Autophagy in tumour cell death

Seminars in Cancer Biology

Volumn 23, Issue 5, 2013, Pages 344-351

  Macintosh, Robin L ^a   Ryan, Kevin M ^a  

^a BEATSON INSTITUTE FOR CANCER RESEARCH   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Apoptosis; Autophagy; Cancer; Cell death

Indexed keywords

ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENT; AUTOPHAGY PROTEIN 5; BECLIN 1; CAMPTOTHECIN; CASPASE 8; CHLOROQUINE; DEXAMETHASONE; HISTONE DEACETYLASE; HYDROXYCHLOROQUINE; IMATINIB; LUCANTHONE; LYS05; MAMMALIAN TARGET OF RAPAMYCIN; MEMBRANE PROTEIN; OBATOCLAX; PROTEIN ATG12; PROTEIN KINASE B; PROTEIN P53; PROTEIN P62; PROTEIN TYROSINE KINASE; RAS PROTEIN; RESVERATROL; SC 59; TEMSIROLIMUS; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RELATED APOPTOSIS INDUCING LIGAND; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VORINOSTAT;

ANOIKIS; APOPTOSIS; AUTOPHAGOSOME; AUTOPHAGY; CANCER INHIBITION; CELL DEATH; CELL PROTECTION; CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKEMIA; COLON CANCER; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG RESISTANCE; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; HEMATOLOGIC MALIGNANCY; HUMAN; HYPOXIA; MELANOMA; MITOCHONDRIAL PERMEABILITY; NONHUMAN; PHASE 1 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); PHASE 2 CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; TUMOR CELL;

APOPTOSIS; AUTOPHAGY; CANCER; CELL DEATH; CHLOROQUINE; CHRONIC MYELOID LEUKAEMIA; CML; CQ; CTL; CYTOTOXIC T-LYMPHOCYTE; DAMP; DANGER-ASSOCIATED MOLECULAR PATTERN; ECM; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; HDACI; HISTONE DEACETYLASE INHIBITOR; MITOCHONDRIAL OUTER MEMBRANE PERMIABILISATION; MOMP; PANCREATIC DUCTAL ADENOCARCINOMA; PDAC; RCC; REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES; RENAL CELL CARCINOMA; ROS; SAHA; SUBEROYLANILIDE HYDROXAMIC ACID; TKI; TYROSINE KINASE INHIBITOR;

ANIMALS; AUTOPHAGY; HUMANS; LYSOSOMES; NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84884812286     PISSN: 1044579X     EISSN: 10963650     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2013.05.006     Document Type: Review

References (98)

1. Kroemer G., Marino G., Levine B. Autophagy and the integrated stress response. Molecular Cell 2010, 40:280-293.
2. Yang Z., Klionsky D.J. Mammalian autophagy: core molecular machinery and signaling regulation. Current Opinion in Cell Biology 2010, 22:124-131.
3. Kang R., Zeh H.J., Lotze M.T., Tang D. The Beclin 1 network regulates autophagy and apoptosis. Cell Death and Differentiation 2011, 18:571-580.
4. Johansen T., Lamark T. Selective autophagy mediated by autophagic adapter proteins. Autophagy 2011, 7:279-296.
5. Nakatogawa H., Ichimura Y., Ohsumi Y. Atg8 a ubiquitin-like protein required for autophagosome formation, mediates membrane tethering and hemifusion. Cell 2007, 130:165-178.
6. Weidberg H., Shpilka T., Shvets E., Abada A., Shimron F., Elazar Z. LC3 and GATE-16 N termini mediate membrane fusion processes required for autophagosome biogenesis. Developmental Cell 2011, 20:444-454.
7. Ashrafi G., Schwarz T.L. The pathways of mitophagy for quality control and clearance of mitochondria. Cell Death and Differentiation 2013, 20:31-42.
8. Rong Y., McPhee C.K., Deng S., Huang L., Chen L., Liu M., et al. Spinster is required for autophagic lysosome reformation and mTOR reactivation following starvation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011, 108:7826-7831.
9. Yu L., McPhee C.K., Zheng L., Mardones G.A., Rong Y., Peng J., et al. Termination of autophagy and reformation of lysosomes regulated by mTOR. Nature 2010, 465:942-946.
10. Fuchs Y., Steller H. Programmed cell death in animal development and disease. Cell 2011, 147:742-758.
11. Galluzzi L., Vitale I., Abrams J.M., Alnemri E.S., Baehrecke E.H., Blagosklonny M.V., et al. Molecular definitions of cell death subroutines: recommendations of the Nomenclature Committee on Cell Death 2012. Cell Death and Differentiation 2012, 19:107-120.
12. Kamada Y., Sekito T., Ohsumi Y. Autophagy in yeast: a TOR-mediated response to nutrient starvation. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology 2004, 279:73-84.
13. Kuma A., Hatano M., Matsui M., Yamamoto A., Nakaya H., Yoshimori T., et al. The role of autophagy during the early neonatal starvation period. Nature 2004, 432:1032-1036.
14. Chen Y., Azad M.B., Gibson S.B. Superoxide is the major reactive oxygen species regulating autophagy. Cell Death and Differentiation 2009, 16:1040-1052.
15. Lee I.H., Kawai Y., Fergusson M.M., Rovira I.I., Bishop A.J., Motoyama N., et al. Atg7 modulates p53 activity to regulate cell cycle and survival during metabolic stress. Science 2012, 336:225-228.
16. Li L., Chen Y., Gibson S.B. Starvation-induced autophagy is regulated by mitochondrial reactive oxygen species leading to AMPK activation. Cellular Signaling 2013, 25:50-65.
17. Suzuki S.W., Onodera J., Ohsumi Y. Starvation induced cell death in autophagy-defective yeast mutants is caused by mitochondria dysfunction. PLoS ONE 2011, 6:e17412.
18. Gilmore A.P. Anoikis. Cell Death and Differentiation 2005, 12(Suppl. 2):1473-1477.
19. Debnath J., Mills K.R., Collins N.L., Reginato M.J., Muthuswamy S.K., Brugge J.S. The role of apoptosis in creating and maintaining luminal space within normal and oncogene-expressing mammary acini. Cell 2002, 111:29-40.
20. Fung C., Lock R., Gao S., Salas E., Debnath J. Induction of autophagy during extracellular matrix detachment promotes cell survival. Molecular Biology of the Cell 2008, 19:797-806.
21. Schafer Z.T., Grassian A.R., Song L., Jiang Z., Gerhart-Hines Z., Irie H.Y., et al. Antioxidant and oncogene rescue of metabolic defects caused by loss of matrix attachment. Nature 2009, 461:109-113.
22. Avivar-Valderas A., Salas E., Bobrovnikova-Marjon E., Diehl J.A., Nagi C., Debnath J., et al. PERK integrates autophagy and oxidative stress responses to promote survival during extracellular matrix detachment. Molecular and Cellular Biology 2011, 31:3616-3629.
23. Espina V., Mariani B.D., Gallagher R.I., Tran K., Banks S., Wiedemann J., et al. Malignant precursor cells pre-exist in human breast DCIS and require autophagy for survival. PLoS ONE 2010, 5:e10240.
24. Zhang L., Subarsky P., Hill R.P. Hypoxia-regulated p53 and its effect on radiosensitivity in cancer cells. International Journal of Radiation Biology 2007, 83:443-456.
25. Zhang L., Hill R.P. Hypoxia enhances metastatic efficiency by up-regulating Mdm2 in KHT cells and increasing resistance to apoptosis. Cancer Research 2004, 64:4180-4189.
26. Rouschop K.M., Van Den Beucken T., Dubois L., Niessen H., Bussink J., Savelkouls K., et al. The unfolded protein response protects human tumor cells during hypoxia through regulation of the autophagy genes MAP1LC3B and ATG5. Journal of Clinical Investigation 2010, 120:127-141.
27. Bellot G., Garcia-Medina R., Gounon P., Chiche J., Roux D., Pouyssegur J., et al. Hypoxia-induced autophagy is mediated through hypoxia-inducible factor induction of BNIP3 and BNIP3L via their BH3 domains. Molecular and Cellular Biology 2009, 29:2570-2581.
28. Zhang H., Bosch-Marce M., Shimoda L.A., Tan Y.S., Baek J.H., Wesley J.B., et al. Mitochondrial autophagy is an HIF-1-dependent adaptive metabolic response to hypoxia. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2008, 283:10892-10903.
29. Papandreou I., Lim A.L., Laderoute K., Denko N.C. Hypoxia signals autophagy in tumor cells via AMPK activity, independent of HIF-1, BNIP3, and BNIP3L. Cell Death and Differentiation 2008, 15:1572-1581.
30. Liu L., Feng D., Chen G., Chen M., Zheng Q., Song P., et al. Mitochondrial outer-membrane protein FUNDC1 mediates hypoxia-induced mitophagy in mammalian cells. Nature Cell Biology 2012, 14:177-185.
31. Noman M.Z., Janji B., Kaminska B., Van Moer K., Pierson S., Przanowski P., et al. Blocking hypoxia-induced autophagy in tumors restores cytotoxic T-cell activity and promotes regression. Cancer Research 2011, 71:5976-5986.
32. Bellodi C., Lidonnici M.R., Hamilton A., Helgason G.V., Soliera A.R., Ronchetti M., et al. Targeting autophagy potentiates tyrosine kinase inhibitor-induced cell death in Philadelphia chromosome-positive cells, including primary CML stem cells. Journal of Clinical Investigation 2009, 119:1109-1123.
33. Firat E., Weyerbrock A., Gaedicke S., Grosu A.L., Niedermann G. Chloroquine or chloroquine-PI3K/Akt pathway inhibitor combinations strongly promote gamma-irradiation-induced cell death in primary stem-like glioma cells. PLoS ONE 2012, 7:e47357.
34. Han J., Hou W., Goldstein L.A., Lu C., Stolz D.B., Yin X.M., et al. Involvement of protective autophagy in TRAIL resistance of apoptosis-defective tumor cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2008, 283:19665-19677.
35. Lamoureux F., Thomas C., Crafter C., Kumano M., Zhang F., Davies B.R., et al. Blocked autophagy using lysosomotropic agents sensitizes resistant prostate tumor cells to the novel Akt inhibitor AZD5363. Clinical Cancer Research 2013, 19:833-844.
36. Bray K., Mathew R., Lau A., Kamphorst J.J., Fan J., Chen J., et al. Autophagy suppresses RIP kinase-dependent necrosis enabling survival to mTOR inhibition. PLoS ONE 2012, 7:e41831.
37. Colell A., Ricci J.E., Tait S., Milasta S., Maurer U., Bouchier-Hayes L., et al. GAPDH and autophagy preserve survival after apoptotic cytochrome c release in the absence of caspase activation. Cell 2007, 129:983-997.
38. Liu L., Yang M., Kang R., Wang Z., Zhao Y., Yu Y., et al. HMGB1-induced autophagy promotes chemotherapy resistance in leukemia cells. Leukemia 2011, 25:23-31.
39. Kang R., Tang D., Schapiro N.E., Livesey K.M., Farkas A., Loughran P., et al. The receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) sustains autophagy and limits apoptosis, promoting pancreatic tumor cell survival. Cell Death and Differentiation 2010, 17:666-676.
40. Amm H.M., Oliver P.G., Lee C.H., Li Y., Buchsbaum D.J. Combined modality therapy with TRAIL or agonistic death receptor antibodies. Cancer Biology and Therapy 2011, 11:431-449.
41. Hou W., Han J., Lu C., Goldstein L.A., Rabinowich H. Enhancement of tumor-TRAIL susceptibility by modulation of autophagy. Autophagy 2008, 4:940-943.
42. Hou W., Han J., Lu C., Goldstein L.A., Rabinowich H. Autophagic degradation of active caspase-8: a crosstalk mechanism between autophagy and apoptosis. Autophagy 2010, 6:891-900.
43. Cho D.H., Jo Y.K., Hwang J.J., Lee Y.M., Roh S.A., Kim J.C. Caspase-mediated cleavage of ATG6/Beclin-1 links apoptosis to autophagy in HeLa cells. Cancer Letters 2009, 274:95-100.
44. Luo S., Rubinsztein D.C. Apoptosis blocks Beclin 1-dependent autophagosome synthesis: an effect rescued by Bcl-xL. Cell Death and Differentiation 2010, 17:268-277.
45. Wirawan E., Vande Walle L., Kersse K., Cornelis S., Claerhout S., Vanoverberghe I., et al. Caspase-mediated cleavage of Beclin-1 inactivates Beclin-1-induced autophagy and enhances apoptosis by promoting the release of proapoptotic factors from mitochondria. Cell Death and Disease 2010, 1:e18.
46. Li H., Wang P., Sun Q., Ding W.X., Yin X.M., Sobol R.W., et al. Following cytochrome c release, autophagy is inhibited during chemotherapy-induced apoptosis by caspase 8-mediated cleavage of Beclin 1. Cancer Research 2011, 71:3625-3634.
47. Yousefi S., Perozzo R., Schmid I., Ziemiecki A., Schaffner T., Scapozza L., et al. Calpain-mediated cleavage of Atg5 switches autophagy to apoptosis. Nature Cell Biology 2006, 8:1124-1132.
48. Betin V.M., Lane J.D. Caspase cleavage of Atg4D stimulates GABARAP-L1 processing and triggers mitochondrial targeting and apoptosis. Journal of Cell Science 2009, 122:2554-2566.
49. Betin V.M., MacVicar T.D., Parsons S.F., Anstee D.J., Lane J.D. A cryptic mitochondrial targeting motif in Atg4D links caspase cleavage with mitochondrial import and oxidative stress. Autophagy 2012, 8:664-676.
50. Radoshevich L., Murrow L., Chen N., Fernandez E., Roy S., Fung C., et al. ATG12 conjugation to ATG3 regulates mitochondrial homeostasis and cell death. Cell 2010, 142:590-600.
51. Rubinstein A.D., Eisenstein M., Ber Y., Bialik S., Kimchi A. The autophagy protein Atg12 associates with antiapoptotic Bcl-2 family members to promote mitochondrial apoptosis. Molecular Cell 2011, 44:698-709.
52. Crighton D., Wilkinson S., O'Prey J., Syed N., Smith P., Harrison P.R., et al. DRAM, a p53-induced modulator of autophagy, is critical for apoptosis. Cell 2006, 126:121-134.
53. Scarlatti F., Maffei R., Beau I., Codogno P., Ghidoni R. Role of non-canonical Beclin 1-independent autophagy in cell death induced by resveratrol in human breast cancer cells. Cell Death and Differentiation 2008, 15:1318-1329.
54. Shimizu S., Kanaseki T., Mizushima N., Mizuta T., Arakawa-Kobayashi S., Thompson C.B., et al. Role of Bcl-2 family proteins in a non-apoptotic programmed cell death dependent on autophagy genes. Nature Cell Biology 2004, 6:1221-1228.
55. Yee K.S., Wilkinson S., James J., Ryan K.M., Vousden K.H. PUMA- and Bax-induced autophagy contributes to apoptosis. Cell Death and Differentiation 2009, 16:1135-1145.
56. Lorin S., Borges A., Ribeiro Dos Santos L., Souquere S., Pierron G., Ryan K.M., et al. c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase activation is essential for DRAM-dependent induction of autophagy and apoptosis in 2-methoxyestradiol-treated Ewing sarcoma cells. Cancer Research 2009, 69:6924-6931.
57. Crighton D., O'Prey J., Bell H.S. Ryan KM. p73 regulates DRAM-independent autophagy that does not contribute to programmed cell death. Cell Death and Differentiation 2007, 14:1071-1079.
58. Xie X., Le L., Fan Y., Lv L., Zhang J. Autophagy is induced through the ROS-TP53-DRAM1 pathway in response to mitochondrial protein synthesis inhibition. Autophagy 2012, 8:1071-1084.
59. Yu L., Alva A., Su H., Dutt P., Freundt E., Welsh S., et al. Regulation of an ATG7-Beclin 1 program of autophagic cell death by caspase-8. Science 2004, 304:1500-1502.
60. Yu L., Wan F., Dutta S., Welsh S., Liu Z., Freundt E., et al. Autophagic programmed cell death by selective catalase degradation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2006, 103:4952-4957.
61. Wu Y.T., Tan H.L., Huang Q., Kim Y.S., Pan N., Ong W.Y., et al. Autophagy plays a protective role during zVAD-induced necrotic cell death. Autophagy 2008, 4:457-466.
62. Wu Y.T., Tan H.L., Huang Q., Sun X.J., Zhu X., Shen H.M. zVAD-induced necroptosis in L929 cells depends on autocrine production of TNFalpha mediated by the PKC-MAPKs-AP-1 pathway. Cell Death and Differentiation 2011, 18:26-37.
63. Chen Y., McMillan-Ward E., Kong J., Israels S.J., Gibson S.B. Oxidative stress induces autophagic cell death independent of apoptosis in transformed and cancer cells. Cell Death and Differentiation 2008, 15:171-182.
64. Tai W.T., Shiau C.W., Chen H.L., Liu C.Y., Lin C.S., Cheng A.L., et al. Mcl-1-dependent activation of Beclin 1 mediates autophagic cell death induced by sorafenib and SC-59 in hepatocellular carcinoma cells. Cell Death and Disease 2013, 4:e485.
65. Mathew R., Karp C.M., Beaudoin B., Vuong N., Chen G., Chen H.Y., et al. Autophagy suppresses tumorigenesis through elimination of p62. Cell 2009, 137:1062-1075.
66. Moscat J. Diaz-Meco MT. p62 at the crossroads of autophagy, apoptosis, and cancer. Cell 2009, 137:1001-1004.
67. White E. Deconvoluting the context-dependent role for autophagy in cancer. Nature Reviews Cancer 2012, 12:401-410.
68. Hoare M., Young A.R., Narita M. Autophagy in cancer: having your cake and eating it. Seminars in Cancer Biology 2011, 21:397-404.
69. Kimura T., Takabatake Y., Takahashi A., Isaka Y. Chloroquine in cancer therapy: a double-edged sword of autophagy. Cancer Research 2013, 73:3-7.
70. Xie X., White E.P., Mehnert J.M. Coordinate autophagy and mTOR pathway inhibition enhances cell death in melanoma. PLoS ONE 2013, 8:e55096.
71. Fan Q.W., Cheng C., Hackett C., Feldman M., Houseman B.T., Nicolaides T., et al. Akt and autophagy cooperate to promote survival of drug-resistant glioma. Science Signaling 2010, 3:ra81.
72. Degtyarev M., De Maziere A., Orr C., Lin J., Lee B.B., Tien J.Y., et al. Akt inhibition promotes autophagy and sensitizes PTEN-null tumors to lysosomotropic agents. Journal of Cell Biology 2008, 183:101-116.
73. Sotelo J., Briceno E., Lopez-Gonzalez M.A. Adding chloroquine to conventional treatment for glioblastoma multiforme: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine 2006, 144:337-343.
74. Mancias J.D., Kimmelman A.C. Targeting autophagy addiction in cancer. Oncotarget 2011, 2:1302-1306.
75. Yang S., Wang X., Contino G., Liesa M., Sahin E., Ying H., et al. Pancreatic cancers require autophagy for tumor growth. Genes and Development 2011, 25:717-729.
76. Guo J.Y., Chen H.Y., Mathew R., Fan J., Strohecker A.M., Karsli-Uzunbas G., et al. Activated Ras requires autophagy to maintain oxidative metabolism and tumorigenesis. Genes and Development 2011, 25:460-470.
77. Calabretta B., Salomoni P. Inhibition of autophagy: a new strategy to enhance sensitivity of chronic myeloid leukemia stem cells to tyrosine kinase inhibitors. Leukemia and Lymphoma 2011, 52(Suppl. 1):54-59.
78. Kusio-Kobialka M., Podszywalow-Bartnicka P., Peidis P., Glodkowska-Mrowka E., Wolanin K., Leszak G., et al. The PERK-eIF2alpha phosphorylation arm is a pro-survival pathway of BCR-ABL signaling and confers resistance to imatinib treatment in chronic myeloid leukemia cells. Cell Cycle 2012, 11:4069-4078.
79. Carew J.S., Nawrocki S.T., Kahue C.N., Zhang H., Yang C., Chung L., et al. Targeting autophagy augments the anticancer activity of the histone deacetylase inhibitor SAHA to overcome Bcr-Abl-mediated drug resistance. Blood 2007, 110:313-322.
80. Dupere-Richer D., Kinal M., Menasche V., Nielsen T.H., Del Rincon S., Pettersson F., et al. Vorinostat-induced autophagy switches from a death-promoting to a cytoprotective signal to drive acquired resistance. Cell Death and Disease 2013, 4:e486.
81. Goussetis D.J., Gounaris E., Wu E.J., Vakana E., Sharma B., Bogyo M., et al. Autophagic degradation of the BCR-ABL oncoprotein and generation of antileukemic responses by arsenic trioxide. Blood 2012, 120:3555-3562.
82. Isakson P., Bjoras M., Boe S.O., Simonsen A. Autophagy contributes to therapy-induced degradation of the PML/RARA oncoprotein. Blood 2010, 116:2324-2331.
83. Nasr R., Guillemin M.C., Ferhi O., Soilihi H., Peres L., Berthier C., et al. Eradication of acute promyelocytic leukemia-initiating cells through PML-RARA degradation. Nature Medicine 2008, 14:1333-1342.
84. Bonapace L., Bornhauser B.C., Schmitz M., Cario G., Ziegler U., Niggli F.K., et al. Induction of autophagy-dependent necroptosis is required for childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells to overcome glucocorticoid resistance. Journal of Clinical Investigation 2010, 120:1310-1323.
85. Heidari N., Hicks M.A., Harada H. GX15-070 (obatoclax) overcomes glucocorticoid resistance in acute lymphoblastic leukemia through induction of apoptosis and autophagy. Cell Death and Disease 2010, 1:e76.
86. McCoy F., Hurwitz J., McTavish N., Paul I., Barnes C., O'Hagan B., et al. Obatoclax induces Atg7-dependent autophagy independent of Beclin-1 and BAX/BAK. Cell Death and Disease 2010, 1:e108.
87. Galavotti S., Bartesaghi S., Faccenda D., Shaked-Rabi M., Sanzone S., McEvoy A., et al. The autophagy-associated factors DRAM1 and p62 regulate cell migration and invasion in glioblastoma stem cells. Oncogene 2013, 32:699-712.
88. Macintosh R.L., Timpson P., Thorburn J., Anderson K.I., Thorburn A., Ryan K.M. Inhibition of autophagy impairs tumor cell invasion in an organotypic model. Cell Cycle 2012, 11:2022-2029.
89. Qu X., Yu J., Bhagat G., Furuya N., Hibshoosh H., Troxel A., et al. Promotion of tumorigenesis by heterozygous disruption of the Beclin 1 autophagy gene. Journal of Clinical Investigation 2003, 112:1809-1820.
90. Yue Z., Jin S., Yang C., Levine A.J., Heintz N. Beclin 1, an autophagy gene essential for early embryonic development, is a haploinsufficient tumor suppressor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2003, 100:15077-15082.
91. Rubinsztein D.C., Codogno P., Levine B. Autophagy modulation as a potential therapeutic target for diverse diseases. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 2012, 11:709-730.
92. McAfee Q., Zhang Z., Samanta A., Levi S.M., Ma X.H., Piao S., et al. Autophagy inhibitor Lys05 has single-agent antitumor activity and reproduces the phenotype of a genetic autophagy deficiency. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2012, 109:8253-8258.
93. Carew J.S., Espitia C.M., Esquivel J.A., Mahalingam D., Kelly K.R., Reddy G., et al. Lucanthone is a novel inhibitor of autophagy that induces cathepsin d-mediated apoptosis. Journal of Biological Chemistry 2011, 286:6602-6613.
94. Chwieralski C.E., Welte T., Buhling F. Cathepsin-regulated apoptosis. Apoptosis 2006, 11:143-149.
95. Marques C., Oliveira C.S., Alves S., Chaves S.R., Coutinho O.P., Corte-Real M., et al. Acetate-induced apoptosis in colorectal carcinoma cells involves lysosomal membrane permeabilization and cathepsin D release. Cell Death and Disease 2013, 4:e507.
96. Maycotte P., Aryal S., Cummings C.T., Thorburn J., Morgan M.J., Thorburn A. Chloroquine sensitizes breast cancer cells to chemotherapy independent of autophagy. Autophagy 2012, 8:200-212.
97. Shoji-Kawata S., Sumpter R., Leveno M., Campbell G.R., Zou Z., Kinch L., et al. Identification of a candidate therapeutic autophagy-inducing peptide. Nature 2013, 494:201-206.
98. Schaeffer V., Lavenir I., Ozcelik S., Tolnay M., Winkler D.T., Goedert M. Stimulation of autophagy reduces neurodegeneration in a mouse model of human tauopathy. Brain 2012, 135:2169-2177.