The role of facilitation and competition in the development and resilience of aspen forests

Forest Ecology and Management

Volumn 299, Issue , 2013, Pages 91-99

  St Clair, Samuel B ^a   Cavard, Xavier ^b   Bergeron, Yves ^b  

^a BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC EN ABITIBI TÉMISCAMINGUE   (Canada)

Author keywords

Boreal forest; Conifer; Fire; Populus tremuloides; Succession

Indexed keywords

ANTAGONISTIC INTERACTIONS; BOREAL FORESTS; COMPETITIVE INTERACTIONS; CONIFER; EARLY STAND DEVELOPMENT; ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; POPULUS TREMULOIDES; SUCCESSION;

CARBON DIOXIDE; FIRES;

FORESTRY;

BIOLOGICAL INVASION; BOREAL FOREST; CARBON DIOXIDE; COMPETITION (ECOLOGY); CONIFEROUS TREE; DECIDUOUS FOREST; ECOSYSTEM RESILIENCE; ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FACILITATION; GERMINATION; GLOBAL CHANGE; HERBIVORY; HUMAN ACTIVITY; INTERSPECIFIC INTERACTION; MOISTURE CONTENT; OZONE; SEEDLING; SUCCESSION; SURVIVAL;

CARBON DIOXIDE; FORESTS; POPULUS TREMULOIDES; SOFTWOODS;

UNITED STATES;

ABIES; CONIFEROPHYTA; PICEA; POPULUS; POPULUS TREMULOIDES;

EID: 84878144630     PISSN: 03781127     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.foreco.2013.02.026     Document Type: Article

References (121)

1. Arbour M.L., Bergeron Y. Effect of increased Populus cover on Abies regeneration in the Picea-feathermoss boreal forest. J. Veg. Sci. 2011, 22:1132-1142.
2. Barnes B.V. The clonal habit of American Aspens. Ecology 1966, 47:439-447.
3. Bauhus J., Messier C. Soil exploitation strategies of fine roots in different tree species of the southern boreal forest of eastern Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 1999, 29:260-273.
4. Beaty R.M., Taylor A.H. Fire history and the structure and dynamics of a mixed conifer forest landscape in the northern Sierra Nevada, Lake Tahoe Basin, California, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 255:707-719.
5. Bergeron Y. Species and stand dynamics in the mixed woods of Quebec's southern boreal forest. Ecology 2000, 81:1500-1516.
6. Bergeron Y., Dansereau P.R. Predicting the composition of Canadian southern boreal forest in different fire cycles. J. Veg. Sci. 1993, 4:827-832.
7. Bergeron Y., Cyr D., Girardin M.P., Carcaillet C. Will climate change drive 21st century burn rates in Canadian boreal forest outside of its natural variability: collating global climate model experiments with sedimentary charcoal data. Int. J. Wildl. Fire 2010, 19:1127-1139.
8. Binkley D. Age distribution of aspen in Rocky Mountain National Park, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2008, 255:797-802.
9. Boivin F., Paquette A., Papaik M.J., Thiffault N., Messier C. Do position and species identity of neighbours matter in 8-15-year-old post harvest mesic stands in the boreal mixedwood?. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:1124-1131.
10. Brooker R.W., Maestre F.T., Callaway R.M., et al. Facilitation in plant communities: the past, the present, and the future. J. Ecol. 2008, 96:18-34.
11. Buck J., St.Clair S.B. Aspen increase soil moisture, nutrients, organic matter and respiration in Rocky Mountain forest communities. PLoS ONE 2012, 7(12):e52369. 10.1371/journal.pone.0052369.
12. Buechling A., Baker W.L. A fire history from tree rings in a high-elevation forest of Rocky Mountain National Park. Can. J. For. Res. 2004, 34:1259-1273.
13. Butterfield B.J., Callaway R.M. A functional comparative approach to facilitation and its context dependence. Funct. Ecol. 2012, 10.1111/1365-2435.12019.
14. Calder W.J., St.Clair S.B. Facilitation drives mortality patterns along succession gradients in aspen-conifer forests. Ecosphere 2012, 3:57.
15. Calder W.J., Horn K.J., St.Clair S.B. Conifer expansion reduces the competitive ability and herbivore defense of aspen by modifying light environment and soil chemistry. Tree Physiol. 2011, 31:582-591.
16. Callaway R.M. Competition and facilitation on elevation gradients in subalpine forests of the northern Rocky Mountains, USA. Oikos 1998, 82:561-573.
17. Callaway R.M., Walker L.R. Competition and facilitation: a synthetic approach to interactions in plant communities. Ecology 1997, 78:1958-1965.
18. Cavard X., Bergeron Y., Chen H.Y.H., Paré D. Mixed-species effect on tree aboveground carbon pools in the east-central boreal forests. Can. J. For. Res. 2010, 40:37-47.
19. Cavard X., Bergeron Y., Chen H.Y.H., Pare D. Effect of forest canopy composition on soil nutrients and dynamics of the understory: mixed canopies serve neither vascular nor bryophyte strata. J. Veg. Sci. 2011, 22:1105-1119.
20. Cavard X., Bergeron Y., Chen H.Y.H., Paré D., Laganiere J., Brassard B. Competition and facilitation between tree species change with stand development. Oikos 2011, 120:1683-1695.
21. Chen H.Y.H., Popadiouk R.V. Dynamics of North American boreal mixedwoods. Environ. Rev. 2002, 10:137-166.
22. Chen H.Y.H., Légaré S., Bergeron Y. Variation of the understory composition and diversity along a gradient of productivity in Populus tremuloides stands of northern British Columbia, Canada. Can. J. Bot. 2004, 82:1314-1323.
23. Christensen, J.H.e.a., 2007. Regional climate projections, Climate Change, 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge.
24. Clark A.L., St.Clair S.B. Mycorrhizas and secondary succession in aspen-conifer forests: light limitation differentially affects a dominant early and late successional species. For. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 262:203-207.
25. 2 have increased growth in natural stands of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Glob. Change Biol. 2010, 16:2186-2197.
26. Connell J.H., Slatyer R.O. Mechanisms of succession in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. Am. Nat. 1977, 111:1119-1144.
27. Cote S.D., Rooney T.P., Tremblay J.P., Dussault C., Waller D.M. Ecological impacts of deer overabundance. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 2004, 35:113-147.
28. Crawford R.M.M., Jeffree C.E., Rees W.G. Paludification and forest retreat in northern oceanic environments. Ann. Bot. 2003, 91:213-226.
29. Cui M., Smith W.K. Photosynthesis, water relations and mortality in Abies lasiocarpa seedlings during natural establishment. Tree Physiol. 1991, 8:37-46.
30. de Romer A.H., Kneeshaw D.D., Bergeron Y. Small gap dynamics in the southern boreal forest of eastern Canada: do canopy gaps influence stand development?. J. Veg. Sci. 2007, 18:815-826.
31. Debyle N.V. Detection of functional intraclonal aspen root connections by tracers and excavation. For. Sci. 1964, 10:386-396.
32. DesRochers A., Lieffers V.J. Root biomass of regenerating aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands of different densities in Alberta. Can. J. For. Res. 2001, 31:1012-1018.
33. Donaldson J.R., Kruger E.L., Lindroth R.L. Competition- and resource-mediated tradeoffs between growth and defensive chemistry in trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides). New Phytol. 2006, 169:561-570.
34. Dupuis S., Arseneault D., Sirois L. Change from pre-settlement to present-day forest composition reconstructed from early land survey records in eastern Quebec, Canada. J. Veg. Sci. 2011, 22:564-575.
35. Edenius L., Ericsson G., Kempe G., Bergstrom R., Danell K. The effects of changing land use and browsing on aspen abundance and regeneration: a 50-year perspective from Sweden. J. Appl. Ecol. 2011, 48:301-309.
36. Fenton N., Lecomte N., Légaré S., Bergeron Y. Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern Canada: potential factors and management implications. For. Ecol. Manage. 2005, 213:151-159.
37. Filipescu C.N., Comeau P.G. Competitive interactions between aspen and white spruce vary with stand age in boreal mixedwoods. For. Ecol. Manage. 2007, 247:175-184.
38. Gallant A.L., Hansen A.J., Councilman J.S., Monte D.K., Betz D.W. Vegetation dynamics under fire exclusion and logging in a Rocky Mountain watershed, 1856-1996. Ecol. Appl. 2003, 13:385-403.
39. Ganey J.L., Vojta S.C. Tree mortality in drought-stressed mixed-conifer and ponderosa pine forests, Arizona, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 261:162-168.
40. Girardin M.P., Ali A.A., Carcaillet C., Mudelsee M., Drobyshev I., Hely C., Bergeron Y. Heterogeneous response of circumboreal wildfire risk to climate change since the early 1900s. Glob. Change Biol. 2009, 15:2751-2769.
41. Gosling P.G. The effect of moist chilling on the subsequent germination of some temperate conifers seeds over a range of temperatures. J. Seed Technol. 1988, 12:90-98.
42. Gradowski T., Sidders D., Keddy T., Lieffers V.J., Landhausser S.M. Effects of overstory retention and site preparation on growth of planted white spruce seedlings in deciduous and coniferous dominated boreal plains mixedwoods. For. Ecol. Manag. 2008, 255:3744-3749.
43. Hangs R.D., Knight J.D., Van Rees K.C.J. Interspecific competition for nitrogen between early successional species and planted white spruce and jack pine seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 2002, 32:1813-1821.
44. Harper G., O'Neill M., Fielder P., Newsome T., DeLongd C. Lodgepole pine growth as a function of competition and canopy light environment within aspen dominated mixedwoods of central interior British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manage. 2009, 257:1829-1838.
45. Hart S.A., Chen H.Y.H. Understory vegetation dynamics of North American boreal forests. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 2006, 25:381-397.
46. Hart S.A., Chen H.Y.H. Fire, logging, and overstory affect understory abundance, diversity, and composition in boreal forest. Ecol. Monogr. 2008, 78:123-140.
47. Hely C., Girardin M.P., Ali A.A., Carcaillet C., Brewer S., Bergeron Y. Eastern boreal North American wildfire risk of the past 7000 years: a model-data comparison. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2010, 37.
48. Hessl A. Aspen, elk, and fire: the effects of human institutions on ecosystem processes. Bioscience 2002, 52:1011-1022.
49. Hobbs N.T. Modification of ecosystems by ungulates. J. Wildl. Manage. 1996, 60:695-713.
50. Hogg E.H., Saugier B., Pontailler J.Y., Black T.A., Chen W., Hurdle P.A., Wu A. Responses of trembling aspen and hazelnut to vapor pressure deficit in a boreal deciduous forest. Tree Physiol. 2000, 20:725-734.
51. Holmgren M., Scheffer M. Strong facilitation in mild environments: the stress gradient hypothesis revisited. J. Ecol. 2010, 98:1269-1275.
52. Johnstone J.F., Chapin F.S. Fire interval effects on successional trajectory in boreal forests of northwest Canada. Ecosystems 2006, 9:268-277.
53. Jones B.E., Lile D.F., Tate K.W. Cattle selection for aspen and meadow vegetation: implications for restoration. Rangel. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 64:625-632.
54. Kaye M.W., Stohlgren T.J., Binkley D. Aspen structure and variability in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Landscape Ecol. 2003, 18:591-603.
55. Kaye M.W., Binkley D., Stohlgren T.J. Effects of conifers and elk browsing on quaking aspen forests in the central Rocky Mountains, USA. Ecol. Appl. 2005, 15:1284-1295.
56. Keigley R.B., Frisina M.R. Aspen height, stem-girth and survivorship in an area of high ungulate use. Northwest Sci. 2008, 82:199-210.
57. 2. New Phytol. 2005, 168:623-635.
58. Kitchen S. Historcial fire regime and forest variability on two eastern Great Basin fire-sheds. For. Ecol. Manage. 2012, 285:53-66.
59. Kobe R.K., Coates K.D. Models of sapling mortality as a function of growth to characterize interspecific variation in shade tolerance of eight tree species of northwestern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 1997, 27:227-236.
60. Korb J.E., Daniels M.L., Lauchlin D.C., Fule P.Z. Understory communities of warm-dry, mixed-conifer forests in southwestern Colorado. Southwest. Nat. 2007, 52:493-503.
61. Krasny M.E., Johnson E.A. Stand development in aspen. Can. J. For. Res. 1992, 22:1424-1429.
62. 3 on intra- and interspecific competitive ability of aspen. Plant Biol. 2007, 9:342-355.
63. Kuhn T.J., Safford H.D., Jones B.E., Tate K.W. Aspen (Populus tremuloides) stands and their contribution to plant diversity in a semiarid coniferous landscape. Plant Ecol. 2011, 212:1451-1463.
64. Kurzel B.P., Veblen T.T., Kulakowski D. A typology of stand structure and dynamics of quaking aspen in northwestern Colorado. For. Ecol. Manage. 2007, 252:176-190.
65. Laganiere J., Paré D., Bradley R.L. Linking the abundance of aspen with soil faunal communities and rates of belowground processes within single stands of mixed aspen-black spruce. Appl Soil Ecol. 2009, 41:19-28.
66. LaMalfa E.M., Ryle R. Differential snowpack accumulation and water dynamics in aspen and conifer communities: implications for water yield and ecosystem function. Ecosystems 2008, 11:569-581.
67. Landhausser S.M., Mulak T.L., Lieffers V.J. The effect of roots and litter of Calamagrostis canadensis on root sucker regeneration of Populus tremuloides. Forestry 2007, 80:481-488.
68. Laquerre S., Leduc A., Harvey B.D. Increase in canopy aspen in black spruce forests of north-western Quebec after clearcutting. Ecoscience 2009, 16:483-491.
69. LaRade S.E., Bork E.W. Aspen forest overstory relations to understory production. Can. J. Plant Sci. 2011, 91:847-851.
70. Légaré S., Bergeron Y., Leduc A., Paré D. Comparison of the understory vegetation in boreal forest types of southwest Quebec. Can. J. Bot. 2001, 79:1019-1027.
71. Légaré S., Bergeron Y., Paré D. Influence of forest composition on understory cover in boreal mixedwood forests of western Quebec. Silva Fennica 2002, 36:353-366.
72. Légaré S., Paré D., Bergeron Y. The responses of black spruce growth to an increased proportion of aspen in mixed stands. Can. J. For. Res. 2004, 34:405-416.
73. Légaré S., Paré D., Bergeron Y. Influence of aspen on forest floor properties in black spruce-dominated stands. Plant Soil 2005, 275:207-220.
74. Legras E.C., Vander Wall S.B., Board D.I. The role of germination microsite in the establishment of sugar pine and Jeffrey pine seedlings. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:806-813.
75. Little R.L., Peterson D.L., Conquest L.L. Regeneration of subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) following fire- effects of climate and other factors. Can. J. For. Res. 1994, 24:934-944.
76. Maas-Hebner K.G., Emmingham W.H., Larson D.J., Chan S.S. Establishment and growth of native hardwood and conifer seedlings underplanted in thinned Douglas-fir stands. For. Ecol. Manage. 2005, 208:331-345.
77. Madritch M.D., Greene S.L., Lindroth R.L. Genetic mosaics of ecosystem functioning across aspen-dominated landscapes. Oecologia 2009, 160:119-127.
78. Man R.Z., Lieffers V.J. Are mixtures of aspen and white spruce more productive than single species stands?. For. Chron. 1999, 75:505-513.
79. Margolis E.Q., Swetnam T.W., Allen C.D. A stand-replacing fire history in upper montane forests of the southern Rocky Mountains. Can. J. For. Res. 2007, 37:2227-2241.
80. McAuliffe J.R. Sahuaro-nurse tree associations in the Sonoran desert. Oecologia 1984, 64:319-321.
81. McKenney D.W., Pedlar J.H., Lawrence K., Campbell K., Hutchinson M.F. Potential impacts of climate change on the distribution of North American trees. Bioscience 2007, 57:939-948.
82. Messier C., Parént S., Bergeron Y. Effects of overstory and understory vegetation on the understory light environment in mixed boreal forests. J. Veg. Sci. 1998, 9:511-520.
83. Messier C., Doucet R., Ruel J.C., Claveau Y., Kelly C., Lechowicz M.J. Functional ecology of advance regeneration in relation to light in boreal forests. Can. J. For. Res. 1999, 29:812-823.
84. Michaelian M., Hogg E.H., Hall R.J., Arsenault E. Massive mortality of aspen following severe drought along the southern edge of the Canadian boreal forest. Glob. Change Biol. 2011, 17:2084-2094.
85. Moulinier J., Lorenzetti F., Bergeron Y. Gap dynamics in aspen stands of the clay belt of northwestern Quebec following a forest tent caterpillar outbreak. Can. J. For. Res. 2011, 41:1606-1617.
86. Mueggler W. Vegetation associations. Aspen: Ecology and Management 1985, 45-55. USDA Forest Service, Fort Collins. N. DeByle, R. Winokur (Eds.).
87. Mundell T.L., Landhausser S.M., Lieffers V.J. Effects of Corylus cornuta stem density on root suckering and rooting depth of Populus tremuloides. Can. J. Bot. 2007, 85:1041-1045.
88. Namroud M.C., Leduc A., Tremblay F., Bergeron Y. Simulations of clonal species genotypic diversity - trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) as a case study. Conserv. Gen. 2006, 7:415-426.
89. Paré D., Bergeron Y. Effect of colonizing tree species on soil nutrient availability in a clay soil of the boreal mixedwood. Can. J. For. Res. 1996, 26:1022-1031.
90. Parker W.C., Noland T.L., Morneault A.E. The effects of seed mass on germination, seedling emergence, and early seedling growth of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.). New Forest. 2006, 32:33-49.
91. Peltzer D.A. Does clonal integration improve competitive ability? A test using aspen (Populus tremuloides Salicaceae) invasion into prairie. Am. J. Bot. 2002, 89:494-499.
92. Peros M.C., Gajewski K., Viau A.E. Continental-scale tree population response to rapid climate change, competition and disturbance. Global Ecol. Biogeogr. 2008, 17:658-669.
93. Peterson C.J., Squiers E.R. Competition and succession in an aspen white-pine forest. J. Ecol. 1995, 83:449-457.
94. Pierce A.D., Taylor A.H. Competition and regeneration in quaking aspen-white fir (Populus tremuloides-Abies concolor) forests in the Northern Sierra Nevada, USA. J. Veg. Sci. 2010, 21:507-519.
95. Pitt D.G., Bell F.W. Juvenile response to conifer release alternatives on aspen-white spruce boreal mixedwood sites., Part I: Stand structure and composition. For. Chron. 2005, 81:538-547.
96. Potts D.F. Water potential of forest duff and its possible relationship to regeneration success in the northern Rocky Mountains. Can. J. For. Res. 1985, 15:464-468.
97. Powell G.W., Bork E.W. Effects of aspen canopy removal and root trenching on understory microenvironment and soil moisture. Agrofor. Syst. 2007, 70:113-124.
98. Preston C.M., Nault J.R., Trofymow J.A., Smyth C. Chemical changes during 6 years of decomposition of 11 litters in some Canadian forest sites. Part 1. Elemental composition, tannins, phenolics, and proximate fractions. Ecosystems 2009, 12:1053-1077.
99. Puettmann K.J., Reich P.B. The differential sensitivity of red pine and quaking aspen to competition. Can. J. For. Res. 1995, 25:1731-1737.
100. Reich P.B., Bakken P., Carlson D., Frelich L.E., Friedman S.K., Grigal D.F. Influence of logging, fire, and forest type on biodiversity and productivity in southern boreal forests. Ecology 2001, 82:2731-2748.
101. Robinson K.M., Ingvarsson P.K., Jansson S., Albrectsen B.R. Genetic variation in functional traits influences arthropod community composition in aspen (Populus tremula L.). Plos One 2012, 7.
102. Schulte L.A., Mladenoff D.J., Crow T.R., Merrick L.C., Cleland D.T. Homogenization of northern US Great Lakes forests due to land use. Landscape Ecol. 2007, 22:1089-1103.
103. Schweitzer J.A., Madritch M.D., Bailey J.K., LeRoy C.J., Fischer D.G., Rehill B.J., Lindroth R.L., Hagerman A.E., Wooley S.C., Hart S.C., Whitham T.G. From genes to ecosystems: the genetic basis of condensed tannins and their role in nutrient regulation in a Populus model system. Ecosystems 2008, 11:1005-1020.
104. Sheffield J., Wood E.F. Projected changes in drought occurrence under future global warming from multi-model, multi-scenario, IPCC AR4 simulations. Clim. Dyn. 2008, 31:79-105.
105. Shepperd W.D., Bartos D.L., Mata S.A. Above- and below-ground effects of aspen clonal regeneration and succession to conifers. Can. J. For. Res. 2001, 31:739-745.
106. Sibold J.S., Veblen T.T., Gonzalez M.E. Spatial and temporal variation in historic fire regimes in subalpine forests across the Colorado Front Range in Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. J. Biogeogr. 2006, 33:631-647.
107. Smith A.E., Smith F.W. Twenty-year change in aspen dominance in pure aspen and mixed aspen/conifer stands on the Uncompahgre Plateau, Colorado, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2005, 213:338-348.
108. Smith E.A., Collette S.B., Boynton T.A., Lillrose T., Stevens M.R., Bekker M.F., Eggett D., St.Clair S.B. Developmental contributions to phenotypic variation in functional leaf traits within quaking aspen clones. Tree Physiol. 2011, 31:68-77.
109. Smith E.A., O'Loughlin D., Buck J.R., St.Clair S.B. The influences of conifer succession, physiographic conditions and herbivory on quaking aspen regeneration after fire. For. Ecol. Manage. 2011, 262:325-330.
110. St.Clair S.B., Mock K.E., LaMalfa E.M., Campbell R.B., Ryel R.J. Genetic contributions to phenotypic variation in physiology, growth, and vigor of western aspen (Populus tremuloides) clones. For. Sci. 2010, 56:222-230.
111. Stohlgren T.J., Binkley D., Chong G.W., Kalkhan M.A., Schell L.D., Bull K.A., Otsuki Y., Newman G., Bashkin M., Son Y. Exotic plant species invade hot spots of native plant diversity. Ecol. Monogr. 1999, 69:25-46.
112. Strand E.K., Vierling L.A., Bunting S.C. A spatially explicit model to predict future landscape composition of aspen woodlands under various management scenarios. Ecol. Model. 2009, 220:175-191.
113. Tilman D. Resource Competition and Community Structure 1982, Princeton University Press.
114. van Wagner C.E., Finney M.A., Heathcott M. Historical fire cycles in the Canadian Rocky Mountain parks. For. Sci. 2006, 52:704-717.
115. Vitousek P.M., Mooney H.A., Lubchenco J., Melillo J.M. Human domination of Earth's ecosystems. Science 1997, 277:494-499.
116. Voicu M.F., Comeau P.G. Microclimatic and spruce growth gradients adjacent to young aspen stands. For. Ecol. Manage. 2006, 221:13-26.
117. Wang J.R., Comeau P., Kimmins J.P. Simulation of mixedwood management of aspen and white spruce in northeastern British-Columbia. Water Air Soil Pollut. 1995, 82:171-178.
118. Wooley S., Walker S., Vernon J., Lindroth R. Aspen decline, aspen chemistry and elk herbivory: are they linked?. Rangelands 2008, 30:17-21.
119. Worrall J.J., Marchetti S.B., Egeland L., Mask R.A., Eager T., Howell B. Effects and etiology of sudden aspen decline in southwestern Colorado, USA. For. Ecol. Manage. 2010, 260:638-648.
120. Yang R.C. Growth of white spruce following release from aspen competition - 35 year results. For. Chron. 1991, 67:706-711.
121. 3 alter competition for soil nitrogen in developing forests. Glob. Change Biol. 2012, 18:1480-1488.