The relationship between personality disorders and axis I psychopathology: Deconstructing comorbidity

Annual Review of Clinical Psychology

Volumn 9, Issue , 2013, Pages 529-554

  Links, Paul S ^a   Eynan, Rahel ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN ONTARIO   (Canada)

Author keywords

antisocial; avoidant; borderline; co occurrence; comorbidity; obsessive compulsive; personality disorder; schizotypal

Indexed keywords

AMBIGUITY; ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR; AVOIDANT PERSONALITY DISORDER; BIPOLAR DISORDER; BORDERLINE STATE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; COMORBIDITY; CONFUSION; DEPRESSION; DSM-5; DSM-IV-TR; FOLLOW UP; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MENTAL DISEASE; NARCISSISM; NEUROIMAGING; OBSESSIVE COMPULSIVE DISORDER; PERSONALITY DISORDER; POSTTRAUMATIC STRESS DISORDER; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SCHIZOAFFECTIVE PSYCHOSIS; SCHIZOPHRENIA; SCHIZOTYPAL PERSONALITY DISORDER; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDE ATTEMPT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW;

COMORBIDITY; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; HUMANS; MENTAL DISORDERS; PERSONALITY DISORDERS;

EID: 84875887362     PISSN: 15485943     EISSN: 15485951     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185624     Document Type: Review

References (134)

1. Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 1980. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 3rd ed. \\
2. Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 1994. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 4th ed.
3. Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 2000. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. 4th ed., text rev.\\
4. Andrews G. 1996. Comorbidity and the general neurotic syndrome. Br. J. Psychiatry 168(Suppl. 30):76-844
5. Andrews G, Goldberg DP, Krueger RF, Carpenter WT, Hyman SE, et al 2009. Exploring the feasibility of meta-structure forDSM-V and ICD-11: Could it improve utility and validity? Psychol.Med. 39:1993-20000
6. AndrewsG,Hall W, TeessonM,Henderson AS. 1999. TheMentalHealth of Australians.Canberra:Commonw. Dep. Health Aged Caree
7. AndrewsG, SladeT, IssakidisC. 2002. Deconstructing current comorbidity: Data from the Australian National Survey of Mental Health and Well-Being. Br. J. Psychiatry 181:306-144
8. Angold A. 1988. Childhood and adolescence depression I: Epidemiological and aetiological aspects. Br. J. Psychiatry 152:601-177
9. Angold A, Costello JE, Erkanli A. 1999. Comorbidity. J. Child. Psychiatry 40(1):57-877
10. Aycicegi A, Dinn W, Harris C, Erkmen H. 2003. Neuropsychological function in obsessive-compulsive disorder: Effects of comorbid conditions on task performance. Eur. Psychiatry 18(5):241-488
11. Battaglia M, Gasperini G, Sciuto G, Scherillo P, Diaferia G, Bellodi L. 1991. Psychiatric disorders in the families of schizotypal subjects. Schizophr. Bull. 17(4):659-688
12. Battaglia M, Torgersen S. 1996. Schizotypal disorder: At the crossroads of genetics and nosology. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 94(5):303-100
13. Berenbaum H, Valera EM, Kerns JG. 2003. Psychological trauma and schizotypal symptoms. Schizophr. Bull. 29(1):143-522
14. Bergman AJ, Harvey PD,Mitropoulou V, AronsonA,MarderD, et al. 1996. The factor structure of schizotypal symptoms in clinical population. Schizophr. Bull. 22:501-99
15. Bernstein CA. 2011. Meta-structure in DSM-5 process. Psychiatr. News 46(5):7-299
16. Berrios GE. 2005. Comorbidity: History and epistemic usefulness. Presented at XII Int. Symp. Issues Controversies Psychiatry, Barcelona, Spainn
17. Bogenschutz MP, Nurnberg HG. 2000. Theoretical and methodological issues in psychiatric comorbidity. Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 8(1):18-244
18. Boyd JH, Burke JD, Gruenberg E,Holzer CE, Rae DS, et al. 1984. The exclusion criteria of DSM-III: A study of co-occurrence of hierarchy-free syndrome. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 41:983-899
19. BrownTA, Barlow DH. 1992. Comorbidity among anxiety disorders: Implications for treatment andDSM-IV. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 160(6):835-444
20. Caron C, Rutter M. 1991. Comorbidity in child psychopathology: Concepts, issues and research strategies. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry 32:1063-800
21. Catapano F, Perris F, Fabrazzo M, Cioffi V, Giacco D, et al. 2010. Obsessive-compulsive disorder with poor insight: A three-year prospective study. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 34(2):323-300
22. Chapman L, Chapman J, Kwapil T, Eckblad M, Zinser M. 1994. Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 103:171-833
23. Claridge G. 1997. Schizotypy: Implications for Illness and Health. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Presss
24. Claridge G, McCreery C, Mason O, Bentall R, Boyle GJ, et al. 1996. The factor structure of "schizotypal" traits: A large replication study. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 35:103-155
25. Clarkin JF, Kendall PC. 1992. Comorbidity and treatment planning: Summary and future directions. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 60(6):904-88
26. Coid J, Ullrich S. 2010. Antisocial personality disorder and anxiety disorder: A diagnostic variant? J. Anxiety Disord. 24(5):452-600
27. Correll C, SmithC, Auther A,McLaughlin D, ShahM, et al. 2008. Predictors of remission, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder in adolescents with brief psychotic disorder or psychotic disorder not otherwise specified considered at very high risk for schizophrenia. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 18(5):475-900
28. Cox B, Pagura J, Stein M, Sareen J. 2009. The relationship between generalized social phobia and avoidant personality disorder in a national mental health survey. Depress. Anxiety 26(4):354-622
29. Dhawan N, Kunik ME, Oldham J, Coverdale J. 2010. Prevalence and treatment of narcissistic personality disorder in the community: A systematic review. Compr. Psychiatry 51:333-399
30. Dixon-Gordon KL, Turner BJ, Chapman AL. 2011. Psychotherapy for personality disorders. Int. Rev. Psychiatry 23:282-3022
31. Eaton NR, South SC, Krueger RF. 2010. The meaning of comorbidity among common mental disorders. In Contemporary Directions in Psychopathology: Scientific Foundations of the DSM- V and ICD-11, ed. T Millon, RF Krueger, E Simonsen, pp. 223-41. New York: Guilfordd
32. Eysenck SBG,Eysenck HJ. 1977.The place of impulsiveness in a dimensional system of personality description. Br. J. Soc. Clin. Psychol. 16:57-688
33. Fanous AH, Neale MC, Gardner CO, Webb BT, Straub RE, et al. 2007. Significant correlation in linkage signals from genome-wide scans of schizophrenia and schizotypy. Mol. Psychiatry 12(10):958-655
34. Faraone SV, Green AL, Seidman LJ, TsuangMT. 2001. Schizotaxia: Clinical implications and new directions for research. Schizophr. Bull. 271:1-188
35. Faraone SV, Seidman LJ, Kremen WS, Toomey R, Pepple JR, Tsuang MT. 1999. Neuropsychological functioning among the nonpsychotic relatives of schizophrenic patients: A four year follow-up study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 108:176-811
36. Feinstein AR. 1970. The pre-therapeutic classification of co-morbidity in chronic disease. J. Chronic Dis. 23(7):455-688
37. First MB. 2005. Mutually exclusive versus co-occurring diagnostic categories: The challenge of diagnostic comorbidity. Psychopathology 38:206-100
38. FirstMB, Pincus HA, Levine JB,Williams JB, Ustun B, Peel R. 2004. Clinical utility as a criterion for revising psychiatric diagnoses. Am. J. Psychiatry 161:946-544
39. First MB, Spitzer RL, Gibbon M, Williams JB, Benjamin L. 1994. Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV Axis II Personality Disorders (SCID-II, Version 2.0). New York: NY State Psychiatr. Assoc. \\
40. Fonseca-Pedrero E, Müniz J, Lemos-Giŕaldez S, Garcia-Cueto E, Campillo-Alvarez A, Villaz ́ on-Garcia U. 2007. Multidimensionality of schizotypy under review. Papeles Psićol. 28:117-266
41. Fossati A, Maffei C, Battaglia M, BagnatoM,DonatiD, et al. 2001. Latent class analysis ofDSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder criteria in psychiatric patients. Schizophr. Bull. 27(1):59-711
42. Frances A,Widiger T, Fyer MR. 1990. The influence of classification methods on comorbidity. SeeMaser & Cloninger 1990a, pp. 41-599
43. Fu Q, Heath A, Bucholz KK, Lyons MJ, Tsuang MT, et al. 2007. Common genetic risk of major depression and nicotine dependence: The contribution of antisocial traits in a United States veteran male twin cohort. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 10(3):470-788
44. Gangestad S, Snyder M. 1985. To carve nature at its joints: On the existence of discrete classes in personality. Psychol. Rev. 92(3):317-499
45. GeissbuhlerM, Links P. 2009. Prospective risk factors for suicide attempts in borderline personality disorder. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 11(1):53-544
46. Gooding DC,Tallent KA,MattsCW.2005. Clinical status of at-risk individuals 5 years later: Further validation of the psychometric high-risk strategy. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 114(1):170-755
47. Goodwin RD, Hamilton SP. 2003. Lifetime comorbidity of antisocial personality disorder and anxiety disorders among adults in the community. Psychiatry Res. 117(2):159-666
48. Grant BF, Chou SP, Goldstein RB, Huang B, Stinson FS, et al. 2008. Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity ofDSM-IV borderline personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J. Clin. Psychiatry 69(4):533-455
49. Gruzelier JH. 1996. The factorial structure of schizotypy: Part I. Affinities with syndromes of schizophrenia. Schizophr. Bull. 22(4):611-200
50. Gunderson JG. 2010. Revising the borderline diagnosis for DSM-V: An alternative proposal. J. Personal. Disord. 24(6):694-7088
51. Hall W 1996. What have population surveys revealed about substance use disorders and their co-morbidity with other mental disorders? Drug Alcohol Rev. 15:157-700
52. Hesse M 2010 What should be done with antisocial personality disorder in the new edition of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-V)? BMC Med 8:666
53. Howard MO, Perron BE, VaughnMG, Bender KA,Garland E. 2010. Inhalant use, inhalant-use disorders, and anti-social behavior: Findings from theNational Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). J. Stud. Alcohol Drugs 71(2):201-99
54. Jablensky A. 2006. Subtyping schizophrenia: Implication for genetic research. Mol. Psychiatry 11:815-366
55. James LM, Taylor J. 2008. Revisiting the structure of mental disorders: Borderline personality disorder and the internalizing/externalizing spectra. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 47:361-800
56. Johns LC, van Os J. 2001. The continuity of psychotic experiences in the general population. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 21(8):1125-411
57. Kendler KS. 1985. Diagnostic approaches to schizotypal personality disorder: A historical perspective. Schizophr. Bull. 11(4):538-533
58. Kendler KS, McGuireM, Gruenberg AM, O'Hare A, Spellman M, Walsh D. 1993. The Roscommon Family Study. III. Schizophrenia-related personality disorders in relatives. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 50:781-888
59. Kendler KS, Ochs AL, Gorman AM, Hewitt JK, Ross DE, Mirsky AF. 1991. The structure of schizotypy: A pilot multitrait twin study. Psychiatry Res. 36:19-366
60. Kessler RC, Berglund P, Demler O, Jin R, Merikangas KR, Walters EE. 2005a. Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62(6):593-6022
61. Kessler RC, Chiu WT, Demler O, Walters EE. 2005b. Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 62(6):617-277
62. Klein DN. 2004. Different reasons for comorbidity require different solutions. World Psychiatry 3(1):288
63. Klein DN, Riso LP. 1993. Psychiatric disorders: Problems of boundaries and comorbidity. In Basic Issues in Psychopathology, ed. CG Costello, pp. 19-66. New York: Guilford
64. Klerman GL. 1990. Approaches to the phenomena of comorbidity. SeeMaser & Cloninger 1990a, pp. 13-400
65. Kotov R, Ruggero CJ, Krueger RF, Watson D, Yuan Q, Zimmerman M. 2011. New dimensions in the quantitative classification of mental illness. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 68(10):1003-111
66. Krueger RF. 2005. Continuity of Axis I and II: Towards a unified model of personality disorders, and clinical disorders. J. Personal. Disord. 19(3):233-611
67. Krueger RF, Eaton NR, Derringer J, Markon KE, Watson D, Skodol AE. 2011. Personality in DSM-5: Helping delineate personality disorder content and framing the meta-structure. J. Personal. Assess. 93(4):325-311
68. Krueger RF, Markon KE. 2006. Reinterpreting comorbidity: A model-based approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2:111-333
69. Lencz T, Raine A, Benishay DS, Mills S, Bird L. 1995. Neuropsychological abnormalities associated with schizotypal personality. See Raine et al. 1995, pp. 289-328
70. Lilienfeld SO, Waldman ID, Israel AC. 1994. A critical examination of the use of the term and concept of comorbidity in psychopathology research. Clin. Psychol. Sci. Pract. 1(1):71-833
71. LinksPS, Ansari JY, Fazalallasha F, ShahR. 2012. The relationship of personality disorders andAxis I disorders. In The Oxford Handbook of Personality Disorders, ed. TA Widiger, pp. 237-59. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Presss
72. Livesley J. 2011. The current state of personality disorder classification: Introduction to the special feature. J. Personal. Disord. 25(3):269-788
73. Maj M. 2005. "Psychiatric morbidity": An artifact of current diagnostic systems? Br. J. Psychiatry 186:182-844
74. Markon KE. 2010. Modeling psychopathology structure: A symptom-level analysis of Axis I and II disorders. Psychol. Med. 40(2):273-888
75. Maser JD, Cloninger CR, eds. 1990a. Comorbidity of Mood and Anxiety Disorders. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. Presss
76. Maser JD, Cloninger CR. 1990b. Comorbidity ofmood and anxiety disorders: Introduction and overview. See Maser & Cloninger 1990a, pp. 3-122
77. McMain SF, Guimond T, Streiner DL, Cardish RJ, Links PS. 2012. Dialectical behavior therapy compared with general psychiatric management for borderline personality disorder: Clinical outcomes and functioning over a 2-year follow-up. Am. J. Psychiatry 169(6):650-611
78. McMain SF, Links PS, Gnam WH, Guimond T, Cardish RJ, et al. 2009. A randomized trial of dialectical behavior therapy versus general psychiatric management for borderline personality disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 166(12):1365-744
79. Meehl PE. 1962. Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. Am. Psychol. 17:827-388
80. Meehl PE. 1989. Schizotaxia revisited. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 46:935-444
81. Meehl PE. 1990. Toward an integrated theory of schizotaxia, schizotypy, and schizophrenia. J. Personal.Disord. 4:1-999
82. Meehl PE. 2001. Primary and secondary hypohedonia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 110:188-933
83. Merikangas KR, Mehta RL, Molnar BE, Walters EE, Swendsen JD, et al. 1998. Comorbidity of substance use disorder with mood and anxiety disorders: Results of the international consortium in psychiatric epidemiological. Addict. Behav. 23(6):893-9077
84. Miller JD, Campbell WK, Pilkonis PA. 2007. Narcissistic personality disorder: Relations with distress and functional impairment. Compr. Psychiatry 48(2):170-777
85. Miller JD, Widiger TA, Campbell WK. 2010. Narcissistic personality disorder and the DSM-V. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 119(4):640-499
86. Mulder R, Joyce P, Luty S. 2003. The relationship of personality disorders to treatment outcome in depressed outpatients. J. Clin. Psychiatry 64:259-644
87. New AS, Triebwasser J, Charney DS. 2008. The case for shifting borderline personality disorder to Axis I. J. Biol. Psychiatry 64(8):653-599
88. Newton-HowesG, Johnson T, Tyrer P. 2006. Personality disorder and the outcome of depression: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Br. J. Psychiatry 188:13-200
89. Pulay AJ, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, et al. 2009. Prevalence, correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV schizotypal personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J. Clin. Psychiatry 11(2):53-677
90. Rado S. 1953. Dynamics and classification of disordered behaviour. Am. J. Psychiatry 110:406-166
91. Raine A. 2006. Schizotypal personality: Neurodevelopmental and psychosocial trajectories. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2:291-3266
92. Raine A, Lencz T. 1995. Conceptual and theoretical issues in schizotypal personality research. See Raine et al. 1995, pp. 3-155
93. Raine A, Lencz T, Mednick SA, eds. 1995. Schizotypal Personality. New York: Cambridge Univ. Presss
94. Raine A, Reynolds C, Lencz T, Scerbo A, Tryphon N, Kim D. 1994. Cognitive-perceptual, interpersonal and disorganized features of schizotypal personality. Schizophr. Bull. 20(1):191-2011
95. Raine A, Sheards C, Reynolds GP, Lencz T. 1992. Pre-frontal structural and functional deficits associated with individual differences in schizotypal personality. Schizophr. Res. 7(3):237-477
96. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Neale M, Ørstavik R, Torgersen S, et al. 2007a. Genetic and environmental influences on dimensional representations of DSM-IV cluster C personality disorders: A population-based multivariate twin study. Psychol. Med. 37(5):645-533
97. Reichborn-Kjennerud T, Czajkowski N, Torgersen S, Neale M, Ørstavik R, et al. 2007b. The relationship between avoidant personality disorder and social phobia: A population-based twin study. Am. J. Psychiatry 164(11):1722-288
98. Reynolds CH, Raine A, Mellingen K, Venables PH, Mednick SA. 2000. Three-factor model of schizotypal personality: Invariance across culture, gender, religious affiliation, family adversity, and psychopathology. Schizophr. Bull. 26(3):603-188
99. Rodrigo C, Rajapakse S, Jayananda G. 2010. The antisocial person: An insight in to biology, classification and current evidence on treatment. Ann. Gen. Psychiatry 9:311
100. Ronningstam E. 2011. Narcissistic personality disorder in DSM V - in support of retaining a significant diagnosis. J. Personal. Disord. 25(2):248-599
101. Rutter M. 2011. Research review. Child psychiatric diagnosis and classification: Concept, findings, challenges and potential. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry 52(6):647-600
102. Sanislow C, Little T, Ansell E, Grilo C, Daversa M, et al. 2009. Ten-year stability and latent structure of the DSM-IV schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 118(3):507-199
103. Shea T, Stout R, Yen S, Pagano M, Skodol A, et al. 2004. Associations in the course of personality disorders and Axis I disorders over time. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113(4):499-5088
104. Shin NY, Lee AR, Park HY, Yoo SY, Kang DH, et al. 2008. Impact of coexistent schizotypal personality traits on frontal lobe function in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Progr. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychol. 32(2):472-788
105. Siever LJ, Bernstein DP, Silverman JM. 1991. Schizotypal personality disorder: A review of its current status. J. Personal. Disord. 5:178-933
106. Siever LJ, Gunderson JG. 1983. The search for a schizotypal personality: Historical origins and current status. Compr. Psychiatry 24:199-2122
107. Siever LJ, Kalus OF, Keefe RSE. 1993. The boundaries of schizophrenia. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 16:217-244
108. Siever LJ, Silverman JM, HorvathTB, Klar H, Coccaro E, et al. 1990. Increasedmorbid risk for schizophreniarelated disorders in relatives of schizotypal personality disordered patients. Arch.Gen. Psychiatry 47:634-400
109. Skodol AE, Bender DS, Morey LC, Clark LA, Oldham JM, et al. 2011. Personality disorder types proposed for DSM-5. J. Personal. Disord. 25:136-699
110. Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, Pfohl B, Widiger TA, LivesleyWJ, Siever LJ. 2002. The borderline diagnosis I: Psychopathology, comorbidity, and personality structure. Biol. Psychiatry 51:936-500
111. Spitzer RL, Endicott J, Gibbon M. 1979. Crossing the border into borderline personality and borderline schizophrenia: The development of criteria. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 36:17-244
112. Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Goldstein RB, Chou SP, Huang B, et al. 2008. Prevalence correlates, disability, and comorbidity of DSM-IV narcissistic personality disorder: Results from the Wave 2 National Epidemiological Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J. Clin. Psychiatry 69(7):1033-455
113. Stoffers JM, Ferriter M, Völlm BA, Gibbon S, Jones H, et al. 2011. Pharmacological interventions for people with narcissistic personality disorder (protocol). Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 10:CD0093999
114. Tienari P, Wynne LC, Láksy K, Moring J, Nieminen P, et al. 2003. Genetic boundaries of the schizophrenia spectrum: Evidence from the Finnish Adoptive Family Study of Schizophrenia. Am. J. Psychiatry 160(9):1587-944
115. Toomey R, Siedman LJ, Lyons MJ, Faraone SV, Tsuang MT. 1999. Poor perception of nonverbal social-emotional cues in relatives of schizophrenic patients. Schizophr. Res. 40(2):121-300
116. Torgersen S. 2005. Epidemiology. In The American Psychiatric Publishing Textbook of Personality Disorders, ed. JM Oldham, AE Skodol, DS Bender, pp. 129-42. Washington, DC: Am. Psychiatr. Assoc. Presss
117. Torgersen S, Edvardsen J, Oien P, Onstad S, Skre I, et al. 2002. Schizotypal personality disorder inside and outside the schizophrenic spectrum. Schizophr. Res. 54(1-2):33-388
118. Torgersen S, Kringlen E, Cramer V. 2001. The prevalence of personality disorders in a community sample. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58:590-966
119. Trotman H, McMillan A, Walker E. 2006. Cognitive function and symptoms in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophr. Bull. 32(3):489-977
120. Trull TJ, Jahng S, Tomko RL, Wood PK, Sher KJ. 2010. Revised NESARC personality disorder diagnoses: Gender, prevalence and comorbidity with substance dependence disorders. J. Personal. Disord. 24:412-266
121. Tyrer P. 1996. Comorbidity or consanguinity. Br. J. Psychiatry 168:669-711
122. Ullrich S, Coid J. 2010. Antisocial personality disorder-stable and unstable subtypes. J. Personal. Disord. 24(2):171-877
123. van Os J, Hanssen M, Bijl RV, Vollebergh W. 2001. Prevalence of psychotic disorder and community level of psychotic symptoms: An urban-rural comparison. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 58:663-688
124. van Praag HM. 1996. Comorbidity (psycho) analysed. Br. J. Psychiatry 168(Suppl. 30):129-344
125. Vella G, Aragona M, Alliani D. 2000. The complexity of psychiatric comorbidity: A conceptual and methodological discussion. Psychopathology 33(1):25-300
126. Vrabel KR, RøO,Martinsen EW,Hoffart A, Rosenvinge JH. 2010. Five-year prospective study of personality disorders in adults with longstanding eating disorders. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 43(1):22-288
127. Walker EF, Gale S. 1995. Neurodevelopmental processes in schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder. See Raine et al. 1995, pp. 56-799
128. Widiger T, Rogers J. 1989. Prevalence and comorbidity of personality disorders. Psychiatr. Ann. 19:132-366
129. Wittchen HU. 1996. Critical issues in the evaluation of comorbidity in psychiatric disorders. Br. J. Psychiatry 168(Suppl. 30):9-166
130. Woods S, Addington J, Cadenhead K, Cannon T, Cornblatt B, et al. 2009. Validity of the prodromal risk syndrome for first psychosis: Findings from theNorth American Prodrome Longitudinal Study. Schizophr. Bull. 35(5):894-9088
131. Yen S, SheaMT, BattleCL, JohnsonDM,Zlotnick C, et al. 2002. Traumatic exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder in borderline, schizotypal, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: Findings from a collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 190(8):510-188
132. Yen S, Shea MT, Pagano M, Sanislow CA, Grilo CM, et al. 2003. Axis I and Axis II disorders as predictors of prospective suicide attempts: Findings from the collaborative longitudinal personality disorders study. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 112(3):375-811
133. Zimmerman M, CoryellW. 1990. DSM-III personality disorder dimensions. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 178:686-922
134. Zimmerman M, Ruggero CJ, Chelminski I, Young D. 2010. Psychiatric diagnosis in patients previously overdiagnosed with bipolar disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 71(1):26-311