhance suppression effect of miRNA in HePG2 cells. Nanoscale Res. Lett. 2011, 6, 447.
114. Piao, L.; Zhang, M.; Datta, J.; Xie, X.; Su, T.; Li, H.; Teknos, T.N.; Pan, Q. Lipid-based nanoparticle delivery of Pre-miR-107 inhibits the tumorigenicity of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma. Mol. Ther. 2012, 20, 1261-1269.
115. Rettig, G.R.; Behlke, M.A. Progress toward in vivo use of siRNAs-II. Mol. Ther. 2012, 20, 483-512.
116. Alnylam Pharmaceuticals. Multi-center, Open Label, Extension Study of ALN-VSP02 in Cancer Patients Who Have Responded to ALN-VSP02 Treatment. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ ct2/show/NCT01158079?term=NCT01158079&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
117. Study With Atu027 in Patients With Advanced Solid Cancer. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT00938574?term=NCT00938574&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
118. Tekmira Pharmaceuticals Corporation. Dose Escalation Study to Determine Safety, Pharmacokinetics, and Pharmacodynamics of Intravenous TKM-080301. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01262235?term=NCT01262235&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
119. A Phase II Study of siG12D LODER in Combination With Chemotherapy in Patients With Unresectable Locally Advanced Pancreatic Cancer. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01676259?term=NCT01676259&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
120. A Multicenter Phase I Study of MRX34, MicroRNA miR-RX34 Liposome Injectable Suspension. Available from: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01829971?term=NCT01829971&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
121. Bader, A.G. Mir-34-A microRNA replacement therapy is headed to the clinic. Front. Genet.2012, 3, 120.
122. M.D. Anderson CC EphA2 Gene Targeting Using Neutral Liposomal Small Interfering RNA Delivery. Available online: http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT01591356?term=NCT01591356&rank=1/ (accessed on 1 November 2013).
123. Gerber, D.E. Targeted therapies: a new generation of cancer treatments. Am. Fam. Physician 2008, 77, 311-319.
124. Chan, C.-H.; Morrow, J.K.; Li, C.-F.; Gao, Y.; Jin, G.; Moten, A.; Stagg, L.J.; Ladbury, J.E.; Cai, Z.; Xu, D. et al. Pharmacological inactivation of Skp2 SCF ubiquitin ligase restricts cancer stem cell traits and cancer progression. Cell 2013, 154, 556-568.
125. Marelli, U.K.; Rechenmacher, F.; Sobahi, T.R.A.; Mas-Moruno, C.; Kessler, H. Tumor Targeting via Integrin Ligands. Front. Oncol. 2013, 3, 222.
126. Van Rooij, E.; Purcell, A.L.; Levin, A.A. Developing microRNA therapeutics. Circ. Res. 2012, 110, 496-507.
127. Cheng, A.; Vlassov A.V.; Magdaleno, S. Quantification of siRNAs in vitro and in vivo. Methods Mol. Biol. 2011, 764, 183-197.
128. Cheng, K.; Mahato, R.I. Advanced Delivery and Therapeutic Applications of RNAi, Cheng, K., Mahato, R.I., Eds.; John Wiley and Sons, Ltd: New York, NY, USA, 2013; p. 509.
129. Koolen, S.L.W.; Witteveen, P.O.; Jansen, R.S.; Langenberg, M.H.G.; Kronemeijer, R.H.; Nol, A.; Garcia-Ribas, I.; Callies, S.; Benhadji, K.A.; Slapak, C.A. et al. Phase I study of Oral gemcitabine prodrug (LY2334737) alone and in combination with erlotinib in patients with advanced solid tumors. Clin. Cancer Res. 2011, 17, 6071-6082.
130. Jordheim, L.P.; Durantel, D.; Zoulim, F.; Dumontet, C. Advances in the development of nucleoside and nucleotide analogues for cancer and viral diseases. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2013, 12, 447-464.
131. Heidel, J.D.; Yu, Z.; Liu, J.Y.C.; Rele, S.M.; Liang, Y.; Zeidan, R.K.; Kornbrust, D.J.; Davis, M.E. Administration in non-human primates of escalating intravenous doses of targeted nanoparticles containing ribonucleotide reductase subunit M2 siRNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 5715-5721.