Functional ecology of advance regeneration in relation to light in boreal forests

Canadian Journal of Forest Research

Volumn 29, Issue 6, 1999, Pages 812-823

  Messier, Christian ^a,e   Doucet, René ^b   Ruel, Jean Claude ^c   Claveau, Yves ^a   Kelly, Colin ^a   Lechowicz, Martin J ^d  

^a UNIVERSITÉ DU QUÉBEC À MONTRÉAL   (Canada)

^b MINISTÈRE DES RESSOURCES NATURELLES ET DE LA FAUNE   (Canada)

^c UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

^d MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^e RESEARCH BRANCH   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BOREAL FOREST; FOREST MANAGEMENT; GROWTH; LIGHT AVAILABILITY; REGENERATION; SURVIVAL;

EID: 0032790547     PISSN: 00455067     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/x99-070     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (149)

1. Abrams, M.D., and Kubiske, M.E. 1990. Leaf structural characteristics of 31 hardwood and conifer tree species in central Wisconsin: influence of light regime and shade-tolerance rank. For. Ecol. Manage. 31: 245-253.
2. Alaback, P.B. 1982. Dynamics of understory biomass in Sitka spruce - western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Ecology, 63: 1932-1948.
3. Aussenac, G. 1977. À propos de la crise de découvert des résineux - analyse d'un cas en Lorraine. Rev. For. Fr. (Nancy), 29: 127-130.
4. Bassow, S.L., and Bazzaz, F.A. 1997. Intra- and inter-specific variation in canopy photosynthesis in a mixed deciduous forest. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 109: 507-515.
5. Bazzaz, F.A. 1990. Plant-plant interaction in successional environments. In Perspectives on plant competition. Edited by J.B. Grace and D. Tilman. Academic Press Inc., San Diego, Calif.
6. Béland, M., and Bergeron, Y. 1993. Ecological factors affecting abundance of advance growth in jack pine (Pinus banksiana Lamb.) stands of the boreal forest of northwestern Quebec. For. Chron. 69: 561-568.
7. Björkman, O. 1981. Responses to different quantum flux densities. In Physiological plant ecology. Vol. I. Edited by O.L. Lange, P.S. Nobel, C.B. Osmond, and H. Ziegler. Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology, 12A. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York. pp. 57-107.
8. Boardman, N.K. 1977. Comparative photosynthesis of sun and shade plants. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 28: 355-377.
9. Boily, J., and Doucet, R. 1993. Croissance juvénile de marcottes d'épinette noire en régénération après récolte du couvert dominant. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 1396-1401.
10. Bonser, S.P., and Aarssen, L.W. 1994. Plastic allometry in young sugar maple (Acer saccharum): adaptive responses to light availability. Am. J. Bot. 81: 400-406.
11. Boyce, R.L. 1993. A comparison of red spruce and balsam fir shoot structures. Tree Physiol. 12: 217-230.
12. Brais, S., Camiré, C., Bergeron, Y., and Paré, D. 1995. Changes in nutrient availability and forest floor characteristics in relation to stand age and forest composition in the southern part of the boreal forest of northwestern Québec. For. Ecol. Manage. 76: 181-189.
13. Brand, D.G., and Janas, P.S. 1988. Growth and acclimation of planted white pine and white spruce seedlings in response to environmental conditions. Can. J. For. Res. 18: 320-329.
14. Brooks, J.R., Hinckley, T.M., Ford, E.D., and Sprugel, D.G. 1991. Foliage dark respiration in Abies amabilis (Dougl.) Forbes: variation within the canopy. Tree Physiol. 9: 325-338.
15. Brooks, J.R., Hinckley, T.M., and Sprugel, D.G. 1994. Acclimation responses of mature Abies amabilis sun foliage to shading. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 100: 316-324.
16. Canham, C.D. 1988. Growth and canopy architecture of shadetolerant trees: response to canopy gaps. Ecology, 69: 786-795.
17. Canham, C.D., Finzi, A.C., Pacala, S.W., and Burbank, D.H. 1994. Causes and consequences of resource heterogeneity in forests: interspecific variation in light transmission by canopy trees. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 337-349.
18. Canham, C.D., Berkowitz, A.R., Kelly, V.R., Lovett, G.M., Ollinger, S.V., and Schnurr, J. 1996. Biomass allocation and multiple resource limitation in tree seedlings. Can. J. For. Res. 26: 1521-1530.
19. Carter, G.A., and Smith, W.K. 1985. Influence of shoot structure on light interception and photosynthesis in conifers. Plant Physiol. 79: 1038-1043.
20. Chen, H.Y.H. 1997. Interspecific responses of planted seedlings to light availability in interior British-Columbia: survival, growth, allometric patterns, and specific leaf-area. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 1383-1393.
21. Chen, H.Y.H., Klinka, K., and Kayahara, G.J. 1996. Effects of light on growth, crown architecture, and specific leaf area for naturally established Pinus contorta var. latifolia and Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca saplings. Can. J. For. Res. 26: 1149-1157.
22. Clark, D.B., and Clark, D.A. 1992. Life history diversity of canopy and emergent trees in a neotropical rain forest. Ecol. Monogr. 62: 315-344.
23. Clark, D.B., and Clark, D.A. 1993. Analysis of microhabitat utilization by saplings of nine tree species in neotropical rain forest. Biotropica, 25: 397-407.
24. Cornelissen, J.H.C. 1993. Aboveground morphology of shadetolerant Castanopsis fargesii saplings in response to light environment. Int. J. Plant Sci. 154: 481-493.
25. Dang, Q.L., Margolis, H.A., and Collatz, G.J. 1998. Parameterization and testing of a coupled photosynthesis - stomatal conductance model for boreal trees. Tree Physiol. 18: 141-153.
26. Daniels, T.W., Helms, J.A., and Baker, F.S. 1979. Principles of silviculture. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. pp. 292-298.
27. Dickmann, D.I., Michael, D.A., Isebrands, J.G., and Westin, S. 1990. Effects of leaf display on light interception and apparent photosynthesis in two contrasting Populus cultivars during their second growing season. Tree Physiol. 7: 7-20.
28. Doucet, R. 1988. La régénération préétablie dans les peuplements forestiers naturels au Québec. For. Chron. 64: 116-120.
29. Doucet, R. 1999. Comparative growth of black spruce and balsam fir advance regeneration after logging. J. Sust. For. In press.
30. Doucet, R., and Boily, J. 1995. Croissance en hauteur de la régénération d'épinette noire et de sapin baumier après la coupe. Ministère des ressources naturelles du Québec, Direction de la recherche forestière, Sainte-Foy, Que. For. Res. Note No. 68.
31. Ekwebelam, S.A., and Reid, C.P.P. 1984. Nitrogen fertilisation and light effects on growth and photosynthesis of lodgepole pine seedlings. Ann. Appl. Biol. 105: 117-127.
32. Ezcurra, E., Montaña, C., and Arizaga, S. 1991. Architecture, light interception, and distribution of Larrea species in the Monte desert, Argentina. Ecology, 72: 23-34.
33. Farnsworth, K.D., and Niklas, K.J. 1995. Theories of optimization, form and function in branching architecture in plants. Funct. Ecol. 9: 355-363.
34. Field, C. 1983. Allocating leaf nitrogen for maximization of carbon gain: leaf age as a control on the allocation program. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 56: 341-347.
35. Fisher, J.B. 1986. Branching patterns and angles in trees. In On the Economy of plant form and function. Edited by T.J. Givnish. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. pp. 493-523.
36. Fisher, J.B. 1992. How predictive are computer simulations of tree architecture? Int. J. Plant Sci. 153: 137-146.
37. Fry, D.J., and Phillips, I.D.J. 1977. Photosynthesis of conifers in relation to annual growth cycles and dry matter production. II. Seasonal photosynthetic capacity and mesophyll ultrastructure in Abies grandis, Picea sitchensis, Tsuga heterophylla and Larix leptolepis growing in S.W. England. Physiol. Plant. 40: 300-306.
38. Gerrish, G. 1990. Relating carbon allocation patterns to tree senescence in Metrosideros forests. Ecology, 71: 1176-1184.
39. Gilmore, D.W., and Seymour, R.S. 1997. Crown architecture of Abies balsamea from four canopy positions. Tree Physiol. 17: 71-80.
40. Givnish, T.J. 1988. Adaptation to sun and shade: a whole-plant perspective. Aust. J. Plant. Physiol. 15: 63-92.
41. Givnish, T.J. 1995. Plant stems: biomechanical adaptation for energy capture and influence on species distributions. In Plant stems: shysiology and functional forphology. Edited by B.L. Gartner. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif, pp. 3-41.
42. Gleeson, S.K., and Tilman, T. 1992. Plant allocation and the multiple limitation hypothesis. Am. Nat. 139: 1322-1343.
43. Gleeson, S.K., and Tilman, T. 1994. Plant allocation, growth rate and successional status. Funct. Ecol. 8: 543-550.
44. Greene, D.F., Zasada, J.C., Sirois, L., Kneeshaw, D., Morin, H., Charron, I., and Simard, M.-J. 1999. A review of the regeneration dynamics of North American boreal forest tree species. Can. J. For. Res. 29: 824-839.
45. Greis, I., and Kellomäki, S. 1981. Crown structure and stem growth of Norway spruce undergrowth under varying shading. Silva Fenn. 15: 306-322.
46. Groninger, J.W., Seiler, J.R., Peterson, J.A., and Kreh, R.E. 1996. Growth and photosynthetic responses of four Virginia Piedmont tree species to shade. Tree Physiol. 16: 773-778.
47. Groot, A. 1984. Stand and site conditions associated with abundance of black spruce advance growth in the northern Clay Belt section of Ontario. Can. For. Serv. Gt. Lakes For. Cent. Inf. Rep. O-X-358.
48. Groot, A., and Horton, B.J. 1994. Age and size structure of natural and second-growth peatland Picea mariana stands. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 225-233.
49. Hallé, F., Oldemann, R.A.A., and Tomlinson, P.B. 1978. Tropical trees and forest: an architectural analysis. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.
50. Hara, T., Kimura, M., and Kikuzawa, K. 1991. Growth patterns of tree height and stem diameter in populations of Abies veitchii, A. mariesii and Betula ermanii. J. Ecol. 79: 1085-1098.
51. Harcombe, P.A. 1987. Tree life tables: simple birth, growth, and death data encapsulate life histories and ecological roles. Bioscience, 37: 557-568.
52. Helms, J.A., and Standiford, R.B. 1985. Predicting release of advance reproduction of mixed conifer species in California following overstory removal. For. Sci. 31: 3-15.
53. Hemmerlein, M.T., and Smith, W.K. 1994. Structural scaling of light interception efficiency in Picea engelmannii and Abies lasiocarpa. Tree Physiol. 14: 1139-1148.
54. Hubert, D.W., and Messier, C. 1996. Physical simulation of trees to study effects of light environment, branch types and branch spacing on light interception and transmission. Funct. Ecol. 10: 777-783.
55. Hiura, T., Sano, J., and Konno, Y. 1996. Age structure and response to fine-scale disturbance of Abies sachalinensis, Picea jezoensis, Picea glehnii, and Betula ermanii growing under the influence of a dwarf bamboo understory in northern Japan. Can. J. For. Res. 26: 289-297.
56. Horn, H.S. 1971. The adaptive geometry of trees. Princeton University, Princeton, N.J.
57. Kamaluddin, M., and Grace, J. 1992. Acclimation in seedlings of a tropical tree, Bischofia javanica, following a stepwise reduction in light. Ann. Bot. (Lond.), 69: 557-562.
58. King, D.A. 1990a. The adaptive significance of tree height. Am. Nat. 135: 809-828.
59. King, D.A. 1990b. Allometry of saplings and understory trees of a Panamanian forest. Funct. Ecol. 4: 27-32.
60. King, D.A. 1991. Correlations between biomass allocation, relative growth rate and light environment in tropical forest saplings. Funct. Ecol. 5: 485-492.
61. King, D.A. 1994. Influence of light level on the growth and morphology of saplings in a Panamanian forest. Am. J. Bot. 81: 948-957.
62. King, D.A. 1997. Branch growth and biomass allocation in Abies amabilis saplings in contrasting light environments. Tree Physiol. 17: 251-258.
63. Kitajima, K. 1994. Relative importance of photosynthetic traits and allocation patterns as correlates of seedling shade tolerance of 13 tropical trees. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 98: 419-428.
64. Klinka, K., Wang, Q., Kayahara, G.J, Carter, R.E., and Blackwell, B.A. 1992. Light-growth response relationships in Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis) and subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa). Can. J. Bot. 70: 1919-1930.
65. Kneeshaw, D.D., and Bergeron, Y. 1998. Canopy gap characteristics and tree replacement in the southeastern boreal forest. Ecology, 79: 783-794.
66. Kobe, R.K., and Coates, K.D. 1997. Models of sapling mortality as a function of growth to characterize interspecific variation in shade tolerance of eight tree species of northwestern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 227-236.
67. Kohyama, T. 1980. Growth pattern of Abies mariesii saplings under conditions of open-growth and suppression. Bot. Mag. Tokyo, 93: 13-24.
68. Kohyama, T. 1991. A functional model describing sapling growth under a tropical forest canopy. Funct. Ecol. 5: 83-90.
69. Kubota, Y., Konno, Y., and Hiura, T. 1994. Stand structure and growth patterns of understory trees in a coniferous forest, Taisetsuzan National Park, northern Japan. Ecol. Res. 9: 333-341.
70. Küppers, M. 1994. Canopy gaps: competitive light interception and economic space filling-a matter of whole-plant allocation. In Exploitation of environmental heterogeneity by plants: ecophysiological processes above- and belowground. Edited by M.M. Caldwell and R.W. Pearcy. Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. pp. 111-144.
71. Küppers, M., Timm, H., Orth, F., Stegemann, J., Stöber, R., Schneider, H., Paliwal, K., Karunaichamy, K.S.T.K., and Ortiz, R. 1996. Effects of light environment and successional status on lightfleck use by understory trees of temperate and tropical forests. Tree Physiol. 16: 69-80.
72. Kuuluvainen, T., and Pukkala, T. 1989. Simulation of within-tree and between-tree shading of direct radiation in a forest canopy: effect of crown shape and sun elevation. Ecol. Modell. 49: 89-100.
73. Lang, G.E, and Knight, D.H. 1983. Tree growth, mortality, recruitment and canopy gap formation during a 10-year period in a tropical moist forest. Ecology, 64: 1075-1080.
74. Larivière, J. 1998. Évaluation du potentiel de croissance de la régénération de conifères croissant sous des tremblaies en Abibiti, Québec. M.Sc. thesis, Institut of Environmental Sciences, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Que.
75. Leemans, R. 1991. Canopy gaps and establishment patterns of spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in two old-growth coniferous forest in central Sweden. Vegetatio, 93: 157-165.
76. Lei, T.T., and Lechowicz, M.J. 1990. Shade adaptation and shade tolerance in saplings of three Acer species from eastern North America. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 84: 224-228.
77. Lesage, I. 1997. Effets d'un gradient de lumière et de compétition intraspécifique sur la croissance et la morphologie de la cime du sapin baumier (Abies balsamea (L.) Mill). M.Sc. thesis, Département des ressources renouvelables, Université du Québec à Chicoutimi, Chicoutimi, Que.
78. Leverenz, J.W. 1987. Chlorophyll content and the light response curve of shade-adapted conifer needles. Physiol. Plant. 71: 20-29.
79. 2 partial pressures. Funct. Ecol. 9: 413-421.
80. Leverenz, J.W. 1996. Shade-shoot structure, photosynthetic performance in the field, and photosynthetic capacity of evergreen conifers. Tree Physiol. 16: 109-114.
81. Leverenz, J.W., and Hinckley, T.M. 1990. Shoot structure, leaf area index and productivity of evergreen conifer stands. Tree Physiol. 6: 135-149.
82. Lieffers, V.J., and Stadt, K.J. 1994. Growth of understory Picea glauca, Calamagrostis canadensis, and Epilobium angustifolium in relation to overstory light transmission. Can. J. For. Res. 24: 1193-1198.
83. Lieffers, V.J., Messier, C., Gendron, F., Stadt, K.J., and Comeau, P. 1999. Predicting and managing light in the understory of boreal forests. Can. J. For. Res. 29: 796-811.
84. Logan, K.T. 1966. Growth of tree seedlings as affected by light intensity. II. Red pine, white pine, jack pine and eastern larch. Can. For. Serv. Publ. No. 1160.
85. Logan, K.T. 1969. Growth of tree seedlings as affected by light intensity. IV Black spruce, white spruce, balsam fir, and eastern white cedar. Can. For. Serv. Publ. No. 1256.
86. Lussier, J.-M. 1997. Reconstitution de la dynamique récente de pessières noires vierges et de seconde venue. Ph.D. thesis, Université du Québec à Montréal, Montréal, Que.
87. Matthes-Sears, U., and Larson, D.W. 1990. Environmental controls of carbon uptake in two woody species with contrasting distribution at the edge of cliffs. Can. J. Bot. 68: 2371-2380.
88. McCaughey, W.W., and Ferguson, D.E. 1988. Response of advance regeneration to release in the inland mountain west: a summary. In Proceedings-Future Forests of the Mountain West: A Stand Culture Symposium, Missoula, Mont. Edited by W.C. Schmidt. USDA For. Ser. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-243. pp. 255-266
89. McCaughey, W.W., and Schmidt, W.C. 1982. Understory tree release following harvest cutting in spruce-fir forests of the intermountain west. USDA For. Serv. Res. Note INT-285.
90. Messier, C. 1994. Relations fonctionnelles entre l'ouverture de la canopée, la lumière et la régénération en sous-couvert: les cas de l'érablière et de la sapinière. Proceedings of the workshop La régénération de la zone de la forêt mixte. Ministère des ressources naturelles du Québec, Québec, Que.
91. Messier, C., and Bellefleur, P. 1988. Light quantity and quality on the forest floor of pioneer and climax stages in a birch - beech - sugar maple stand. Can. J. For. Res. 18: 615-622.
92. Messier, C., and Puttonen, P. 1995. Growth, allocation, and morphological responses of Betula pubescens and Betula pendilla to shade in developing Scots pine stands. Can. J. For. Res. 25: 629-637.
93. Messier, C., Parent, S., and Bergeron, Y. 1998. Characterization of understory light environment in closed boreal forests: effects of overstory and understory vegetation. J. Veg. Sci. 9: 511-520.
94. Mitchell, A.K., and Arnott, J.T. 1995. Effects of shade on the morphology and physiology of amabilis fir and western hemlock seedlings. New For. 10: 79-98.
95. Mooney, H.A. 1972. The carbon balance of plants. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 3: 315-346.
96. Morin, H., and Gagnon, R. 1991. Structure et croissance de peuplements d'épinette noire issus de régénération préétablie une quarantaine d'années après coupe au Lac-Saint-Jean, Québec. For. Chron. 67: 275-283.
97. Morin, H., and Laprise, D. 1997. Seedling bank dynamics in boreal balsam fir forests. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 1442-1451.
98. Nelson, N.D., Burk, T., and Isebrands J.G. 1981. Crown architecture of short rotation, intensively cultured Populus. I. Effects of clone and spacing on first order branching characteristics. Can J. For. Res. 11: 73-81.
99. Neufeld, H.S. 1986. Ecophysiological implications of tree architecture for two cypress taxa, Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich and T. ascendens Brongn. Bull. Torey Bot. Club, 113: 118-124.
100. Niinemets, Ü., and Kull, K. 1994. Leaf weight per area and leaf size of 85 Estonian woody species in relation to shade tolerance and light availability. For. Ecol. Manage. 70: 1-10.
101. Normand, J.M., and Jarvis, P.G. 1974. Photosynthesis in Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis (Bong.) Carr.). III. Measurements of canopy structure and interception in plant canopies. J. Appl. Ecol. 11: 375-398.
102. O'Connell, B.M., and Kelty, M.J. 1994. Crown architecture of understory and open-grown white pine (Pinus strobus) saplings. Tree Physiol. 14: 89-102.
103. Ögren, E., and Sundin, U. 1996. Photosynthetic responses to variable light: a comparison of species from contrasting habitats. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 106: 18-27.
104. Oliver, W.W., and Dolph, K.L. 1992. Mixed-conifer seedling growth varies in response to overstory release. For. Ecol. Manage. 48: 179-183.
105. Paliwal, K., Küppers, M., and Schneider, H. 1994. Leaf gas exchange in lightflecks of plants of different successional range in the understory of a central European beech forest. Curr. Sci. (Bangalore), 67: 29-33.
106. Paquin, R., and Doucet, R. 1992. Productivité de pessières noires boréales régénérées par marcottage à la suite de vieilles coupes totales au Québec. Can. J. For. Res. 22: 601-612.
107. Parent, S., and Messier, C. 1995. Effets d'un gradient de lumière sur la croissance en hauteur et la morphologie de la cime du sapin baumier régénéré naturellement. Can. J. For. Res. 25: 878-885.
108. Perala, D.A., and Alm, A.A. 1989. Regenerating paper birch in the Lake States with the shelterwood method. North. J. Appl. For. 6: 151-153.
109. Perala, D.A., and Alm, A.A. 1990. Reproductive ecology of birch: a review. For. Ecol. Manage. 32: 1-38.
110. Perttunen, J. Sievanen, R., Nikinmaa, E., Salminen, H., Saarenmaa, H., and Vakeva, J. 1996. LIGNUM: a tree model based on simple structural units. Ann. Bot. (Lond.), 77: 87-98.
111. Pickett, S.T.A., and Kempf, J.S. 1980. Branching patterns in forest shrubs and understory trees in relation to habitat. New Phytol. 86: 219-228.
112. Popma, J., and Bongers, F. 1988. The effect of canopy gaps on growth and morphology of seedlings of rain forest species. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 75: 625-632.
113. Prusinkiwicz, P., and Hanan, J. 1989. Lindenmayer systems, fractals and plants. Lecture notes in biomathematics 79. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, and New York.
114. Rich, P.M., Clark, D.B., Clark, D.A., and Oberbauer, S.F. 1993. Long-term study of solar radiation regimes in a tropical wet forest using quantum sensors and hemispherical photography. Agric. For. Meteorol. 65: 107-127.
115. Roberts, S.D., Long, J.N., and Smith, F.W. 1993. Canopy stratification and leaf area efficiency: a conceptualization. For. Ecol. Manage. 60: 143-156.
116. Rowe, J.S. 1977. Forest Regions of Canada. Can. For. Serv. Ottawa, Publ. No. 1300.
117. Ruel, J.-C. 1989. Importance de la régénération pré-existante dans les forêts publiques du Québec. Ann. Sci. For. (Paris), 46: 345-359.
118. Ruel, J.-C. 1991. Advance growth abundance and regeneration patterns after clearcutting in Québec. Proceedings of the Conference on Natural Regeneration Management, 27-28 March 1990, Fredericton. Forestry Canada, Maritimes Region, Fredericton, N.B. pp. 115-132.
119. Runkle, J.R., and Yetter, T.C. 1987. Treefalls revisited: gap dynamics in the southern Appalachians. Ecology, 68: 417-424.
120. Ryan, M.G., and Yoder, B.J. 1997. Hydraulic limits to tree height and tree growth. Bioscience, 47: 235-242.
121. Sakai, S. 1995. Evolutionarily stable growth of a sapling which waits for future gap formation under closed canopy. Evol. Ecol. 9: 444-452.
122. Schoettle, A.W., and Smith, W.K. 1991. Interrelation between shoot characteristics and solar irradiance in the crown of Pinus conforta ssp. latifolia. Tree Physiol. 9: 245-254.
123. Shukla, R.P., and Ramakrishnan, P.S. 1986. Architecture and growth strategies of tropical trees in relation to successional status. J. Ecol. 74: 33-46.
124. Simard, M.-J., Bergeron, Y., and Sirois, L. 1998. Seedling recruitment of conifers in the southeastern Canadian boreal forest: the importance of substrates. J. Veg. Sci. 9: 575-582.
125. Sipe, T.W., and Bazzaz, F.A. 1994. Gap partitioning among maples (Acer) in central New England: shoot architecture and photosynthesis. Ecology, 75: 2318-2332.
126. Smith, W.K., and Brewer, C.A. 1994. The adaptive importance of shoot and crown architecture in conifer trees. Am. Nat. 143: 528-532.
127. Smolander, H., Stenberg, P., and Linder, S. 1994. Dependence of light interception efficiency of Scots pine shoots on structural parameters. Tree Physiol. 14: 971-980.
128. Sprugel, D.G. 1989. The relationship of evergreenness, crown architecture, and leaf size. Am. Nat. 133: 465-479.
129. Sprugel, D.G., Brooks, J.R., and Hinckley, T.M. 1996. Effects of light on shoot geometry and needle morphology in Abies amabilis. Tree Physiol. 16: 91-98.
130. Spurr, S., and Barnes, B. 1980. Forest Ecology. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
131. Stenberg, P. 1996. Simulations of the effects of shoot structure and orientation on vertical gradients in intercepted light by conifer canopies. Tree Physiol. 16: 99-108.
132. Stenberg, P., Smolander, H., and Kellomäki, S. 1993. Description of crown structure for light interception models: angular and spatial distribution of shoots in young Scots pine. Stud. For. Suec. 191: 43-50.
133. Sullivan, J.H., and Peterson, K.M. 1994. The importance of seedling competition in the segregation of spruce and fir in the southern Appalachians. New For. 8: 105-121.
134. Takahashi, K. 1996. Plastic response of crown architecture to crowding in understory trees of two co-dominating conifers. Ann. Bot. (Lond.), 77: 159-164.
135. Tesch, S.D., and Korpela, E.J. 1993. Douglas-fir and white fir advance regeneration for renewal of mixed-conifer forests. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 1427-1437.
136. Trethewey, C. 1991. Overstorey and understory growth response in a partially logged subalpine spruce-fir forest in northern B.C. Bachelor thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver.
137. Troeng, E., and Linder, S. 1982. Gas exchange in a 20-year-old stand of Scots pine. II. Variation in net photosynthesis and transpiration within and between trees. Physiol. Plant. 54: 15-23.
138. Tucker, G.F., and Emmingham, W.H. 1977. Morphological changes in leaves of residual western hemlock after clear and shelterwood cutting. For. Sci. 23: 195-203.
139. Tucker, G.F., Hinckley, T.M., Leverenz, J.W., and Jiang, S.-M. 1987. Adjustment of foliar morphology in the acclimatation of understory Pacific silver fir following clearcutting. For. Ecol. Manage. 21: 249-268.
140. 2 exchange of northern hardwood seedlings in high and low light: relationships with successional status and shade tolerance. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 94: 7-16.
141. Walters, M.B., Kruger, E.L., and Reich, P.B. 1993e. Relative growth rate in relation to physiological and morphological traits for northern hardwood seedlings: species, light environment and ontogenetic considerations. Oecologia (Heidelb.), 96: 219-231.
142. Waring, R.H. 1987. Characteristics of trees predisposed to die. BioScience, 37: 569-574.
143. White, P.S., MacKenzie, M.D., and Busing, R.T. 1985. Natural disturbance and gap phase dynamics in southern Appalachian spruce-fir forests. Can. J. For. Res. 15: 233-240.
144. Whitehead, D., Grace, J.C., and Godfrey, M.J.S. 1990. Architectural distribution of foliage in individual Pinus radiata (D. Don) crowns and the effects of clumping on radiation interception. Tree Physiol. 7: 135-155.
145. Whittaker, R.H., and Woodwell, G.M. 1967. Surface area relations of woody plants and forest communities. Am. J. Bot. 54: 931-939.
146. Williams, H., Messier, C., and Kneeshaw, D.D. 1999. Effects of light availability and sapling size on the growth and crown morphology of understory Douglas-fir and lodgepole pine. Can. J. For. Res. 29: 222-231.
147. Wright, E.F., Coates, K.D., Canham, C.D., and Bartemucci, P. 1998. Species variability in growth response to light across climatic regions in northwestern British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 28: 871-886.
148. Yokota, T., and Hagihara, A. 1998. Changes in the relationship between tree size and aboveground respiration in field-grown hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis abtusa) trees over three years. Tree Physiol. 18: 37-43.
149. Zelawski, W., Szaniawski, R., Dybczynski, W., and Piechurowski, A. 1973. Photosynthetic capacity of conifers in diffuse light of high illuminance. [Pinus silvestris, Picea abies]. Photosynthetica (Prague), 7: 351-357.