Genetic instrumental variable studies of effects of prenatal risk factors

Biodemography and Social Biology

Volumn 59, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 4-36

  Wehby, George L ^a   Scholder, Stephanie Von Hinke Kessler ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF YORK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADH1B PROTEIN, HUMAN; ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE; FTO PROTEIN, HUMAN; NICOTINIC RECEPTOR; NICOTINIC RECEPTOR SUBUNIT ALPHA3; PROTEIN;

ARTICLE; BIRTH WEIGHT; BODY MASS; DRINKING BEHAVIOR; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EPIDEMIOLOGY; FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; GENETICS; HUMAN; MENTAL HEALTH; OBESITY; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; SOCIOECONOMICS;

ALCOHOL DEHYDROGENASE; ALCOHOL DRINKING; BIRTH WEIGHT; BODY MASS INDEX; CONFOUNDING FACTORS (EPIDEMIOLOGY); FEMALE; GENE FREQUENCY; HUMANS; MATERNAL EXPOSURE; MENTAL HEALTH; OBESITY; PREGNANCY; PREGNANCY OUTCOME; PROTEINS; RECEPTORS, NICOTINIC; RISK FACTORS; SMOKING; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84878581930     PISSN: 19485565     EISSN: 19485573     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/19485565.2013.774615     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Angrist, J. D. 2001. Estimations of limited dependent variable models with dummy endogenous regressors: Simple strategies for empirical practice. J Bus Econ Stat 19(1): 2-16
2. Angrist, J. D., G.W. Imbens, and D. B. Rubin. 1996. Identification of causal effects using instrumental variables. J Am Stat Assoc 91(434): 444-455
3. Baker, T. B., R. B.Weiss, D. Bolt, A. von Niederhausern,M. C. Fiore, D.M. Dunn, M. E. Piper, et al. 2009. Human neuronal acetylcholine receptor A5-A3-B4 haplotypes are associated with multiple nicotine dependence phenotypes. Nicotine Tob Res 11(7): 785-796. doi: 10.1093/ntr/ntp064
4. Berrettini, W., X. Yuan, F. Tozzi, K. Song, C. Francks, H. Chilcoat, D. Waterworth, P. Muglia, and V. Mooser. 2008. Alpha-5/alpha-3 nicotinic receptor subunit alleles increase risk for heavy smoking. Mol Psychiatry 13(4): 368-373
5. Bhattacharya, S., D. M. Campbell, W. A. Liston, and S. Bhattacharya. 2007. Effect of body mass index on pregnancy outcomes in nulliparous women delivering singleton babies. BMC Public Health 7:168
6. Birley, A. J., M. R. James, P. A. Dickson, G. W. Montgomery, A. C. Heath, N. G. Martin, and J. B. Whitfield. 2009. ADH single nucleotide polymorphism associations with alcohol metabolism in vivo. Hum Mol Genet 18(8): 1533-1542. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddp060
7. Cauchi, S., F. Stutzmann, C. Cavalcanti-Proenca, E. Durand, A. Pouta, A. L. Hartikainen, M. Marre, et al. 2009. Combined effects ofMC4R and FTO common genetic variants on obesity in European general populations. J MolMed 87(5): 537-546. doi: 10.1007/s00109-009-0451-6.
8. Cecil, J. E., R. Tavendale, P.Watt, M. M. Hetherington, and C. N. Palmer. 2008. An obesity-associated FTO gene variant and increased energy intake in children. N Engl J Med 359(24): 2558-2566. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0803839
9. Chen, L., G. Davey Smith, R. M. Harbord, and S. J. Lewis. 2008. Alcohol intake and blood pressure: A systematic review implementing a Mendelian randomization approach. PLoS Med 5 (3): E52. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0050052
10. Cheung, C. Y., A. W. Tso, B. M. Cheung, A. Xu, K. L. Ong, L. S. Law, N. M. Wat, E. D. Janus, P. C. Sham, and K. S. Lam. 2011. Genetic variants associated with persistent central obesity and the metabolic syndrome in a 12-year longitudinal study. Eur J Endocrinol 164(3): 381-388. doi: 10.1530/EJE-10-0902
11. Colhoun, H. M., P. M. McKeigue, and G. Davey Smith. 2003. Problems of reporting genetic associations with complex outcomes. Lancet 361(9360): 865-872
12. Cornes, B. K., P. A. Lind, S. E. Medland, G. W. Montgomery, D. R. Nyholt, and N. G. Martin. 2009. Replication of the association of common rs9939609 variant of FTO with increased BMI in an Australian adult twin population but no evidence for gene by environment (G x E) interaction. Int J Obes 33(1): 75-79. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2008.223
13. Davey Smith, G. 2011. Use of genetic markers and gene-diet interactions for interrogating populationlevel causal influences of diet on health. Genes Nutr 6: 27-43
14. Davey Smith, G., and S. Ebrahim. 2003. "Mendelian randomization": Can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Int J Epidemiol 32(1): 1-22
15. - - . 2004. Mendelian randomization: Prospects, potentials, and limitations. Int J Epidemiol 33(1): 30-42. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyh132
16. Davey Smith, G., D. A. Lawlor, R. Harbord, N. Timpson, I. Day, and S. Ebrahim. 2007. Clustered environments and randomized genes: A fundamental distinction between conventional and genetic epidemiology. PLoS Med 4(12): E352
17. den Hoed, M., M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga, F. G. Bouwman, E. C. Mariman, and K. R. Westerterp. 2009. Postprandial responses in hunger and satiety are associated with the rs9939609 single nucleotide polymorphism in FTO. Am J Clin Nutr 90(5): 1426-1432. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.2009.28053
18. Didelez, V., S. Meng, and M. A. Sheehan. 2010. Assumptions of IV methods for observational epidemiology. Stat Sci 25(1): 22-40
19. Dina, C., D. Meyre, S. Gallina, E. Durand, A. Korner, P. Jacobson, L. M. Carlsson, et al. 2007. Variation in FTO contributes to childhood obesity and severe adult obesity." Nat Genet 39 (6): 724-726. doi: 10.1038/ng2048
20. Duranceaux, N. C., M. A. Schuckit, M. Y. Eng, S. K. Robinson, L. G. Carr, and T. L. Wall. 2006. Associations of variations in alcohol dehydrogenase genes with the level of response to alcohol in non-Asians. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 30(9): 1470-1478. doi: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2006.00178.x.
21. Elks, C. E., J. R. Perry, P. Sulem, D. I. Chasman, N. Franceschini, C. He, K. L. Lunetta, et al. 2010. Thirty new loci for age at menarche identified by a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies. Nat Genet 42(12): 1077-1085. doi: 10.1038/ng.714
22. Fletcher, J. M. 2011. The promise and pitfalls of combining genetic and economic research. Health Econ 20(8): 889-892. doi: 10.1002/hec.1745
23. Fletcher, J. M., and S. F. Lehrer. 2011. Genetic lotteries within families. J Health Econ 30(4): 647-659. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.04.005
24. Frayling, T. M., N. J. Timpson, M. N. Weedon, E. Zeggini, R. M. Freathy, C. M. Lindgren, J. R. Perry, et al. 2007. A common variant in the FTO gene is associated with body mass index and predisposes to childhood and adult obesity." Science 316(5826): 889-894. doi: 10.1126/science. 1141634
25. Freathy, R. M., S. M. Ring, B. Shields, B. Galobardes, B. Knight, M. N. Weedon, G. D. Smith, T. M. Frayling, and A. T. Hattersley. 2009. A common genetic variant in the 15q24 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene cluster (CHRNA5-CHRNA3-CHRNB4) is associated with a reduced ability of women to quit smoking in pregnancy. Hum Mol Genet 18(15): 2922-2927. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddp216
26. Ghosh, S., L. J. Bierut, B. Porjesz, H. J. Edenberg, D. Dick, A. Goate, V. Hesselbrock, et al. 2008. A novel non-parametric regression reveals linkage on chromosome 4 for the number of externalizing symptoms in sib-pairs. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 147(7): 1301-1305. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.b.30735
27. Golding, J.,M. Pembrey, and R. Jones. 2001. ALSPAC - The Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. I. Study methodology. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 15(1): 74-87
28. Haupt, A., C. Thamer, H. Staiger, O. Tschritter, K. Kirchhoff, F. Machicao, H. U. Häring, N. Stefan, and A. Fritsche. 2009. Variation in the FTO gene influences food intake but not energy expenditure. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 117(4): 194-197. doi: 10.1055/s-0028- 1087176
29. Hausman, J. A. 1978. Specification tests in econometrics. Econometrica 46(6): 1251-1271
30. Hertel, J. K., S. Johansson, E. Sonestedt, A. Jonsson, R. T. Lie, C. G. Platou, et al. 2011. FTO, type 2 diabetes, and weight gain throughout adult life: A meta-analysis of 41, 504 subjects from the Scandinavian HUNT, MDC, and MPP studies. Diabetes 60(5): 1637-1644. doi: 10.2337/db10- 1340
31. Hinke Kessler Scholder, S. von, G. Davey Smith, D. A. Lawlor, C. Propper, and F.Windmeijer. 2010. "Child height, health and human capital: Evidence using genetic markers. Center for Market and Public Organisation, University of Bristol, working paper 10/245
32. - - . 2011. Mendelian randomization: The use of genes in instrumental variable analyses. Health Econ 20(8): 893-896. doi: 10.1002/hec.1746
33. Hubacek, J. A., R. Bohuslavova, L. Kuthanova, R. Kubinova, A. Peasey, H. Pikhart, M. G. Marmot, and M. Bobak. 2008. The FTO gene and obesity in a large Eastern European population sample: The HAPIEE study. Obesity 16(12): 2764-2766. doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.421
34. Jones, K. L., and D. W. Smith. 1973. Recognition of the fetal alcohol syndrome in early infancy. Lancet 302(7836): 999-1001
35. Jonsson, A., and P. W. Franks. 2009. Obesity, FTO gene variant, and energy intake in children. N Engl J Med 360(15): 1571-1572. doi: 10.1056/NEJMc090017
36. Kaur-Knudsen, D., S. E. Bojesen, A. Tybjaerg-Hansen, and B. G. Nordestgaard. 2011. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor polymorphism, smoking behavior, and tobacco-related cancer and lung and cardiovascular diseases: A cohort study. J Clin Oncol 29(21): 2875-2882. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2010.32.9870
37. Keskitalo, K., U. Broms, M. Heliovaara, S. Ripatti, I. Surakka, M. Perola, J. Pitkäniemi, L. Peltonen, A. Aromaa, and J. Kaprio. 2009. Association of serum cotinine level with a cluster of three nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes (CHRNA3/CHRNA5/CHRNB4) on chromosome 15. Hum Mol Genet 18(20): 4007-4012. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddp322
38. Khashan, A. S., and L. C. Kenny. 2009. The effects of maternal body mass index on pregnancy outcome. Eur J Epidemiol 24(11): 697-705. doi: 10.1007/s10654-009-9375-2.
39. Kivimaki, M., G. D. Smith, N. J. Timpson, D. A. Lawlor, G. D. Batty, M. Kahonen, M. Juonala, et al. 2008. Lifetime body mass index and later atherosclerosis risk in young adults: Examining causal links using Mendelian randomization in the Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns study. Eur Heart J 29(20): 2552-2560. doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehn252
40. Lawlor, D. A., A. Fraser, C. Macdonald-Wallis, S. M. Nelson, T. M. Palmer, G. Davey Smith, and K. Tilling. 2011. Maternal and offspring adiposity-related genetic variants and gestational weight gain. Am J Clin Nutr 94(1): 149-55. doi: 10.3945/ajcn.110.010751
41. Lawlor, D. A., R. M. Harbord, J. A. Sterne, N. Timpson, and G. Davey Smith. 2008. Mendelian randomization: Using genes as instruments for making causal inferences in epidemiology. Stat Med 27(8): 1133-1163. doi: 10.1002/sim.3034
42. Lemoine, P., H. Harousseau, J. -P. Borteyru, and J. -C. Menuet. 1968. Les enfants de parents alcooliques. Anomalies observees. A propos de 127 cas. OQuest-Medical 21: 476-482
43. Lien, D. S., and W. N. Evans. 2005. Estimating the impact of large cigarette tax hikes: The case of maternal smoking and infant birth weight. J Hum Resour 40(2): 373-392
44. Liu, J. Z., F. Tozzi, D. M.Waterworth, S. G. Pillai, P. Muglia, L.Middleton,W. Berrettini, et al. 2010. Meta-analysis and imputation refines the association of 15q25 with smoking quantity. Nat Genet 42(5): 436-440
45. Liu, J., Z. Zhou, C. A. Hodgkinson, Q. Yuan, P. H. Shen, C. J. Mulligan, A. Wang, et al. 2011. Haplotype-based study of the association of alcohol-metabolizing genes with alcohol dependence in four independent populations. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 35(2): 304-316. doi: 10.1111/j.1530- 0277.2010.01346.x.
46. Loew, M., H. Boeing, T. Sturmer, and H. Brenner. 2003. Relation among alcohol dehydrogenase 2 polymorphism, alcohol consumption, and levels of gamma-glutamyltransferase. Alcohol 29(3): 131-135
47. Luo, X., H. R. Kranzler, L. Zuo, J. Lappalainen, B. Z. Yang, and J. Gelernter. 2006. ADH4 gene variation is associated with alcohol dependence and drug dependence in European Americans: Results from HWD tests and case-control association studies. Neuropsychopharmacology 31(5): 1085-1095. doi: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300925
48. Macgregor, S., P. A. Lind, K. K. Bucholz, N. K. Hansell, P. A. Madden, M. M. Richter, G. W. Montgomery, N. G. Martin, A. C. Heath, and J. B. Whitfield. 2009. Associations of ADH and ALDH2 gene variation with self report alcohol reactions, consumption and dependence: An integrated analysis. Hum Mol Genet 18(3): 580-593. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddn372
49. Marichalar-Mendia, X., A. Acha-Sagredo, M. J. Rodriguez-Tojo, N. Rey-Barja, M. Hernando- Rodriguez, J. I. Aguirregaviria, and J. M. Aguirre-Urizar. 2011. Alcohol-dehydrogenase (ADH1B) Arg48His polymorphism in Basque Country patients with oral and laryngeal cancer: Preliminary study. Anticancer Res 31(2): 677-680
50. McKay, J. D., T. Truong, V. Gaborieau, A. Chabrier, S. C. Chuang, G. Byrnes, D. Zaridze, et al. 2011. A genome-wide association study of upper aerodigestive tract cancers conducted within the INHANCE consortium. PLoS Genet 7 (3): E1001333. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen. 1001333
51. Melen, E., B. E. Himes, J. M. Brehm, N. Boutaoui, B. J. Klanderman, J. S. Sylvia, and J. Lasky-Su. 2010. Analyses of shared genetic factors between asthma and obesity in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 126(3): 631-637. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2010.06.030
52. Metwally, M., K. J. Ong, W. L. Ledger, and T. C. Li. 2008. Does high body mass index increase the risk of miscarriage after spontaneous and assisted conception? A meta-analysis of the evidence. Fertil Steril 90: 714-726
53. Meyre, D., J. Delplanque, J. C. Chevre, C. Lecoeur, S. Lobbens, S. Gallina, E. Durand, et al. 2009. Genome-wide association study for early-onset and morbid adult obesity identifies three new risk loci in European populations. Nat Genet 41(2): 157-159. doi: 10.1038/ng.301
54. Mumby, H. S., C. E. Elks, S. Li, S. J. Sharp, K. T. Khaw, R. N. Luben, N. J. Wareham, R. J. Loos, and K. K. Ong. 2011. Mendelian randomisation study of childhood BMI and early menarche. J Obes 2011:180729. doi: 10.1155/2011/180729
55. Nakamura, H. 2011. Genetics of COPD. Allergol Int 60(3): 253-258
56. Olsen, J., M. Melbye, S. F. Olsen, T. I. A. Sorensen, P. Aaby, A-M. NYBO Andersen, D. Taxbøl, et al. 2001. The Danish National Birth Cohort - its background, structure and aim. Scand J Public Health 29(4): 300-307. doi: 10.1177/14034948010290040201
57. Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM). 2011. Online Mendelian inheritance in man. Baltimore, MD: McKusick-Nathans Institute of Genetic Medicine, Johns Hopkins University
58. Palmer, T., D. A. Lawlor, R. M. Harbord, N. A. Sheehan, J. H. Tobias, G. Davey Smith, and J. A. C. Sterne. 2011. Using multiple genetic variants as instrumental variables for modifiable risk factors. Stat Methods Med Res 21(3): 223-242. doi: 10.1177/0962280210394459
59. Paschou, P., E. Ziv, E. G. Burchard, S. Choudhry, W. Rodriguez-Cintron, M. W. Mahoney, and P. Drineas. 2007. PCA-correlated SNPs for structure identification in worldwide human populations. PLoS Genet 3(9): 1672-1686
60. Permutt, T., and J. R. Hebel. 1989. Simultaneous-equation estimation in a clinical trial of the effect of smoking on birth weight. Biometrics 45(2): 619-622
61. Rees, S. D., M. Islam, M. Z. Hydrie, B. Chaudhary, S. Bellary, S. Hashmi, J. P. O'Hare, et al. 2011. An FTO variant is associated with type 2 diabetes in South Asian populations after accounting for body mass index and waist circumference. Diabet Med 28(6): 673-680. doi: 10.1111/j.1464- 5491.2011.03257.x.
62. Reich, T., H. J. Edenberg, A. Goate, J. T. Williams, J. P. Rice, P. Van Eerdewegh, T. Foroud, et al. 1998. Genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence. Am J Med Genet 81(3): 207-215
63. Rosenzweig, M, and T. P Schultz. 1983. Estimating a household production function: Heterogeneity, the demand for health inputs, and their effects on birth weight. J Polit Econ 91(5): 723-746
64. Rutters, F., S. G. Lemmens, J. M. Born, F. Bouwman, A. G. Nieuwenhuizen, E. Mariman, and M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga. 2010. Genetic associations with acute stress-related changes in eating in the absence of hunger. Patient Educ Couns 79(3): 367-371. doi: 10.1016/j.pec. 2010.03.013
65. Saccone, N. L., R. C. Culverhouse, T. H. Schwantes-An, D. S. Cannon, X. Chen, S. Cichon, I. Giegling, et al. 2010. Multiple independent loci at chromosome 15q25.1 affect smoking quantity: A meta-analysis and comparison with lung cancer and COPD. PLoS Genet 6 (8). doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1001053
66. Saccone, S. F., A. L. Hinrichs, N. L. Saccone, G. A. Chase, K. Konvicka, P. A. Madden, N. Breslau, et al. 2007. Cholinergic nicotinic receptor genes implicated in a nicotine dependence association study targeting 348 candidate genes with 3713 SNPs. Hum Mol Genet 16(1): 36-49. doi: Ddl438 [pii]10.1093/hmg/ddl438
67. Saccone, N. L., J. M. Kwon, J. Corbett, A. Goate, N. Rochberg, H. J. Edenberg, T. Foroud, et al. 2000. A genome screen of maximum number of drinks as an alcoholism phenotype. Am J Med Genet 96(5): 632-637
68. Saccone, N. L., S. F. Saccone, A. L. Hinrichs, J. A. Stitzel, W. Duan, M. L. Pergadia, A. Agrawal, et al. 2009. Multiple distinct risk loci for nicotine dependence identified by dense coverage of the complete family of nicotinic receptor subunit (CHRN) genes. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 150(4): 453-466
69. Saccone, S. F., N. L. Saccone, R. J. Neuman, and J. P. Rice. 2005. Genetic analysis of the maximum drinks phenotype. BMC Genet 6(suppl 1): S124. doi: 10.1186/1471-2156-6-S1-S124
70. Scherag, A., C. Dina, A. Hinney, V. Vatin, S. Scherag, C. I. Vogel, T. D. Müller, et al. 2010. Two new loci for body-weight regulation identified in a joint analysis of genome-wide association studies for early-onset extreme obesity in French and German study groups. PLoS Genet 6 (4): E1000916. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1000916
71. Scuteri, A., S. Sanna, W. M. Chen, M. Uda, G. Albai, J. Strait, S. Najjar, et al. 2007. Genome-wide association scan shows genetic variants in the FTO gene are associated with obesity-related traits. PLoS Genet 3 (7): E115. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.0030115
72. Sheehan, N. A., V. Didelez, P. R. Burton, and M. D. Tobin. 2008. Mendelian randomisation and causal inference in observational epidemiology. PLoS Med 5 (8): E177. doi: 10.1371/journal. pmed.0050177
73. Sherva, R., J. P. Rice, R. J. Neuman, N. Rochberg, N. L. Saccone, and L. J. Bierut. 2009. Associations and interactions between SNPs in the alcohol metabolizing genes and alcoholism phenotypes in European Americans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 33(5): 848-857. doi: 10.1111/j.1530- 0277.2009.00904.x.
74. Sherva, R., K. Wilhelmsen, C. S. Pomerleau, S. A. Chasse, J. P. Rice, S. M. Snedecor, L. J. Bierut, R. J. Neuman, and O. F. Pomerleau. 2008. Association of a single nucleotide polymorphism in neuronal acetylcholine receptor subunit alpha 5 (CHRNA5) with smoking status and with "pleasurable buzz" during early experimentation with smoking. Addiction 103(9): 1544-1552. doi: 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02279.x.
75. Speakman, J. R., K. A. Rance, and A. M. Johnstone. 2008. Polymorphisms of the FTO gene are associated with variation in energy intake, but not energy expenditure. Obesity 16(8): 1961-1965. doi: 10.1038/oby.2008.318
76. Staiger, D., and J. H. Stock. 1997. Instrumental variables regression with weak instruments. Econometrica 65(3): 557-586
77. Stevens, V. L., L. J. Bierut, J. T. Talbot, J. C. Wang, J. Sun, A. L. Hinrichs, M. J. Thun, A. Goata, and E. E. Calle. 2008. Nicotinic receptor gene variants influence susceptibility to heavy smoking. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17(12): 3517-3525. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965. EPI-08-0585
78. Sullivan, W. C. 2011. A note on the influence of maternal inebriety on the offspring. 1899. Int J Epidemiol 40(2): 278-282. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyr006
79. Thorgeirsson, T. E., F. Geller, P. Sulem, T. Rafnar, A. Wiste, K. P. Magnusson, A. Manolescu, et al. 2008. A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease. Nature 452(7187): 638-642
80. Thorleifsson, G., G. B. Walters, D. F. Gudbjartsson, V. Steinthorsdottir, P. Sulem, A. Helgadottir, U. Styrkarsdottir, et al. 2009. Genome-wide association yields new sequence variants at seven loci that associate with measures of obesity. Nature Genet 41(1): 18-24. doi: 10.1038/ ng.274
81. Timofeeva, M. N., J. D. McKay, G. D. Smith, M. Johansson, G. B. Byrnes, A. Chabrier, C. Relton, et al. 2011. Genetic polymorphisms in 15q25 and 19q13 loci, cotinine levels, and risk of lung cancer in EPIC. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20(10): 2250-2261
82. Timpson, N. J., P. M. Emmett, T. M. Frayling, I. Rogers, A. T. Hattersley, M. I. McCarthy, and G. Davey Smith. 2008. The fat mass- and obesity-associated locus and dietary intake in children. Am J Clin Nutr 88(4): 971-978
83. Timpson, N. J., R. Harbord, G. Davey Smith, J. Zacho, A. Tybjaerg-Hansen, and B. G. Nordestgaard. 2009. Does greater adiposity increase blood pressure and hypertension risk?: Mendelian randomization using the FTO/MC4R genotype. Hypertension 54(1): 84-90. doi: 10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.109.130005
84. Tobacco and Genetics Consortium. 2010. Genome-wide meta-analyses identify multiple loci associated with smoking behavior. Nat Genet 42(5): 441-447. doi: 10.1038/ng.571
85. Tolstrup, J. S., B. G. Nordestgaard, S. Rasmussen, A. Tybjaerg-Hansen, and M. Gronbaek. 2008. Genetic variations in alcohol dehydrogenase, drinking habits and alcoholism. Ugeskrift for laeger 170(35): 2672-2675
86. Torloni, M. R., A. P. Betran, S. Daher, M. Widmer, S. M. Dolan, R. Menon, E. Bergel, T. Allen, and M. Merialdi. 2009. Maternal BMI and preterm birth: A systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 22(11): 957-970. doi: 10.3109/ 14767050903042561
87. Tournier, J. M., and P. Birembaut. 2011. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and predisposition to lung cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 23(1): 83-87. doi: 10.1097/CCO.0b013e3283412ea1.
88. Tung, Y. C., and G. S. Yeo. 2011. From GWAS to biology: Lessons from FTO. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1220: 162-171. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05903. x.
89. Wall, T. L., S. H. Shea, S. E. Luczak, T. A. Cook, and L. G. Carr. 2005. Genetic associations of alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol use disorders and endophenotypes in white college students. J Abnorm Psychol 114(3): 456-465. doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.114.3.456
90. Wardle, J., S. Carnell, C. M. Haworth, I. S. Farooqi, S. O'Rahilly, and R. Plomin. 2008. Obesity associated genetic variation in FTO is associated with diminished satiety. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 93(9): 3640-3643. doi: 10.1210/jc.2008-0472
91. Wattigney, W. A., S. R. Srinivasan, W. Chen, K. J. Greenlund, and G. S. Berenson. 1999. Secular trend of earlier onset of menarche with increasing obesity in black and white girls: The Bogalusa Heart Study. Ethn Dis 9(2): 181-189
92. Wehby, G. L., J. M. Fletcher, S. F. Lehrer, L. M. Moreno, J. C. Murray, A. Wilcox, and R. T. Lie. 2011. A genetic instrumental variables analysis of the effects of prenatal smoking on birth weight: Evidence from two samples. Biodemography Soc Biol 57(1): 3-32
93. Wehby, G. L., A. Jugessur, L. M. Moreno, J. C. Murray, A. Wilcox, and R. T. Lie. 2011. Genes as instruments for studying risk behavior effects: An application to maternal smoking and oraofacial clefts. Health Serv Outcomes Res Methodol 11(1-2): 54-78
94. Wehby, G. L., J. C. Murray, E. E. Castilla, J. S. Lopez-Camelo, and R. L. Ohsfeldt. 2009. Prenatal care demand and its effects on birth outcomes by birth defect status in Argentina. Econ Hum Biol 7(1): 84-95
95. Wehby, G. L., J. C. Murray, A. Wilcox, and R. T. Lie. 2012. Smoking and body weight: Evidence using genetic instruments. Econ Hum Biol 10(2): 113-126
96. Wehby, G. L., R. L. Ohsfeldt, and J. C. Murray. 2008. "Mendelian randomization" equals instrumental variable analysis with genetic instruments. Stat Med 27(15): 2745-2749
97. Wehby, G. L., K. N. Prater, A. M. McCarthy, E. E. Castilla, and J. C. Murray. 2011. The impact of maternal smoking during pregnancy on early child neurodevelopment. J Hum Cap 5(2): 207-254
98. Wehby, G. L., A. Wilcox, and R. T. Lie. In press. The impact of cigarette quitting during pregnancy on other prenatal health behaviors. Review of Economics of Household. doi: 10.1007/s11150-012- 9163-8.
99. Weiss, R. B., T. B. Baker, D. S. Cannon, A. von Niederhausern, D.M. Dunn, N. Matsunami, N. Singh, et al. 2008. A candidate gene approach identifies the CHRNA5-A3-B4 region as a risk factor for age-dependent nicotine addiction. PLoS Genet 4 (7): E1000125
100. Whitfield, J. B., B. N. Nightingale, K. K. Bucholz, P. A. Madden, A. C. Heath, and N. G. Martin. 1998. ADH genotypes and alcohol use and dependence in Europeans. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 22(7): 1463-1469
101. Willer, C. J., E. K. Speliotes, R. J. Loos, S. Li, C. M. Lindgren, I. M. Heid, S. I. Berndt, et al. 2009. Six new loci associated with body mass index highlight a neuronal influence on body weight regulation. Nat Genet 41(1): 25-34. doi: 10.1038/ng.287
102. Wüst, M. 2010. The effect of cigarette and alcohol consumption on birth outcomes. Working paper 10-05, Aarhus School of Business, Department of Economics
103. Yang, S. J., A. Yokoyama, T. Yokoyama, Y. C. Huang, S. Y. Wu, Y. Shao, J. Niu, et al. 2010. Relationship between genetic polymorphisms of ALDH2 and ADH1B and esophageal cancer risk: A meta-analysis. World J Gastroenterol 16(33): 4210-4220
104. Zhang, F. F., L. Hou, M. B. Terry, J. Lissowska, A. Morabia, J. Chen, M. Yeager, W. Zatonski, S. Chanock, and W. H. Chow. 2007. Genetic polymorphisms in alcohol metabolism, alcohol intake and the risk of stomach cancer in Warsaw, Poland. Int J Cancer. 121(9): 2060-2064. doi: 10.1002/ijc.22973
105. Zhang, G. H., R. Q. Mai, and B. Huang. 2010a. Meta-analysis of ADH1B and ALDH2 polymorphisms and esophageal cancer risk in China. World J Gastroenterol 16(47): 6020-6025
106. - - . 2010b. ADH1B Arg47His polymorphism is associated with esophageal cancer risk in highincidence Asian population: Evidence from a meta-analysis. PloS One 5(10): E13679. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013679
107. Zintzaras, E., I. Stefanidis, M. Santos, and F. Vidal. 2006. Do alcohol-metabolizing enzyme gene polymorphisms increase the risk of alcoholism and alcoholic liver disease? Hepatology 43(2): 352-361. doi: 10.1002/hep.21023
108. Zintzaras, E., and N. Zdoukopoulos. 2009. A field synopsis and meta-analysis of genetic association studies in peripheral arterial disease: The CUMAGAS-PAD database. American J Epidemiol 170(1): 1-11. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwp094
109. Zuccolo, L., N. Fitz-Simon, R. Gray, S. M. Ring, K. Sayal, G. D. Smith, and S. J. Lewis. 2009. A non-synonymous variant in ADH1B is strongly associated with prenatal alcohol use in a European sample of pregnant women. Hum Mol Genet 18(22): 4457-4466. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddp388