Human health effects of trichloroethylene: Key findings and scientific issues

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 121, Issue 3, 2013, Pages 303-311

  Chiu, Weihsueh A ^a   Jinot, Jennifer ^a   Scott, Cheryl Siegel ^a   Makris, Susan L ^a   Cooper, Glinda S ^a   Dzubow, Rebecca C ^b   Bale, Ambuja S ^a   Evans, Marina V ^c   Guyton, Kathryn Z ^a   Keshava, Nagalakshmi ^a   Lipscomb, John C ^a   Barone, Stanley ^b   Fox, John F ^a   Gwinn, Maureen R ^a   Schaum, John ^b   Caldwell, Jane C ^a  

^a Environmental Assessments   (United States)

^b U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

^c U S ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY   (United States)

Author keywords

Assessment; Cancer tumors; Cardiovascular; Epidemiology; Immunologic response; Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS); Meta analysis; Mode of action; Physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling; Trichloroethylene

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM ION; GLUTATHIONE; TRICHLOROETHYLENE;

AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BLOOD FLOW; CARCINOGENICITY; CARDIOTOXICITY; CELL PROLIFERATION; FEMALE GENITAL SYSTEM; HEALTH HAZARD; HEPATITIS; HEPATOMEGALY; HUMAN; HYPERSENSITIVITY; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNOTOXICITY; KIDNEY CANCER; LIVER CANCER; META ANALYSIS; METABOLITE; MUTAGENICITY; NONHODGKIN LYMPHOMA; NONHUMAN; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLISHING; RESPIRATORY SYSTEM; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; SCIENTIFIC LITERATURE; TOXICOLOGY;

EID: 84874638782     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: 15529924     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.1205879     Document Type: Review

References (126)

1. Anders MW, Lash L, Dekant W, Elfarra AA, Dohn DR. 1988. Biosynthesis and biotransformation of glutathione S-conjugates to toxic metabolites. Crit Rev Toxicol 18:311-341.
2. Anttila A, Pukkala E, Sallmen M, Hernberg S, Hemminki K. 1995. Cancer incidence among Finnish workers exposed to halogenated hydrocarbons. J Occup Environ Med 37:797-806.
3. Aranyi C, O'Shea W, Graham J, Miller F. 1986. The effects of inhalation of organic chemical air contaminants on murine lung host defenses. Fundam Appl Toxicol 6:713-720.
4. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2006. Health Consultation: Endicott Area Investigation, Health Statistics Review. Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis: Endicott Area, Town of Union, Broome County, New York. Atlanta, GA:ATSDR. Available: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/HAC/pha/EndicottAreaInvestigation/EndicottHealthStatsReviewHC052606.pdf [accessed 19 September 2012].
5. ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry). 2008. Health Consultation: Health Statistics Review Follow-Up. Cancer and Birth Outcome Analysis: Endicott Area Investigation, Endicott Area, Town of Union, Broome County, New York. Atlanta, GA:ATSDR. Available: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/hac/pha//EndicottAreaInvestigationFollowUp/EndicottAreaHC051508.pdf [accessed 19September 2012].
6. Axelson O, Seldén A, Andersson K, Hogstedt C. 1994. Updated and expanded Swedish cohort study on trichloroethylene and cancer risk. J Occup Med 36:556-562.
7. Bale AS, Barone S Jr, Scott CS, Cooper GS. 2011. A review of potential neurotoxic mechanisms among three chlorinated organic solvents. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 255:113-126.
8. Barton HA, Cogliano VJ, Flowers L, Valcovic L, Setzer RW, WoodruffTJ. 2005. Assessing susceptibility from early-life exposure to carcinogens. Environ Health Perspect 113:1125-1133.
9. Bernauer U, Birner G, Dekant W, Henschler D. 1996. Biotransformation of trichloroethene: dose-dependent excretion of 2,2,2-trichloro-metabolites and mercapturic acids in rats and humans after inhalation. Arch Toxicol 70:338-346.
10. Birner G, Vamvakas S, Dekant W, Henschler D. 1993. Nephrotoxic and genotoxic N-acetyl-S-dichlorovinyl-l-cysteine is a urinary metabolite after occupational 1,1,2-trichloroethene exposure in humans: Implications for the risk of trichloroethene exposure. Environ Health Perspect 99:281-284.
11. Boice JD Jr, Marano DE, Cohen SS, Mumma MT, Blot WJ, BrillAB, etal. 2006. Mortality among Rocketdyne workers who tested rocket engines, 1948-1999. J Occup Environ Med 48:1070-1092.
12. Boice JD Jr, Marano D, Fryzek J, Sadler C, McLaughlin JK. 1999. Mortality among aircraft manufacturing workers. Occup Environ Med 56:581-597.
13. Bois FY. 2000a. Statistical analysis of Clewell etal. PBPK model of trichloroethylene kinetics. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):307-316.
14. Bois FY. 2000b. Statistical analysis of Fisher etal. PBPK model of trichloroethylene kinetics. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):275-282.
15. Bove F. 1996. Public drinking water contamination and birthweight, prematurity, fetal deaths, and birth defects. Toxicol Ind Health 12:255-266.
16. Bove F, Fulcomer M, Klotz J, Esmart J, Dufficy E, Savrin J. 1995. Public drinking water contamination and birth outcomes. Am J Epidemiol 141:850-862.
17. Bove F, Shim Y, Zeitz P. 2002. Drinking water contaminants and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a review. Environ Health Perspect 110(suppl 1):61-74.
18. Boyer AS, Finch WT, Runyan RB. 2000. Trichloroethylene inhibits development of embryonic heart valve precursors in vitro. Toxicol Sci 53:109-117.
19. Brauch H, Weirich G, Hornauer M, Störkel S, Wöhl T, Brüning T. 1999. Trichloroethylene exposure and specific somatic mutations in patients with renal cell carcinoma. J Natl Cancer Inst 91:854-861.
20. Brauch H, Weirich G, Klein B, Rabstein S, Bolt HM, Brüning T. 2004. VHL mutations in renal cell cancer: does occupational exposure to trichloroethylene make a difference. Toxicol Lett 151:301-310.
21. Brüning T, Pesch B, Wiesenhütter B, Rabstein S, LammertM, Baumüller A, etal. 2003. Renal cell cancer risk and occupational exposure to trichloroethylene: results of a consecutive case-control study in Arnsberg, Germany. Am J Ind Med 43:274-285.
22. Brüning T, Weirich G, Hornauer MA, Höfler H, Brauch H. 1997. Renal cell carcinomas in trichloroethene (TRI) exposed persons are associated with somatic mutations in the vonHippel-Lindau (VHL) tumour suppressor gene. Arch Toxicol 71:332-335.
23. Buben J, O'Flaherty E. 1985. Delineation of the role of metabolism in the hepatotoxicity of trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene: a dose-effect study. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 78:105-122.
24. Bull RJ. 2000. Mode of action of liver tumor induction by trichloroethylene and its metabolites, trichloroacetate and dichloroacetate. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):241-259.
25. Cai H, Guengerich FP. 1999. Mechanisms of aqueous decomposition of trichloroethylene oxide. J Am Chem Soc 121:11656-11663.
26. Caldwell JC, Keshava N. 2006. Key issues in the modes of action and effects of trichloroethylene metabolites for liver and kidney tumorigenesis. Environ Health Perspect 114:1457-1463.
27. Caldwell JC, Keshava N, Evans MV. 2008. Difficulty of mode of action determination for trichloroethylene: an example of complex interactions of metabolites and other chemical exposures. Environ Mol Mutagen 49:142-154.
28. Caldwell PT, Manziello A, Howard J, Palbykin B, Runyan RB, SelminO. 2010. Gene expression profiling in the fetal cardiac tissue after folate and low-dose trichloroethylene exposure. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 88:111-127.
29. Caldwell PT, Thorne PA, Johnson PD, Boitano S, Runyan RB, SelminO. 2008. Trichloroethylene disrupts cardiac gene expression and calcium homeostasis in rat myocytes. Toxicol Sci 104:135-143.
30. Carney E, Thorsrud B, Dugard P, Zablotny C. 2006. Developmental toxicity studies in Crl:CD (SD) rats following inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Birth Defects Res B Dev Reprod Toxicol 77:405-412.
31. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2009. Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to Chemicals. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/exposurereport/pdf/FourthReport.pdf [accessed 19September 2012].
32. Charbotel B, Fevotte J, Hours M, Martin JL, Bergeret A. 2006. Case-control study on renal cell cancer and occupational exposure to trichloroethylene. Part II: Epidemiological aspects. Ann Occup Hyg 50:777-787.
33. Chiu WA. 2011. Trichloroacetic acid: updated estimates of its bioavailability and its contribution to trichloroethylene-induced mouse hepatomegaly. Toxicology 285:114-125.
34. Chiu WA, Caldwell JC, Keshava N, Scott CS. 2006a. Key scientific issues in the health risk assessment of trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect 114:1445-1449.
35. Chiu WA, Okino MS, Evans MV. 2009. Characterizing uncertainty and population variability in the toxicokinetics of trichloroethylene and metabolites in mice, rats, and humans using an updated database, physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model, and Bayesian approach. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 241:36-60.
36. Chiu WA, Okino MS, Lipscomb JC, Evans MV. 2006b. Issues in the pharmacokinetics of trichloroethylene and its metabolites. Environ Health Perspect 114:1450-1456.
37. Clewell HJ III, Gentry PR, Covington TR, Gearhart JM. 2000. Development of a physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites for use in risk assessment. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):283-305.
38. Cocco P, t'Mannetje A, Fadda D, Melis M, Becker N, deSanjoséS, etal. 2010. Occupational exposure to solvents and risk of lymphoma subtypes: results from the Epilymph case-control study. Occup Environ Med 67:341-347.
39. Collier JM, Selmin O, Johnson PD, Runyan RB. 2003. Trichloroethylene effects on gene expression during cardiac development. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 67:488-495.
40. Cooper GS, Makris SL, Nietert PJ, Jinot J. 2009. Evidence of autoimmune-related effects of trichloroethylene exposure from studies in mice and humans. Environ Health Perspect 117:696-702.
41. Dosemeci M, Cocco P, Chow WH. 1999. Gender differences in risk of renal cell carcinoma and occupational exposures to chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons. Am J Ind Med 36:54-59.
42. Drake VJ, Koprowski S, Hu N, Smith S, Lough J. 2006a. Cardiogenic effects of trichloroethylene and trichloroacetic acid following exposure during heart specification of avian development. Toxicol Sci 94:153-162.
43. Drake VJ, Koprowski S, Lough J, Hu N, Smith S. 2006b. Trichloroethylene exposure during cardiac valvuloseptal morphogenesis alters cushion formation and cardiac hemodynamics in the avian embryo. Environ Health Perspect 114:842-847.
44. Evans MV, Chiu WA, Okino MS, Caldwell JC. 2009. Development of an updated PBPK model for trichloroethylene and metabolites in mice, and its application to discern the role of oxidative metabolism in TCE-induced hepatomegaly. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 236:329-340.
45. Fisher J. 2000. Physiologically based pharmacokinetic models for trichloroethylene and its oxidative metabolites. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):265-273.
46. Fisher J, Channel S, Eggers J, Johnson P, MacMahon K, GoodyearC, etal. 2001. Trichloroethylene, trichloroacetic acid, and dichloroacetic acid: do they affect fetal rat heart development. Int J Toxicol 20:257-267.
47. Forand SP, Lewis-Michl EL, Gomez MI. 2012. Adverse birth outcomes and maternal exposure to trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene through soil vapor intrusion in New York State. Environ Health Perspect 120:616-621.
48. Fukuda K, Takemoto K, Tsuruta H. 1983. Inhalation carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene in mice and rats. Ind Health 21:243-254.
49. Gilkeson GS, Keil D, Peden-Adams M. 2004. Immune effects of trichloroethylene on autoimmune disease in mice. In: Trichloroethylene: The Scientific Basis of Risk Assessment (Mohr LC, Hoel DG, Jollow D, eds). Charleston, SC:Medical University of South Carolina Press, 87-98.
50. Goldberg S, Lebowitz M, Graver E, Hicks S. 1990. An association of human congenital cardiac malformations and drinking water contaminants. J Am Coll Cardiol 16:155-164.
51. Greenland S, Salvan A, Wegman DH, Hallock MF, Smith TJ. 1994. A case-control study of cancer mortality at a transformer-assembly facility. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 66:49-54.
52. Grulich AE, Vajdic CM, Cozen W. 2007. Altered immunity as a risk factor for non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 16(3):405-408.
53. Guha N, Loomis D, Grosse Y, Lauby-Secretan B, El Ghissassi F, et al. 2012. Carcinogenicity of trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethylene, some other chlorinated solvents, and their metabolites. Lancet Oncol 13:1192-1193.
54. Hack CE, Chiu WA, Jay Zhao Q, Clewell HJ. 2006. Bayesian population analysis of a harmonized physiologically based pharmacokinetic model of trichloroethylene and its metabolites. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 46:63-83.
55. Hansen J, Raaschou-Nielsen O, Christensen JM, Johansen I, McLaughlinJK, Lipworth L, etal. 2001. Cancer incidence among Danish workers exposed to trichloroethylene. J Occup Environ Med 43:133-139.
56. Hardell L, Eriksson M, Degerman A. 1994. Exposure to phenoxyacetic acids, chlorophenols, or organic solvents in relation to histopathology, stage, and anatomical localization of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Cancer Res 54:2386-2389.
57. Hardin B, Kelman B, Brent R. 2005. Trichloroethylene and dichloroethylene: a critical review of teratogenicity. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 73:931-955.
58. Henschler D, Romen W, Elsaesser HM, Reichert D, Eder E, Radwan Z. 1980. Carcinogenicity study of trichloroethylene by longterm inhalation in three animal species. Arch Toxicol 43:237-248.
59. Hill AB. 1965. The environment and disease: association or causation? Proc R Soc Med 58:295-300.
60. Hoffman S, Mishima N, Krug EL, eds. 2004. An Improved Model for Evaluating Trichloroethylene and Its Metabolites as Cardiac Specific Teratogens. Charleston, SC:Medical University of South Carolina Press.
61. Hosgood HD III, Zhang L, Tang X, Vermeulen R, Qiu C, Shen M, et al. 2011. Decreased numbers of CD4+ naive and effector memory T cells, and CD8+ naive T cells, are associated with trichloroethylene exposure. Front Oncol 1:53; doi:10.3389/fonc.2011.00053 [Online 10January 2012].
62. Iavicoli I, Marinaccio A, Carelli G. 2005. Effects of occupational trichloroethylene exposure on cytokine levels in workers. J Occup Environ Med 47:453-457.
63. Johnson P, Dawson B, Goldberg S. 1998a. Cardiac teratogenicity of trichloroethylene metabolites. J Am Coll Cardiol 32:540-545.
64. Johnson P, Dawson B, Goldberg S. 1998b. A review: Trichloroethylene metabolites: potential cardiac teratogens. Environ Health Perspect 106(suppl 4):995-999.
65. Johnson P, Goldberg S, Mays M, Dawson B. 2003. Threshold of trichloroethylene contamination in maternal drinking waters affecting fetal heart development in the rat. Environ Health Perspect 111:289-292.
66. Johnson P, Goldberg S, Mays M, Dawson B. 2005. Errata [Threshold of trichloroethylene contamination in maternal drinking waters affecting fetal heart development in the rat]. Environ Health Perspect 113:A18.
67. Kamijima M, Hisanaga N, Wang H, Nakajima T. 2007. Occupational trichloroethylene exposure as a cause of idiosyncratic generalized skin disorders and accompanying hepatitis similar to drug hypersensitivities. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 80:357-370.
68. Kamijima M, Wang H, Huang H, Li L, Shibata E, Lin B, etal. 2008. Trichloroethylene causes generalized hypersensitivity skin disorders complicated by hepatitis. J Occup Health 50:328-338.
69. Karami S, Lan Q, Rothman N, Stewart PA, Lee KM, Vermeulen R, etal. 2012. Occupational trichloroethylene exposure and kidney cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Occup Environ Med 69:858-867.
70. Keshava N, Caldwell J. 2006. Key issues in the role of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonism and cell signaling in trichloroethylene toxicity. Environ Health Perspect 114:1464-1470.
71. Krause RJ, Lash LH, Elfarra AA. 2003. Human kidney flavin-containing monooxygenases and their potential roles in cysteine S-conjugate metabolism and nephrotoxicity. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 304:185-191.
72. Lash LH, Fisher JW, Lipscomb JC, Parker JC. 2000a. Metabolism of trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect 108:177-200.
73. Lash LH, Parker JC, Scott CS. 2000b. Modes of action of trichloroethylene for kidney tumorigenesis. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):225-240.
74. Lash LH, Putt DA, Hueni SE, Krause RJ, Elfarra AA. 2003. Roles of necrosis, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction in S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine sulfoxide-induced cytotoxicity in primary cultures of human renal proximal tubular cells. JPharmacol Exp Ther 305:1163-1172.
75. Lehmann I, Rehwagen M, Diez U, Seiffart A, Rolle-Kampczyk U, RichterM, etal. 2001. Enhanced invivo IgE production and T cell polarization toward the type 2 phenotype in association with indoor exposure to VOC: results of the LARS study. Int J Hyg Environ Health 204:211-221.
76. Lehmann I, Thoelke A, Rehwagen M, Rolle-Kampczyk U, SchlinkU, Schulz R, etal. 2002. The influence of maternal exposure to volatile organic compounds on the cytokine secretion profile of neonatal T cells. Environ Toxicol 17:203-210.
77. Loeber C, Hendrix M, Diez De Pinos S, Goldberg S. 1988. Trichloroethylene: a cardiac teratogen in developing chick embryos. Pediatr Res 24:740-744.
78. Maltoni C, Lefemine G, Cotti G. 1986. Experimental Research on Trichloroethylene Carcinogenesis. Princeton, NJ:Princeton Scientific Publishing.
79. Miligi L, Costantini AS, Benvenuti A, Kriebel D, Bolejack V, TuminoR, etal. 2006. Occupational exposure to solvents and the risk of lymphomas. Epidemiology 17:552-561.
80. Mishima N, Hoffman S, Hill E, Krug E. 2006. Chick embryos exposed to trichloroethylene in an ex ovo culture model show selective defects in early endocardial cushion tissue formation. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 76:517-527.
81. Moore LE, Boffetta P, Karami S, Brennan P, Stewart PS, HungR, etal. 2010. Occupational trichloroethylene exposure and renal carcinoma risk: evidence of genetic susceptibility by reductive metabolism gene variants. Cancer Res 70:6527-6536.
82. Morgan RW, Kelsh MA, Zhao K, Heringer S. 1998. Mortality of aerospace workers exposed to trichloroethylene. Epidemiology 9:424-431.
83. National Cancer Institute. 1976. Carcinogenesis Bioassay of Trichloroethylene. TR002. Bethesda, MD:National Cancer Institute. Available: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr002.pdf [accessed 19September 2012].
84. Nickerson ML, Jaeger E, Shi Y, Durocher JA, Mahurkar S, ZaridzeD, etal. 2008. Improved identification of von Hippel-Lindau gene alterations in clear cell renal tumors. Clin Cancer Res 14:4726-4734.
85. Nordström M, Hardell L, Magnuson A, Hagberg H, Rask-Andersen A. 1998. Occupational exposures, animal exposure and smoking as risk factors for hairy cell leukaemia evaluated in a case-control study. Br J Cancer 77:2048-2052.
86. NRC (National Research Council). 2006. Assessing the Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene: Key Scientific Issues. Washington, DC:National Academies Press. Available: http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11707 [accessed 19 September 2012].
87. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1988. Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Trichloroethylene (CAS No. 79-01-6) in Four Strains of Rats (Aci, August, Marshall, Osborne-Mendel) (Gavage Studies). TR273. Research Triangle Park, NC:NTP. Available: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr273.pdf [accessed 19 September 2012].
88. NTP (National Toxicology Program). 1990. Carcinogenesis Studies of Trichloroethylene (without Epichlorohydrin) (CASs No. 79-01-6) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Gavage Studies). TR243. Research Triangle Park, NC:NTP. Available: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/ntp/htdocs/LT_rpts/tr243.pdf [accessed 19September 2012].
89. Odum J, Foster J, Green T. 1992. A mechanism for the development of Clara cell lesions in the mouse lung after exposure to trichloroethylene. Chem Biol Interact 83:135-153.
90. Ou J, Ou Z, McCarver D, Hines R, Oldham K, Ackerman A, et al. 2003. Trichloroethylene decreases heat shock protein 90 interactions with endothelial nitric oxide synthase: implications for endothelial cell proliferation. Toxicol Sci 73:90-97.
91. Peden-Adams M, Eudaly J, Heesemann L, Smythe J, Miller J, GilkesonG, etal. 2006. Developmental immunotoxicity of trichloroethylene (TCE): studies in B6C3F1 mice. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 41:249-271.
92. Persson B, Fredrikson M. 1999. Some risk factors for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Int J Occup Med Environ Health 12:135-142.
93. Pesch B, Haerting J, Ranft U, Klimpel A, Oelschlägel B, SchillW. 2000. Occupational risk factors for urothelial carcinoma: agent-specific results from a case-control study in Germany. Int J Epidemiol 29:238-247.
94. Purdue MP, Bakke B, Stewart P, De Roos AJ, Schenk M, LynchCF, etal. 2011. A case-control study of occupational exposure to trichloroethylene and non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Environ Health Perspect 119:232-238.
95. Raaschou-Nielsen O, Hansen J, McLaughlin JK, Kolstad H, Christensen JM, Tarone RE, etal. 2003. Cancer risk among workers at Danish companies using trichloroethylene: a cohort study. Am J Epidemiol 158:1182-1192.
96. Radican L, Blair A, Stewart P, Wartenberg D. 2008. Mortality of aircraft maintenance workers exposed to trichloroethylene and other hydrocarbons and chemicals: extended follow-up. J Occup Environ Med 50:1306-1319.
97. Rufer E, Hacker T, Flentke G, Drake V, Brody M, Lough J, etal. 2010. Altered cardiac function and ventricular septal defect in avian embryos exposed to low-dose trichloroethylene. Toxicol Sci 113:444-452.
98. Schraml P, Zhaou M, Richter J, Brüning T, Pommer M, Sauter G, etal. 1999. Analysis of kidney tumors in trichloroethylene exposed workers by comparative genomic hybridization and DNA sequence analysis [in German]. Verh Dtsch Ges Pathol 83:218-224.
99. Scott CS, Chiu WA. 2006. Trichloroethylene cancer epidemiology: a consideration of select issues. Environ Health Perspect 114:1471-1478.
100. Scott CS, Jinot J. 2011. Trichloroethylene and cancer: systematic and quantitative review of epidemiologic evidence for identifying hazards. IntJ Environ Res Public Health 8:4238-4272.
101. Selgrade M, Gilmour M. 2010. Suppression of pulmonary host defenses and enhanced susceptibility to respiratory bacterial infection in mice following inhalation exposure to trichloroethylene and chloroform. J Immunotoxicol 7:350-356.
102. Selmin OI, Thorne PA, Caldwell PT, Taylor MR. 2008. Trichloroethylene and trichloroacetic acid regulate calcium signaling pathways in murine embryonal carcinoma cells p19. Cardiovasc Toxicol 8:47-56.
103. Siemiatycki J. 1991. Risk Factors for Cancer in the Workplace. Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press.
104. Tang X, Li L, Huang J, Deng Y. 2002. Guinea pig maximization test for trichloroethylene and its metabolites. Biomed Environ Sci 15:113-118.
105. Tang X, Que B, Song X, Li S, Yang X, Wang H, etal. 2008. Characterization of liver injury associated with hypersensitive skin reactions induced by trichloroethylene in the guinea pig maximization test. J Occup Health 50:114-121.
106. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2005. Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment (2005). EPA/630/P-03/001F. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA. Available: http://www.epa.gov/cancerguidelines/ [accessed 19 September 2012].
107. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2009a. Draft Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene: in Support of the Summary Information in the Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Docket ID: EPA-hq-ord-2009-0791. Available: http://www.regulations.gov/#!docketDetail;D=EPA-HQ-ORD-2009-0791 [accessed 24May 2012].
108. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2009b. IRIS Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene (Interagency Science Consultation Draft). Available: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=22536 [accessed 24May 2012].
109. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2010. A New Approach to Protecting Drinking Water and Public Health. EPA 815F10001. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA Office of Water. Available: http://water.epa.gov/lawsregs/rulesregs/sdwa/dwstrategy/upload/Drinking_Water_Strategyfs.pdf [accessed 24May 2012].
110. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011a. 2011 Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. EPA 820-R-11-002. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA Office of Water. Available: http://water.epa.gov/action/advisories/drinking/upload/dwstandards2011.pdf [accessed 24May 2012].
111. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011b. IRIS Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene (Interagency Science Discussion Draft). Available: http://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/iris_drafts/recordisplay.cfm?deid=237625 [accessed 24 May 2012].
112. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011c. News Release: EPA Releases Final Health Assessment for TCE. Available: http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/03dd877d6f1726c28525735900404443/b8d0e4d8489ad991852579190058d6c3!OpenDocument [accessed 24May 2012].
113. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2011d. Trichloroethylene Toxicological Review and Appendices. Available: http://www.epa.gov/iris/supdocs/0199index.html [accessed 24May 2012].
114. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2012a. TSCA Work Plan Chemicals: Methods Document. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics. Available: http://www.epa.gov/oppt/existingchemicals/pubs/wpmethods.pdf [accessed 24May 2012].
115. U.S. EPA (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). 2012b. TRI Explorer: Release Trends Report. Available: http://iaspub.epa.gov/triexplorer/tri_release.trends [accessed 23 July 2012].
116. U.S. EPA SAB (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Science Advisory Board). 2002. Review of Draft Trichloroethylene Health Risk Assessment: Synthesis and Characterization: An EPA Science Advisory Board Report. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA. Available: http://www.epa.gov/sab/pdf/ehc03002.pdf [accessed 17January 2013].
117. U.S. EPA SAB (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Science Advisory Board). 2011. Review of EPA's Draft Assessment Entitled "Toxicological Review of Trichloroethylene" (October 2009). EPA-SAB-11-002. Washington, DC:U.S. EPA. Available: http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/B73D5D39A8F184BD85257817004A1988/$File/EPA-SAB-11-002-unsigned.pdf [accessed 19September 2012].
118. Vermeulen R, Zhang L, Spierenburg A, Tang X, Bonventre JV, ReissB, etal. 2012. Elevated urinary levels of kidney injury molecule-1 among Chinese factory workers exposed to trichloroethylene. Carcinogenesis 33:1538-1541.
119. Wang R, Zhang Y, Lan Q, Holford TR, Leaderer B, Zahm SH, et al. 2009. Occupational exposure to solvents and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma in Connecticut women. Am J Epidemiol 169:176-185.
120. Watson RE, Jacobson CF, Williams AL, Howard WB, DeSesso JM. 2006. Trichloroethylene-contaminated drinking water and congenital heart defects: a critical analysis of the literature. Reprod Toxicol 21:117-147.
121. Werner M, Birner G, Dekant W. 1995a. The role of cytochrome p4503a1/2 in the sex-specific sulfoxidation of the hexachloro-butadiene metabolite, N-acetyl-S-(pentachlorobutadienyl)-l-cysteine in rats. Drug Metab Dispos 23:861-868.
122. Werner M, Guo Z, Birner G, Dekant W, Guengerich FP. 1995b. The sulfoxidation of the hexachlorobutadiene metabolite N-acetyl-S-(1,2,3,4,4-pentachlorobutadienyl)-l-cysteine is catalyzed by human cytochrome p450 3A enzymes. Chem Res Toxicol 8:917-923.
123. Woolhiser M, Krieger S, Thomas J, Hotchkiss J. 2006. Trichloroethylene (TCE): Immunotoxicity Potential in CD Rats following a 4-week Vapor Inhalation Exposure. Midland, MI:Dow Chemical Company.
124. Wu C, Schaum J. 2000. Exposure assessment of trichloroethylene. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 2):359-363.
125. Yauck J, Malloy M, Blair K, Simpson P, McCarver D. 2004. Proximity of residence to trichloroethylene-emitting sites and increased risk of offspring congenital heart defects among older women. Birth Defects Res A Clin Mol Teratol 70:808-814.
126. Zhao Y, Krishnadasan A, Kennedy N, Morgenstern H, Ritz B. 2005. Estimated effects of solvents and mineral oils on cancer incidence and mortality in a cohort of aerospace workers. Am J Ind Med 48:249-258.