Nanotechnology and diagnostic imaging:New advances in contrast agent technology

Journal of Nanomedicine and Nanotechnology

Volumn 2, Issue 5, 2011, Pages

  Rosen, Joshua E ^a   Yoffe, Serge ^a   Meerasa, Ameena ^a   Verma, Mohit ^a   Gu, Frank X ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Contrast agent; CT; Diagnostic imaging; MRI; Multimodal imaging; Nanotechnology; PET

Indexed keywords

EID: 84876725064     PISSN: None     EISSN: 21577439     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4172/2157-7439.1000115     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Gu FX, Karnik R, Wang AZ, Alexis F, Levy-Nissenbaum E, et al. (2007) Targeted nanoparticles for cancer therapy. Nano Today 2: 14-21.
2. Petkar KC, Chavhan SS, Agatonovik-Kustrin S, Sawant KK (2011) Nanostructured Materials in Drug and Gene Delivery: A Review of the State of the Art. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carrier Syst 28: 101-164.
3. Shi J, Votruba AR, Farokhzad OC, Langer R (2010) Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering: From Discovery to Applications. Nano Lett 10: 3223-3230.
4. Erickson D, Mandal S, Yang AHJ, Cordovez B (2008) Nanobiosensors: optofluidic, electrical and mechanical approaches to biomolecular detection at the nanoscale. Microfluid Nanofluid 4: 33-52.
5. Power S, Slattery MM, Lee MJ (2011) Nanotechnology and its Relationship to Interventional Radiology. Part I: Imaging. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 34: 221-226.
6. Weissleder R, Hahn PF, Stark DD, Elizondo G, Saini S, et al. (1988) Superparamagnetic Iron-Oxide - Enhanced Detection of Focal Splenic Tumors with Mr Imaging. Radiology 169: 399-403.
7. Meerasa A, Huang JG, Gu FX (2011) A Revisited Hemolytic Complement Consumption Assay for Evaluation of Nanoparticles and Blood Plasma Protein Interaction. Curr Drug Deliv 8: 290-298.
8. Moghimi SM, Hunter AC, Murray JC (2001) Long-circulating and target-specific nanoparticles: theory to practice. Pharmacol Rev 53: 283-318.
9. Vega-Villa KR, Takemoto JK, Yanez JA, Remsberg CM, Forrest ML, et al. (2008) Clinical toxicities of nanocarrier systems. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 60: 929-938.
10. Zahr AS, Davis CA, Pishko MV (2006) Macrophage Uptake of Core-Shell Nanoparticles Surface Modified with Poly(ethylene glycol). Langmuir 22: 8178-8185.
11. Owens DE, Peppas NA (2006) Opsonization, biodistribution, and pharmacokinetics of polymeric nanoparticles. Int J Pharm 307: 93-102.
12. Vonarbourg A, Passirani C, Saulnier P, Benoit JP (2006) Parameters influencing the stealthiness of colloidal drug delivery systems. Biomaterials 27: 4356-4373.
13. Alexis F, Farokhzad OC, Pridgen E, Molnar LK (2008) Factors Affecting the Clearance and Biodistribution of Polymeric Nanoparticles. Molecular Pharmaceutics 5: 505-515.
14. Choi HS, Liu W, Misra P, Tanaka E, Zimmer JP, et al. (2007) Renal clearance of quantum dots. Nat Biotechnol 25: 1165-1170.
15. Forge D, Roch A, Laurent S, Tellez H, Gossuin Y, et al. (2008) Optimization of the Synthesis of Superparamagnetic Contrast Agents by the Design of Experiments Method. J Phys Chem C 112: 19178-19185.
16. Park JY, Daksha P, Lee GH, Woo S, Chang Y (2008) Highly water-dispersible PEG surface modified ultra small superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles useful for target-specific biomedical applications. Nanotechnology 19: 365603-365603.
17. Yu M, Jeong Y, Park J, Park S, Kim J, et al. (2008) Drug-Loaded Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Combined Cancer Imaging and Therapy In Vivo. Angew Chem Int Ed 47: 5362-5365.
18. Bajpai AK, Gupta R (2010) Synthesis and characterization of magnetite (Fe3O4)-Polyvinyl alcohol-based nanocomposites and study of superparamagnetism. Polym Compos 31: 245-255.
19. Mahmoudi M, Simchi A, Imani M, Milani AS, Stroeve P (2008) Optimal Design and Characterization of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles Coated with Polyvinyl Alcohol for Targeted Delivery and Imaging. J Phys Chem B 112: 14470-14481.
20. Lin H, Watanabe Y, Kimura M, Hanabusa K, Shirai H (2003) Preparation of magnetic poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) materials by in situ synthesis of magnetite in a PVA matrix. J Appl Polym Sci 87: 1239-1247.
21. Babic M, Horak D, Trchova M, Jendelova P, Glogarova K, et al. (2008) Poly(Llysine)-modified iron oxide nanoparticles for stem cell labeling. Bioconjug Chem 19: 740-750.
22. Santra S, Kaittanis C, Grimm J, Perez JM (2009) Drug/Dye-Loaded, Multifunctional Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Combined Targeted Cancer Therapy and Dual Optical/Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Small 5: 1862-1868.
23. Qiao R, Yang C, Gao M (2009) Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: from preparations to in vivo MRI applications. Journal of Materials Chemistry 19: 6274-6293.
24. 1. Acad Radiol 11: 1361-1369.
25. Hifumi H, Yamaoka S, Tanimoto A, Akatsu T, Shindo Y, et al. (2009) Dextran Coated Gadolinium Phosphate Nanoparticles for Magnetic Resonance Tumor Imaging. J Mater Chem 19: 6393-6399.
26. Earhart C, Erathodiyil N, Jana NR, Ying JY (2008) Synthesis of Carbohydrate-Conjugated Nanoparticles and Quantum Dots. Langmuir 24: 6215-6219.
27. Hong RY, Li JH, Qu JM, Chen LL, Li HZ (2009) Preparation and characterization of magnetite/dextran nanocomposite used as a precursor of magnetic fluid. Chem Eng J 150: 572-580.
28. Ma H, Xu Y, Qi X, Maitani Y, Nagai T (2008) Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles stabilized by alginate: Pharmacokinetics, tissue distribution, and applications in detecting liver cancers. Int J Pharm 354: 217-226.
29. Grant GT, Morris ER, Rees DA, Smith PJC, Thom D (1973) Biological Interactions between Polysaccharides and Divalent Cations - Egg-Box Model. FEBS Lett 32: 195-198.
30. Gombotz W, Wee S (1998) Protein release from alginate matrices. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 31: 267-285.
31. Lopez-Cruz A., Barrera C., Calero-DdelC V.L., Rinaldi C. (2009) Water dispersible iron oxide nanoparticles coated with covalently linked chitosan. J Mater Chem 19: 6870-6876.
32. Tsai Z, Wang J, Kuo H, Shen C, Wang J, et al. (2010) In situ preparation of high relaxivity iron oxide nanoparticles by coating with chitosan: A potential MRI contrast agent useful for cell tracking. J Magn Magn Mater 322: 208-213.
33. Lee H, Shao H, Huang Y, Kwak B (2005) Synthesis of MRI contrast agent by coating superparamagnetic iron oxide with chitosan. Magnetics, IEEE Transactions on 41: 4102-4104.
34. Kim DK, Mikhaylova M, Wang FH, Kehr J, Bjelke B, et al. (2003) Starch-Coated Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles as MR Contrast Agents. Chem Mater 15: 4343-4351.
35. Saboktakin MR, Maharramov A, Ramazanov MA (2009) Synthesis and characterization of superparamagnetic nanoparticles coated with carboxymethyl starch (CMS) for magnetic resonance imaging technique. Carbohydr Polym 78: 292-295.
36. Jiang J, Gan Z, Yang Y, Du B, Qian M, et al. (2009) A novel magnetic fluid based on starch-coated magnetite nanoparticles functionalized with homing peptide. Journal of Nanoparticle Research 11: 1321-1330.
37. Kattumuri V, Katti K, Bhaskaran S, Boote E, Casteel S, et al. (2007) Gum Arabic as a Phytochemical Construct for the Stabilization of Gold Nanoparticles: In Vivo Pharmacokinetics and X-ray-Contrast-Imaging Studies. Small 3: 333-341.
38. Williams DN, Gold KA, Holoman TRP, Ehrman SH, Wilson OC (2006) Surface Modification of Magnetic Nanoparticles Using Gum Arabic. J Nanopart Res 8: 749-753.
39. Zhang L, Yu FQ, Cole AJ, Chertok B, David AE, et al. (2009) Gum Arabic-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles for Potential Application in Simultaneous Magnetic Targeting and Tumor Imaging. AAPS J 11: 693-699.
40. Rosen J, Gu F (2011) Surface functionalization of silica nanoparticles with cysteine: a low-fouling zwitterionic surface. Langmuir 27: 10507-10513.
41. Maeda H, Wu J, Sawa T, Matsumura Y, Hori K (2000) Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: a review. J Control Release 65: 271-284.
42. Noguchi Y, Wu J, Duncan R, Strohalm J, Ulbrich K, et al. (1998) Early phase tumor accumulation of macromolecules: a great difference in clearance rate between tumor and normal tissues. Jap J Cancer Res 89: 307-314.
43. Brannon-Peppas L, Blanchette JO (2004) Nanoparticle and targeted systems for cancer therapy. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 56: 1649-1659.
44. Laurent S, Forge D, Port M, Roch A, Robic C, et al. (2008) Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: Synthesis, stabilization, vectorization, physicochemical characterizations, and biological applications. Chem Rev 108: 2064-2110.
45. Zhang C, Jugold M, Woenne EC, Lammers T, Morgenstern B, et al. (2007) Specific targeting of tumor angiogenesis by RGD-conjugated ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide particles using a clinical 1.5-T magnetic resonance scanner. Cancer Res 67: 1555-1562.
46. Sonvico F, Mornet S, Vasseur S, Dubernet C, Jaillard D, et al. (2005) Folateconjugated iron oxide nanoparticles for solid tumor targeting as potential specific magnetic hyperthermia mediators: Synthesis, physicochemical characterization, and in vitro experiments. Bioconjug Chem 16: 1181-1188.
47. Allen TM (2002) Ligand-targeted therapeutics in anticancer therapy. Nat Rev Cancer 2: 750-763.
48. Chen T, Cheng T, Hung Y, Lin K, Liu G, et al. (2008) Targeted folic acid-PEG nanoparticles for noninvasive imaging of folate receptor by MRI. J Biomed Mater Res Part A 87A: 165-175.
49. Fan C, Gao W, Chen Z, Fan H, Lie M, et al. (2011) Tumor selectivity of stealth multi-functionalized superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Int J Pharm 404: 180-190.
50. Weissleder R, Lee A, Khaw B, Shen T, Brady T (1992) Antimyosin-Labeled Monocrystalline Iron-Oxide Allows Detection of Myocardial Infarct - Mr Antibody Imaging. Radiology 182: 381-385.
51. Kang H, Josephson L, Petrovsky A, Weissleder R, Bogdanov A (2002) Magnetic resonance imaging of inducible E-selectin expression in human endothelial cell culture. Bioconjug Chem 13: 122-127.
52. Islam T, Josephson L (2009) Current state and future applications of active targeting in malignancies using superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Cancer Biomark 5: 99-107.
53. Iyer AK, Khaled G, Fang J, Maeda H (2006) Exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention effect for tumor targeting. Drug Discov Today 11: 812-818.
54. Rosen JE, Chan L, Shieh DB, Gu FX (2011) Iron oxide nanoparticles for targeted cancer imaging and diagnostics. Nanomedicine.
55. H-sensitive magnetic nanoparticles for simultaneous imaging, sensing and targeted intracellular anticancer drug delivery. Nanotechnology 19: 1-8.
56. Jain TK, Richey J, Strand M, Leslie-Pelecky DL, Flask CA, et al. (2008) Magnetic nanoparticles with dual functional properties: Drug delivery and magnetic resonance imaging. Biomaterials 29: 4012-4021.
57. Smirnov P, Poirier-Quinot M, Wilhelm C, Lavergne E, Ginefri J, et al. (2008) In vivo single cell detection of tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes with a clinical 1.5 Tesla MRI system. Magn Reson Med 60: 1292-1297.
58. Shapiro EM, Sharer K, Skrtic S, Koretsky AP (2006) In vivo detection of single cells by MRI. Magn Reson Med 55: 242-249.
59. Shapiro EM, Skrtic S, Sharer K, Hill JM, Dunbar CE, et al. (2004) MRI detection of single particles for cellular imaging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101: 10901-10906.
60. Zhu D, White RD, Hardy PA, Weerapreeyakul N, Sutthanut K, et al. (2006) Biocompatible Nanotemplate-Engineered Nanoparticles Containing Gadolinium: Stability and Relaxivity of a Potential MRI Contrast Agent. J Nanosci Nanotechnol 6: 996-1003.
61. Caravan P, Ellison JJ, McMurry TJ, Lauffer RB (1999) Gadolinium(III) Chelates as MRI Contrast Agents: Structure, Dynamics, and Applications. Chem Rev 99: 2293-2352.
62. Khemtong C, Kessinger CW, Gao J (2009) Polymeric nanomedicine for cancer MR imaging and drug delivery. Chem Commun 3497-3510.
63. Helm L (2010) Optimization of gadolinium-based MRI contrast agents for high magnetic-field applications. Future Med Chem 2: 385-396.
64. Park J, Lee J, Jung J, Yu D, Oh C, et al. (2008) Gd-DOTA Conjugate of RGD as a Potential Tumor-Targeting MRI Contrast Agent. ChemBioChem 9: 2811-2813.
65. Zhang W, Yong D, Huang J, Yu J, Liu S, et al. (2011) Fabrication of Polymer-Gadolinium (III) Complex Nanomicelle from Poly(ethylene glycol)-Polysuccinimide Conjugate and Diethylenetriaminetetraacetic Acid-Gadolinium as Magnetic Resonance Imaging Contrast Agents. J Appl Polym Sci 120: 2596-2605.
66. Karfeld-Sulzer LS, Waters EA, Davis NE, Meade TJ, Barron AE (2010) Multivalent Protein Polymer MRI Contrast Agents: Controlling Relaxivity via Modulation of Amino Acid Sequence. Biomacromolecules 11: 1429-1436.
67. Kamaly N, Miller AD (2010) Paramagnetic Liposome Nanoparticles for Cellular and Tumour Imaging. Int J Mol Sci 11: 1759-1776.
68. Na HB, Song IC, Hyeon T (2009) Inorganic Nanoparticles for MRI Contrast Agents. Adv Mater 21: 2133-2148.
69. Shao Y, Liu L, Song S, Cao R, Liu H, et al. (2011) A novel one-step synthesis of Gd3+-incorporated mesoporous SiO2 nanoparticles for use as an efficient MRI contrast agent. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 6: 110-118.
70. Teja AS, Koh P (2009) Synthesis, properties, and applications of magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Prog Cryst Growth Charact Mater 55: 22-45.
71. Murbe J, Rechtenbach A, Topfer J (2008) Synthesis and physical characterization of magnetite nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Materials Chemistry & Physics 110: 426-433.
72. Sun C, Lee JSH, Zhang M (2008) Magnetic nanoparticles in MR imaging and drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 60: 1252-1265.
73. Hong J, Gong P, Xu D, Sun H, Yao S (2007) Synthesis and characterization of carboxyl functionalized magnetic nanogel via "green" photochemical method. J Appl Polym Sci 105: 1882-1887.
74. Gupta AK, Gupta M (2005) Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications. Biomaterials 26: 3995-4021.
75. Rabin O, Perez JM, Grimm J, Wojtkiewicz G, Weissleder R (2006) An X-ray computed tomography imaging agent based on long-circulating bismuth sulphide nanoparticles. Nat Mater 5: 118-122.
76. Hainfeld JF, Slatkin DN, Focella TM, Smilowitz HM (2006) Gold nanoparticles: a new X-ray contrast agent. Br J Radiol 79: 248-253.
77. Kim D, Park S, Lee JH, Jeong YY, Jon S (2007) Antibiofouling polymer-coated gold nanoparticles as a contrast agent for in vivo x-ray computed tomography imaging. J Am Chem Soc 129: 7661-7665.
78. deKrafft KE, Xie Z, Cao G, Tran S, Ma L, et al. (2009) Iodinated Nanoscale Coordination Polymers as Potential Contrast Agents for Computed Tomography. Angew Chem Int Edit 48: 9901-9904.
79. Mukundan S, Ghaghada KB, Badea CT, Kao CY, Hedlund LW, et al. (2006) A liposomal nanoscale contrast agent for preclinical CT in mice. Am J Roentgenol 186: 300-307.
80. Pan D, Williams TA, Senpan A, Allen JS, Scott MJ, et al. (2009) Detecting Vascular Biosignatures with a Colloidal, Radio-Opaque Polymeric Nanoparticle. J Am Chem Soc 131: 15522-15527.
81. Hyafil F, Cornily J, Feig JE, Gordon R, Vucic E, et al. (2007) Noninvasive detection of macrophages using a nanoparticulate contrast agent for computed tomography. Nat Med 13: 636-641.
82. Galperin A, Margel D, Baniel J, Dank G, Biton H, et al. (2007) Radiopaque iodinated polymeric nanoparticles for X-ray imaging applications. Biomaterials 28: 4461-4468.
83. Hahn MA, Singh AK, Sharma P, Brown SC, Moudgil BM (2011) Nanoparticles as contrast agents for in-vivo bioimaging: current status and future perspectives. Anal Bioanal Chem 399: 3-27.
84. Elrod DB, Partha R, Danila D, Casscells SW, Conyers JL (2009) An iodinated liposomal computed tomographic contrast agent prepared from a diiodophosphatidylcholine lipid. Nanomedicine 5: 42-45.
85. Kweon S, Lee H, Hyung WJ, Suh J, Lim JS, et al. (2010) Liposomes Coloaded with Iopamidol/Lipiodol as a RES-Targeted Contrast Agent for Computed Tomography Imaging. Pharm Res 27: 1408-1415.
86. Zheng J, Allen C, Serra S, Vines D, Charron M, et al. (2010) Liposome contrast agent for CT-based detection and localization of neoplastic and inflammatory lesions in rabbits: validation with FDG-PET and histology. Contrast Media Mol Imaging 5: 147-154.
87. Chrastina A, Schnitzer JE (2010) Iodine-125 radiolabeling of silver nanoparticles for in vivo SPECT imaging. Int J Nanomed 5: 653-659.
88. Van Herck JL, De Meyer GRY, Martinet W, Salgado RA, Shivalkar B, et al. (2010) Multi-slice computed tomography with N1177 identifies ruptured atherosclerotic plaques in rabbits. Basic Res Cardiol 105: 51-59.
89. Aillon KL, El-Gendy N, Dennis C, Norenberg JP, McDonald J, et al. (2010) Iodinated Nano Clusters as an Inhaled Computed Tomography Contrast Agent for Lung Visualization. Mol Pharm 7: 1274-1282.
90. Cai W, Chen X (2007) Nanoplatforms for targeted molecular imaging in living subjects. Small 3: 1840-1854.
91. Herth MM, Barz M, Moderegger D, Allmeroth M, Jahn M, et al. (2009) Radioactive Labeling of Defined HPMA-Based Polymeric Structures Using [F-18]FETos for In Vivo Imaging by Positron Emission Tomography. Biomacromolecules 10: 1697-1703.
92. Hong H, Zhang Y, Sun J, Cai W (2009) Molecular imaging and therapy of cancer with radiolabeled nanoparticles. Nano Today 4: 399-413.
93. Liu Z, Cai W, He L, Nakayama N, Chen K, et al. (2007) In vivo biodistribution and highly efficient tumour targeting of carbon nanotubes in mice. Nat Nanotechnol 2: 47-52.
94. Nune SK, Gunda P, Thallapally PK, Lin Y, Forrest ML, et al. (2009) Nanoparticles for biomedical imaging. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 6: 1175-1194.
95. Smith AM, Dave S, Nie SM, True L, Gao XH (2006) Multicolor quantum dots for molecular diagnostics of cancer. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 6: 231-244.
96. Pan J, Wang Y, Feng S (2008) Formulation, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of quantum dots loaded in poly(lactide)-vitamin E TPGS nanoparticles for cellular and molecular imaging. Biotechnol Bioeng 101: 622-633.
97. Cai W, Hsu AR, Li ZB, Chen X (2007) Are quantum dots ready for in vivo imaging in human subjects? Nanoscale Res Lett 2: 265-281.
98. Gao XH, Cui YY, Levenson RM, Chung LW, Nie S (2004) In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots. Nat Biotechnol 22: 969-976.
99. Yang L, Mao H, Wang YA, Cao Z, Peng X, et al. (2009) Single Chain Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Antibody Conjugated Nanoparticles for in vivo Tumor Targeting and Imaging. Small 5: 235-243.
100. Ballou B, Ernst LA, Waggoner AS (2005) Fluorescence imaging of tumors in vivo. Curr Med Chem 12: 795-805.
101. Ballou B, Ernst LA, Andreko S, Harper T, Fitzpatrick JAJ, et al. (2007) Sentinel Lymph Node Imaging Using Quantum Dots in Mouse Tumor Models. Bioconjug Chem 18: 389-396.
102. Wang L, Wang K, Santra S, Zhao X, Hilliard LR, et al. (2006) Watching Silica Nanoparticles Glow in the Biological World. Anal Chem 78: 646-654.
103. Yan J, Estevez MC, Smith JE, Wang K, He X, et al. (2007) Dye-doped nanoparticles for bioanalysis. Nano Today 2: 44-50.
104. Ow H, Larson DR, Srivastava M, Baird BA, Webb WW, et al. (2005) Bright and stable core-shell fluorescent silica nanoparticles. Nano Lett 5: 113-117.
105. Choi J, Burns AA, Williams RM, Zhou Z, Flesken-Nikitin A, et al. (2007) Coreshell silica nanoparticles as fluorescent labels for nanomedicine. J Biomed Opt 12: 064007.
106. Burns AA, Vider J, Ow H, Herz E, Penate-Medina O, et al. (2009) Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles with Efficient Urinary Excretion for Nanomedicine. Nano Lett 9: 442-448.
107. Minchin RF, Martin DJ (2010) Nanoparticles for Molecular Imaging-An Overview. Endocrinology 151: 474-481.
108. Abu-Alfa AK (2011) Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis and Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents. Adv Chronic Kidney Dis 18: 188-198.
109. Chen XS (2011) Introducing Theranostics Journal - From the Editor-in-Chief. Theranostics 1: 1-2.
110. Janib SM, Moses AS, MacKay JA (2010) Imaging and drug delivery using theranostic nanoparticles. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 62: 1052-1063.
111. Gianella A, Jarzyna PA, Mani V, Ramachandran S, Calcagno C, et al. (2011) Multifunctional Nanoemulsion Platform for Imaging Guided Therapy Evaluated in Experimental Cancer. ACS Nano 5: 4422-4433.
112. Cheng Y, Meyers JD, Broome A, Kenney ME, Basilion JP, et al. (2011) Deep Penetration of a PDT Drug into Tumors by Noncovalent Drug-Gold Nanoparticle Conjugates. J Am Chem Soc 133: 2583-2591.
113. Cole AJ, Yang VC, David AE (2011) Cancer theranostics: the rise of targeted magnetic nanoparticles. Trends Biotechnol 29: 323-332.
114. Murthy SK (2007) Nanoparticles in modern medicine: State of the art and future challenges. Int J Nanomedicine 2: 129-141.
115. Rzigalinski BA, Strobl JS (2009) Cadmium-containing nanoparticles: Perspectives on pharmacology and toxicology of quantum dots. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 238: 280-288.
116. Zolnik BS, Sadrieh N (2009) Regulatory perspective on the importance of ADME assessment of nanoscale material containing drugs. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 61: 422-427.
117. Sanhai WR, Sakamoto JH, Canady R, Ferrari M (2008) Seven challenges for nanomedicine. Nat Nanotechnol 3: 242-244.
118. Shi J, Votruba AR, Farokhzad OC, Langer R (2010) Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery and Tissue Engineering: From Discovery to Applications. Nano Lett 10: 3223-3230.
119. Choi HS, Frangioni JV (2010) Nanoparticles for Biomedical Imaging: Fundamentals of Clinical Translation. Mol Imaging 9: 291-310.
120. Kracht L, Miletic H, Busch S, Jacobs A, Voges J, et al. (2004) Delineation of brain tumor extent with [C-11]L-methionine positron emission tomography: Local comparison with stereotactic histopathology. Clin Cancer Res 10: 7163-7170.