Dental implants from functionally graded materials

Journal of Biomedical Materials Research - Part A

Volumn 101, Issue 10, 2013, Pages 3046-3057

  Mehrali, Mehdi ^a   Shirazi, Farid Seyed ^a   Mehrali, Mohammad ^a   Metselaar, Hendrik Simon Cornelis ^a   Kadri, Nahrizul Adib Bin ^a   Osman, Noor Azuan Abu ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MALAYA   (Malaysia)

Author keywords

biomaterials; dental implants; functionally graded material (FGM); mechanical properties

Indexed keywords

BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS; COMPOSITIONAL GRADIENTS; FUNCTIONALLY GRADED; FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIAL (FGM); HETEROGENEOUS COMPOSITE MATERIALS; MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES; MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR; STATE-OF-THE-ART TECHNOLOGY;

BEAMS AND GIRDERS; BIOCOMPATIBILITY; BIOLOGICAL MATERIALS; BIOMATERIALS; DENTAL PROSTHESES; MECHANICAL PROPERTIES; MEDICAL APPLICATIONS;

FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIALS;

BIOMATERIAL; TITANIUM; ZIRCONIUM;

BIOCOMPATIBILITY; BONE REGENERATION; CERAMICS; COMPOSITE MATERIAL; CORTICAL BONE; DENTIN; ENAMEL; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; TECHNOLOGY; TOOTH IMPLANT; TRABECULAR BONE; YOUNG MODULUS;

BIOMATERIALS; DENTAL IMPLANTS; FUNCTIONALLY GRADED MATERIAL (FGM); MECHANICAL PROPERTIES;

BIOCOMPATIBLE MATERIALS; DENTAL IMPLANTS; DENTAL PROSTHESIS DESIGN; HUMANS; MATERIALS TESTING; MECHANICAL PHENOMENA;

EID: 84883243646     PISSN: 15493296     EISSN: 15524965     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34588     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Christenson EM, Anseth KS, van den Beucken JJJP, Chan CK, Ercan B, Jansen JA, Laurencin CT, Li W-J, Murugan R, Nair LS, Ramakrishna S, Tuan RS, Webster TJ, Mikos AG,. Nanobiomaterial applications in orthopedics. J Orthop Res 2007; 25: 11-22.
2. An B, Wang R, Arola D, Zhang D,. The role of property gradients on the mechanical behavior of human enamel. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2012; 9: 63-72.
3. Li W-J, Laurencin CT, Caterson EJ, Tuan RS, Ko FK,. Electrospun nanofibrous structure: A novel scaffold for tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2002; 60: 613-621.
4. Leong KF, Chua CK, Sudarmadji N, Yeong WY,. Engineering functionally graded tissue engineering scaffolds. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2008; 1: 140-152.
5. Askari E, Mehrali M, Metselaar IHSC, Kadri NA, Rahman MM,. Fabrication and mechanical properties of Al2O3/SiC/ZrO2 functionally graded material by electrophoretic deposition. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2012; 12: 144-150.
6. Hedia HS,. Design of functionally graded dental implant in the presence of cancellous bone. J Biomed Mater Res B 2005; 75B: 74-80.
7. Uemura S,. The activities of FGM on new application. In:, Pan W, Gong J, Zhang L, Chen L, editors. Functionally Graded Materials Vii. Zurich-Uetikon: Trans Tech Publications Ltd; 2003. p 1-9.
8. Mehrali M, Wakily H, Metselaar I,. Residual stress and mechanical properties of Al2O3/ZrO2 functionally graded material prepared by EPD from 2-butanone based suspension. Adv Appl Ceram 2011; 110: 35-40.
9. Henriques B, Gonçalves S, Soares D, Silva FS,. Shear bond strength comparison between conventional porcelain fused to metal and new functionally graded dental restorations after thermal-mechanical cycling. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2012; 13: 194-205.
10. Hing KA, Best SM, Bonfield W,. Characterization of porous hydroxyapatite. J Mater Sci Mater Med 1999; 10: 135-145.
11. Tampieri A, Celotti G, Sprio S, Delcogliano A, Franzese S,. Porosity-graded hydroxyapatite ceramics to replace natural bone. Biomaterials 2001; 22: 1365-1370.
12. Miao XG, Sun D,. Graded/gradient porous biomaterials. Materials 2010; 3: 26-47.
13. Sadollah A, Bahreininejad A,. Optimum gradient material for a functionally graded dental implant using metaheuristic algorithms. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2011; 4: 1384-1395.
14. Watari F, Kondo H, Matsuo S, Miyao R, Yokoyama A, Omori M, Hirai T, Tamura Y, Uo M, Ohara N, Kawasaki T,. Development of Functionally Graded Implant and Dental Post, for Bio-medical Application. Vol. 423-425. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publications; 2003. p 321-326.
15. O'Mahony AM, Williams JL, Spencer P,. Anisotropic elasticity of cortical and cancellous bone in the posterior mandible increases peri-implant stress and strain under oblique loading. Clin Oral Implants Res 2001; 12: 648-657.
16. Watari F, Yokoyama A, Omori M, Hirai T, Kondo H, Uo M, Kawasaki T,. Biocompatibility of materials and development to functionally graded implant for bio-medical application. Compos Sci Techonl 2004; 64: 893-908.
17. Watari F, Yokoyama A, Saso F, Uo M, Kawasaki T,. Fabrication and properties of functionally graded dental implant. Compos B Eng 1997; 28: 5-11.
18. Yokoyama A, Watari F, Miyao R, Matsuno H, Uo M, Kawasaki T, Kohgo T, Omori M, Hirai T,. Mechanical properties and biocompatibility of titanium-hydroxyapatite implant material prepared by spark plasma sintering method. In:, Giannini S, Moroni A, editors. Bioceramics. Zurich-Uetikon: Trans Tech Publications Ltd; 2000. p 445-448.
19. Hedia HS, Mahmoud NA,. Design optimization of functionally graded dental implant. Bio Med Mater Eng 2004; 14: 133-143.
20. Yang J, Xiang H-J,. A three-dimensional finite element study on the biomechanical behavior of an FGBM dental implant in surrounding bone. J Biomech 2007; 40: 2377-2385.
21. Zhang Y, Sun M-j, Zhang D,. Designing functionally graded materials with superior load-bearing properties. Acta Biomater 2012; 8: 1101-1108.
22. Wang F, Lee HP, Lu C,. Thermal-mechanical study of functionally graded dental implants with the finite element method. J Biomed Mater Res A 2007; 80A: 146-158.
23. Lin D, Li Q, Li W, Zhou S, Swain MV,. Design optimization of functionally graded dental implant for bone remodeling. Compos B Eng 2009; 40: 668-675.
24. Parenteau NL, Hardin-Young J, Ross RN,. Skin. In:, Lanza RP, Langer R, Vacanti J, editors. Principles of Tissue Engineering, 2nd ed, Chapter 62. San Diego: Academic Press; 2000. p 879-890.
25. Silva E, Walters M, Paulino G,. Modeling bamboo as a functionally graded material: Lessons for the analysis of affordable materials. J Mater Sci 2006; 41: 6991-7004.
26. Moshe-Drezner H, Shilo D, Dorogoy A, Zolotoyabko E,. Nanometer-scale mapping of elastic modules in biogenic composites: The nacre of mollusk shells. Adv Funct Mater 2010; 20: 2723-2728.
27. Matsuo S, Watari F, Ohata N,. Fabrication of a functionally graded dental composite resin post and core by laser lithography and finite element analysis of its stress relaxation effect on tooth root. Dent Mater J 2001; 20: 257-274.
28. Pompe W, Worch H, Epple M, Friess W, Gelinsky M, Greil P, Hempel U, Scharnweber D, Schulte K,. Functionally graded materials for biomedical applications. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 2003; 362: 40-60.
29. Ozkan S, Kalyon DM, Yu X,. Functionally graded β-TCP/PCL nanocomposite scaffolds: In vitro evaluation with human fetal osteoblast cells for bone tissue engineering. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 92A: 1007-1018.
30. Bottino MC, Thomas V, Janowski GM,. A novel spatially designed and functionally graded electrospun membrane for periodontal regeneration. Acta Biomater 2011; 7: 216-224.
31. Lin CL, Wang JC, Kuo YC,. Numerical simulation on the biomechanical interactions of tooth/implant-supported system under various occlusal forces with rigid/non-rigid connections. J Biomech 2006; 39: 453-463.
32. Chun HJ, Cheong SY, Han JH, Heo SJ, Chung JP, Rhyu IC, Choi YC, Baik HK, Ku Y, Kim MH,. Evaluation of design parameters of osseointegrated dental implants using finite element analysis. J Oral Rehabil 2002; 29: 565-574.
33. Van Staden RC, Guan H, Loo YC,. Application of the finite element method in dental implant research. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Eng 2006; 9: 257-270.
34. Kayabaşi O, Yüzbasioglu E, Erzincanli F,. Static, dynamic and fatigue behaviors of dental implant using finite element method. Adv Eng Softw 2006; 37: 649-658.
35. Van Oosterwyck H, Duyck J, Sloten JV, Van Der Perre G, De Cooman M, Lievens S, Puers R, Naert I,. The influence of bone mechanical properties and implant fixation upon bone loading around oral implants. Clin Oral Implant Res 1998; 9: 407-418.
36. Geng JP, Tan KBC, Liu GR,. Application of finite element analysis in implant dentistry: A review of the literature. J Prosthet Dent 2001; 85: 585-598.
37. Glantz PO, Rangert B, Svensson A, Stafford GD, Arnvidarson B, Randow K, Lindén U, Hultén J,. On clinical loading of osseointegrated implants. A methodological and clinical study. Clin Oral Implant Res 1993; 4: 99-105.
38. Watari F, Yokoyama A, Saso F, Uo M, Matsuno H, Kawasaki T,. Imaging of gradient structure of titanium/apatite functionally graded dental implant. J Jpn I Met 1998; 62: 1095-1101.
39. Watari F, Yokoyama A, Matsuno H, Saso F, Uo M, Kawasaki T,. Biocompatibility of titanium/hydroxyapatite and titanium/cobalt functionally graded implants. Mater Sci Forum 1999; 308-311: 356-361.
40. Takahashi H,. Mechanical properties of functional gradient materials of titanium-apatite and titanium zirconia for dental use. J Jpn Soc Dent Mater Devic 1993; 12: 595-612.
41. Takahashi H, Watari F, Nishimura F, Nakamura H,. Study of functionally gradient materials of titanium-apatite and titanium-silica for dental use. J Jpn Soc Dent Mater Devic 1992; 11: 462-468.
42. Kondo H, Yokoyama A, Omori M, Ohkubo A, Hirai T, Watari F, Uo M, Kawasaki T,. Fabrication of titanium nitride/apatite functionally graded implants by spark plasma sintering. Mater Trans 2004; 45: 3156-3162.
43. Tamura Y, Yokoyama A, Watari F, Uo M, Kawasaki T,. Mechanical properties of surface nitrided titanium for abrasion resistant implant materials. Mater Trans 2002; 43: 3043-3051.
44. Rho JY, Ashman RB, Turner CH,. Young's modulus of trabecular and cortical bone material: Ultrasonic and microtensile measurements. J Biomech 1993; 26 (2): 111-119.
45. Dowker SEP, Elliott JC, Davis GR, Wilson RM, Cloetens P,. Three-dimensional study of human dental fissure enamel by synchrotron X-ray microtomography. Eur J Oral Sci 2006; 114: 353-359.
46. Kitagawa T, Tanimoto Y, Nemoto K, Aida M,. Influence of cortical bone quality on stress distribution in bone around dental implant. Dent Mater J 2005; 24: 219-224.
47. Kitagawa T, Tanimoto Y, Odaki M, Nemoto K, Aida M,. Influence of implant/abutment joint designs on abutment screw loosening in a dental implant system. J Biomed Mater Res B 2005; 75B: 457-463.
48. Angker L, Swain MV, Kilpatrick N,. Micro-mechanical characterisation of the properties of primary tooth dentine. J Dent 2003; 31: 261-267.
49. Benzing UR, Gall H, Weber H,. Biomechanical aspects of two different implant-prosthetic concepts for edentulous maxillae. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1995; 10: 188-198.
50. Lin C-L, Wang J-C, Kuo Y-C,. Numerical simulation on the biomechanical interactions of tooth/implant-supported system under various occlusal forces with rigid/non-rigid connections. J Biomech 2006; 39: 453-463.
51. Stone DS, Yoder KB, Sproul WD,. Hardness and elastic-modulus of tin based on continuous indentation technique and new correlation. J Vac Sci Technol A 1991; 9: 2543-2547.
52. Sherif El-Eskandarany M, Omori M, Hirai T, Konno T, Sumiyama K, Suzuki K,. Syntheses of full-density nanocrystalline titanium nitride compacts by plasma-activated sintering of mechanically reacted powder. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 1998; 29: 1973-1981.
53. Namazu T, Inoue B, Ano D, Koterazawa K,. XRD tensile test technique to measure mechanical properties of micron-thick Si and TiN films. In:, Kim YJ, Bae HD, editors. Advances in Fracture and Strength, Pts 1-4. Zurich-Uetikon: Trans Tech Publications Ltd; 2005. p 574-580.
54. Marti A,. Cobalt-base alloys used in bone surgery. Injury 2000; 31, Supplement 4 (0): D18-D21.
55. Gahlert M, Gudehus T, Eichhorn S, Steinhauser E, Kniha H, Erhardt W,. Biomechanical and histomorphometric comparison between zirconia implants with varying surface textures and a titanium implant in the maxilla of miniature pigs. Clin Oral Implant Res 2007; 18 (5): 662-668.
56. Andreiotelli M, Kohal R-J,. Fracture Strength of Zirconia Implants after Artificial Aging. Clin Implant Dent Relat Res 2009; 11 (2): 158-166.
57. Zhou Y, Lin WG, Yang J, Gao L, Lin N, Yang JY, Hou Q, Wang Y, Zhu JH,. Controlling the primary particle evolution process towards silica monoliths with tunable hierarchical structure. J Colloid Interef Sci 2011; 364 (2): 594-604.
58. Mathew MT, Barão VA, Yuan JC-C, Assunção WG, Sukotjo C, Wimmer MA,. What is the role of lipopolysaccharide on the tribocorrosive behavior of titanium? J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2012; 8: 71-85.
59. Diamanti MV, Del Curto B, Pedeferri M,. Anodic oxidation of titanium: From technical aspects to biomedical applications. J Appl Biomater Biomech 2011; 9: 55-69.
60. Long M, Rack HJ,. Titanium alloys in total joint replacement-A materials science perspective. Biomaterials 1998; 19: 1621-1639.
61. Hjalmarsson L, Smedberg JI, Aronsson G, Wennerberg A,. Cellular responses to cobalt-chrome and CP titanium-An in vitro comparison of frameworks for implant-retained oral prostheses. Swed Dent J 2011; 35: 177-186.
62. Depprich R, Zipprich H, Ommerborn M, Naujoks C, Wiesmann HP, Kiattavorncharoen S, Lauer HC, Meyer U, Kübler NR, Handschel J,. Osseointegration of zirconia implants compared with titanium: An in vivo study. Head Face Med 2008; 4: 30.
63. Piconi C, Maccauro G,. Zirconia as a ceramic biomaterial. Biomaterials 1999; 20: 1-25.
64. Ichikawa Y, Akagawa Y, Nikai H, Tsuru H,. Tissue compatibility and stability of a new zirconia ceramic in vivo. J Prosthet Dent 1992; 68: 322-326.
65. Warashina H, Sakano S, Kitamura S, Yamauchi KI, Yamaguchi J, Ishiguro N, Hasegawa Y,. Biological reaction to alumina, zirconia, titanium and polyethylene particles implanted onto murine calvaria. Biomaterials 2003; 24: 3655-3661.
66. Fujii T, Tohgo K, Araki H, Wakazono K, Ishikura M, Shimamura Y,. Fabrication and strength evaluation of biocompatible ceramic-metal composite materials. Key Eng Mater 2010; 4: 1699-1710.
67. Fujii T, Tohgo K, Araki H, Wakazono K, Ishikura M, Shimamura Y,. Effect of material composition on mechanical properties of ceramics-metal composite materials. In:, Ariffin AK, Abdullah S, Ali A, Muchtar A, Ghazali MJ, Sajuri Z, editors. Fracture and Strength of Solids Vii, Pts 1 and 2. Stafa-Zurich: Trans Tech Publications Ltd; 2011. p 100-105.
68. Morks MF,. Fabrication and characterization of plasma-sprayed HA/SiO2 coatings for biomedical application. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2008; 1: 105-111.
69. Gao T, Aro HT, Ylänen H, Vuorio E,. Silica-based bioactive glasses modulate expression of bone morphogenetic protein-2 mRNA in Saos-2 osteoblasts in vitro. Biomaterials 2001; 22: 1475-1483.
70. Sadjadi MS, Ebrahimi HR, Meskinfam M, Zare K,. Silica enhanced formation of hydroxyapatite nanocrystals in simulated body fluid (SBF) at 37°C. Mater Chem Phys 2011; 130: 67-71.
71. Hing KA, Revell PA, Smith N, Buckland T,. Effect of silicon level on rate, quality and progression of bone healing within silicate-substituted porous hydroxyapatite scaffolds. Biomaterials 2006; 27: 5014-5026.
72. Lin YS, Tsai CP, Huang HY, Kuo CT, Hung Y, Huang DM, Chen YC, Mou CY,. Well-ordered mesoporous silica nanoparticles as cell markers. Chem Mat 2005; 17: 4570-4573.
73. Yap FL, Zhang Y,. Protein and cell micropatterning and its integration with micro/nanoparticles assembly. Biosens Bioelectron 2007; 22: 775-788.
74. Veerapandian M, Yun K,. The state of the art in biomaterials as nanobiopharmaceuticals. Dig J Nanomater Biostruct 2009; 4: 243-262.
75. Lao J, Nedelec JM, Jallot E,. New strontium-based bioactive glasses: Physicochemical reactivity and delivering capability of biologically active dissolution products. J Mater Chem 2009; 19: 2940-2949.
76. Hong Z, Reis RL, Mano JF,. Preparation and in vitro characterization of novel bioactive glass ceramic nanoparticles. J Biomed Mater Res A 2009; 88A: 304-313.
77. Hong Z, Luz GM, Hampel PJ, Jin M, Liu A, Chen X, Mano JF,. Mono-dispersed bioactive glass nanospheres: Preparation and effects on biomechanics of mammalian cells. J Biomed Mater Res A 2010; 95A: 747-754.
78. Klein C, Driessen AA, Degroot K, Vandenhooff A,. Biodegradation behavior of various calcium-phosphate materials in bone tissue. J Biomed Mater Res A 1983; 17: 769-784.
79. Hench LL, Splinter RJ, Allen WC, Greenlee TK,. Bonding mechanisms at the interface of ceramic prosthetic materials. J Biomed Mater Res A 1972; 5: 117-141.
80. Baradararan S, Hamdi M, Metselaar IH,. Biphasic calcium phosphate (BCP) macroporous scaffold with different ratios of HA/beta-TCP by combination of gel casting and polymer sponge methods. Adv Appl Ceram 2012; 111: 367-373.
81. Matsuno T, Koishi M,. Fracture-toughness of porous sintered bodies of hydroxyapatite. Chem Lett 1992: 2335-2338.
82. Halouani R, Bernache-Assolant D, Champion E, Ababou A,. Microstructure and related mechanical properties of hot pressed hydroxyapatite ceramics. J Mater Sci Mater Med 1994; 5: 563-568.
83. Suchanek W, Yoshimura M,. Processing and properties of hydroxyapatite-based biomaterials for use as hard tissue replacement implants. J Mater Res 1998; 13: 94-117.
84. Matsuno T, Watanabe K, Ono K, Koishi M,. Sintering of zirconia coated hydroxyapatite particles. J Ceram Soc Jpn 1996; 104: 945-948.
85. Matsuno T, Watanabe K, Ono K, Koishi M,. Microstructure and mechanical properties of sintered body of zirconia coated hydroxyapatite particles. J Mater Sci Lett 2000; 19: 573-576.
86. Hisbergues M, Vendeville S, Vendeville P,. Zirconia: Established facts and perspectives for a biomaterial in dental implantology. J Biomed Mater Res B 2009; 88B: 519-529.
87. Matsuno T, Watanabe K, Ono K, Koishi M,. Preparation of laminated hydroxyapatite/zirconia sintered composite with the gradient composition. J Mater Sci Lett 1998; 17: 1349-1351.
88. Guo H, Khor KA, Boey YC, Miao X,. Laminated and functionally graded hydroxyapatite/yttria stabilized tetragonal zirconia composites fabricated by spark plasma sintering. Biomaterials 2003; 24: 667-675.
89. Sykaras N, Iacopino AM, Marker VA, Triplett RG, Woody RD,. Implant materials, designs, and surface topographies: Their effect on osseointegration. A literature review. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 2000; 15: 675-690.
90. Cristache CM, Burlibasa M, Tanase G, Nitescu M, Neamtu R, Ciochinaru A,. Titanium as dental implant material. Metal Int 2009; 14: 14-16.
91. Turner TM, Sumner DR, Urban RM, Rivero DP, Galante JO,. A comparative-study of porous coatings in a weight-bearing total hip-arthroplasty model. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1986; 68A: 1396-1409.
92. Becker BS, Bolton JD,. Corrosion behaviour and mechanical properties of functionally gradient materials developed for possible hard-tissue applications. J Mater Sci Mater Med 1997; 8: 793-797.
93. Traini T, Mangano C, Sammons RL, Mangano F, Macchi A, Piattelli A,. Direct laser metal sintering as a new approach to fabrication of an isoelastic functionally graded material for manufacture of porous titanium dental implants. Dent Mater 2008; 24: 1525-1533.
94. Hirschhorn JS, Reynolds JT,. Powder metallurgy fabrication of cobalt alloy surgical implant materials. In: Research in Dental and Medical Materials. New York: Plenum; 1969. p 137-150.
95. Becker BS, Bolton JD, Youseffi M,. Production of porous sintered co-cr-mo alloys for possible surgical implant applications.1. Compaction, sintering behavior, and properties. Powder Metall 1995; 38: 201-208.
96. Oh SH, Park IK, Kim JM, Lee JH,. In vitro and in vivo characteristics of PCL scaffolds with pore size gradient fabricated by a centrifugation method. Biomaterials 2007; 28: 1664-1671.
97. Thomas KA, Cook SD,. An evaluation of variables influencing implant fixation by direct bone apposition. J Biomed Mater Res A 1985; 19: 875-901.
98. Wong M, Eulenberger J, Schenk R, Hunziker E,. Effect of surface topology on the osseointegration of implant materials in trabecular bone. J Biomed Mater Res A 1995; 29: 1567-1575.
99. Carlsson L, Röstlund T, Albrektsson B, Albrektsson T,. Removal torques for polished and rough titanium implants. Int J Oral Maxillofac Implants 1988; 3: 21-24.
100. Watari F, Kondo H, Miyao R, Omori M, Okubo A, Hirai T, Yokoyama A, Uo M, Tamura Y, Kawasaki T,. Effect of spark plasma sintering pressure on the properties of functionally graded implant and its biocompatibility. Funtai Funamtsu Yakin Kyokai/Jpn Soc Powder Metallurgy 2002; 49: 1063-1069.
101. Chu C, Zhu J, Yin Z, Lin P,. Optimal design and fabrication of hydroxyapatite-Ti asymmetrical functionally graded biomaterial. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 2003; 348: 244-250.
102. Chenglin C, Jingchuan Z, Zhongda Y, Shidong W,. Hydroxyapatite-Ti functionally graded biomaterial fabricated by powder metallurgy. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 1999; 271: 95-100.
103. Kutty MG, Bhaduri SB,. Gradient surface porosity in titanium dental implants: Relation between processing parameters and microstructure. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2004; 15: 145-150.
104. Suk M-J, Choi S, II, Kim J-S, Kim Y, Kwon Y-S,. Fabrication of a porous material with a porosity gradient by a pulsed electric current sintering process. Met Mater Int 2003; 9: 599-603.
105. Krishna BV, Bose S, Bandyopadhyay A,. Low stiffness porous Ti structures for load-bearing implants. Acta Biomater 2007; 3: 997-1006.
106. Sasaki H, Asaoka T,. The fabrication of Ti alloy-hydroxy apatite (HAp) functionally graded material (FGM). Funtai Funamtsu Yakin Kyokai/Jpn Soc Powder Metallurgy 2006; 53: 510-514.
107. Wang C, Cheng L, Zhao Z,. FEM analysis of the temperature and stress distribution in spark plasma sintering: Modelling and experimental validation. Comput Mater Sci 2010; 49: 351-362.
108. Vanmeensel K, Laptev A, Hennicke J, Vleugels J, Van der Biest O,. Modelling of the temperature distribution during field assisted sintering. Acta Mater 2005; 53: 4379-4388.
109. Chu C, Zhu J, Yin Z, Lin P,. Structure optimization and properties of hydroxyapatite-Ti symmetrical functionally graded biomaterial. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 2001; 316: 205-210.
110. Black J,. Fundamentals of Biocompatibilities. New York: Marcel Dekker; 1999. p 444-457.
111. Dee KC, Puleo DA, Bizios R,. An Introduction to Tissue-Biomaterial Interactions. New York: Wiley; 2004.
112. Bendavid A, Martin PJ, Takikawa H,. Deposition and modification of titanium dioxide thin films by filtered arc deposition. Thin Solid Films 2000; 360: 241-249.
113. Ottermann CR, Bange K,. Correlation between the density of TiO2 films and their properties. Thin Solid Films 1996; 286: 32-34.
114. Teng LD, Wang FM, Li WC,. Thermodynamics and microstructure of Ti-ZrO2 metal-ceramic functionally graded materials. Mater Sci Eng A Struct 2000; 293: 130-136.
115. Lin K-L, Lin C-C,. Reaction between titanium and zirconia powders during sintering at 1500°C. J Am Ceram Soc 2007; 90: 2220-2225.
116. Thieme M, Wieters KP, Bergner F, Scharnweber D, Worch H, Ndop J, Kim TJ, Grill W,. Titanium powder sintering for preparation of a porous functionally graded material destined for orthopaedic implants. J Mater Sci Mater Med 2001; 12: 225-231.
117. Liu Y, Jin ZH,. Electric current assisted sintering of continuous functionally graded Ti2AlN/TiN material. Ceram Int 2012; 38: 217-222.
118. Liu WP, DuPont JN,. Fabrication of functionally graded TiC/Ti composites by laser engineered net shaping. Scr Mater 2003; 48: 1337-1342.
119. Banerjee R, Collins PC, Bhattacharyya D, Banerjee S, Fraser HL,. Microstructural evolution in laser deposited compositionally graded alpha/beta titanium-vanadium alloys. Acta Mater 2003; 51: 3277-3292.
120. Oh IH, Nomura N, Masahashi N, Hanada S,. Mechanical properties of porous titanium compacts prepared by powder sintering. Scr Mater 2003; 49: 1197-1202.
121. Boccaccini AR, Ondracek G, Mombello E,. Determination of stress concentration factors in porous materials. J Mater Sci Lett 1996; 15: 534-536.
122. Hollander DA, von Walter M, Wirtz T, Sellei R, Schmidt-Rohlfing B, Paar O, Erli H-J,. Structural, mechanical and in vitro characterization of individually structured Ti-6Al-4V produced by direct laser forming. Biomaterials 2006; 27: 955-963.
123. Deckard C, Beaman JJ,. Process and Control Issues in Selective Laser Sintering. ASME; 1988. p 191-197.
124. Rupp F, Scheideler L, Rehbein D, Axmann D, Geis-Gerstorfer J,. Roughness induced dynamic changes of wettability of acid etched titanium implant modifications. Biomaterials 2004; 25: 1429-1438.