Principles of insect locomotion

Cognitive Systems Monographs

Volumn 1, Issue 1, 2009, Pages 43-96

  Cruse, H ^a   Durr V ^b   Schilling, M ^a   Schmitz, J ^a  

^a BIELEFELD UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84870545829     PISSN: 18674925     EISSN: 18674933     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-540-88464-4_2     Document Type: Article

References (211)

1. Akay, T., Bässler, U., Gerharz, P., Büschges, A.: The role of sensory signals from the insect coxa-trochanteral joint in contolling motor activity of the femur-tibia joint. J. Neurophysiol. 85, 594-604 (2001)
2. Akay, T., Haehn, S., Schmitz, J., Büschges, A.: Signals from load sensors underlie interjoint coordination during stepping movements of the stick insect leg. J. Neurophysiol. 92, 42-51 (2004)
3. Akay, T., Ludwar, B., Göritz, M., Schmitz, J., Büschges, A.: Segment specificity of load signal processing depends on walking direction in the stick insect leg muscle control system. Journal of Neuroscience 27, 3285-3294 (2007)
4. Ayers, J.: A conservative biomimetic control architecture for autonomous underwater robots. In: Ayers, J., Davis, J.L., Rudolph, A. (eds.) Neurotechnology for biomimetic robots. MIT Press, Cambridge (2002)
5. Baldi, P., Heiligenberg, W.: How sensory maps could enhance resolution through ordered arrangements of broadly tuned receivers. Biol. Cybern. 59, 313-318 (1988)
6. Bartling, C., Schmitz, J.: Reaction to disturbances of a walking leg during stance. J. Exp. Biol. 203, 1211-1233 (2000)
7. Bässler, U.: Das Stabheuschreckenpraktikum. Franckh, Stuttgart (1965)
8. Bässler, U.: Proprioreceptoren am Subcoxal-und Femur-Tibia-Gelenk der Stabheuschrecke und ihre Rolle bei der Wahrnehmung der Schwerkraftrichtung. Kybernetik 2, 168-193 (1965)
9. Bässler, U.: Zur Bedeutung der Antennen für die Wahrnehmung der Schwerkraftrichtung bei der Stabheuschrecke Carausius morosus. Kybernetik 9, 31-34 (1971)
10. Bässler, U.: Zur Beeinflussung der Bewegungsweise eines Beines von Carausius morosus durch Amputation anderer Beine. Kybernetik 10, 110-114 (1972)
11. Bässler, U.: Reversal of a reflex to a single motoneuron in the stick insect Carausius morosus. Biol. Cybern. 24, 47-49 (1976)
12. Bässler, U.: Sense organs in the femur of the stick insect and their relevance to the control of position of the femur-tibia-joint. J. Comp. Physiol. 121, 99-113 (1977a)
13. Bässler, U.: Sensory control of leg movement in the stick insect Carausius morosus. Biol. Cybern. 25, 61-72 (1977b)
14. Bässler, U.: Neural basis of elementary behavior in stick insects. Springer, Heidelberg (1983)
15. Bässler, U.: Afferent control of walking movements in the stick insect Cuniculina impigra. i. decerebrated animals on a treadband. J. Comp. Physiol. A 158, 345-349 (1986)
16. Bässler, U.: Functional principles of pattern generation for walking movements of stick insect forelegs: The role of the femoral chordotonal organ afferences. J. Exp. Biol. 136, 125-147 (1988)
17. Bässler, U., Büschges, A.: Pattern generation for stick insect walking movements - multisensory control of a locomotor program. Brain Res. Rev. 27, 65-88 (1998)
18. Bässler, U., Rohrbacher, J., Karg, G., Breutel, G.: Interruption of searching movements of partly restrained front legs of stick insects, a model situation for the start of the stance phase? Biol. Cybern. 65, 507-514 (1991)
19. Bell, W.J., Kramer, E.: Search and anemotactic orientation of cockroaches. J. Insect Physiol. 25, 631-640 (1979)
20. Berns, K., Albiez, J., Kepplin, V., Hillenbrand, C.: Airbug-insect like machine actuated by fluidic muscle. In: Berns, K., Dillmann, R. (eds.) Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Climbing and Walking Robots, CLAWAR 2001, pp. 237-244. Professional Engineering Publishers, London (2001)
21. Biewener, A.A.: Animal locomotion. Oxford University Press, Oxford (2003)
22. Bizzi, E., Giszter, S.F., Loeb, E., Mussa-Ivaldi, F.A., Saltiel, P.: Modular organization of motor behavior in the frog's spinal cord. Trends Neurosci. 18, 442-446 (1995)
23. Bläsing, B.: Adaptive locomotion in a complex environment: simulation of stick insect gap crossing behaviour. From animals to animats 8, 173-182 (2004)
24. Bläsing, B., Cruse, H.: Mechanisms of stick insect locomotion in a gap crossing paradigm. J. Comp. Physiol. A 190, 173-183 (2004)
25. Blickhan, R., Full, R.J.: Similarity in multilegged locomotion: Bouncing like a monopode. J. Comp. Physiol. A 173, 509-517 (1993)
26. Böhm, H., Heinzel, H.G., Scharstein, H., Wendler, G.: The course-control system of beetles walking in an air-current field. J. Comp. Physiol. A 169, 671-683 (1991)
27. Bräunig, P., Hustert, R., Pflüger, H.J.: Distribution and specific central projections of mechanoreceptors in the thorax and proximal leg joints of locusts. i. morphology, location and innervation of internal proprioceptors of pro-and metathorax and their central projections. Cell Tissue Res. 216, 57-77 (1981)
28. Brooks, R.A.: A robot that walks: Emergent behaviors from a carefully evolved network. Neural computat. 1, 253-262 (1989)
29. Brooks, R.A.: Intelligence without reason. In: Proceedings of the 12th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI 1991), Sydney, pp. 569-595 (1991)
30. Brown, I.E., Loeb, G.E.: A reductionist approach to creating and using neuromusculoskeletal movement. In: Winters, M.J., Crago, E.P. (eds.) Biomechanics and neural control of movement, pp. 148-163. Springer, Heidelberg (2000)
31. Brunn, D.E., Dean, J.: Intersegmental and local interneurons in the metathorax of the stick insect Carausius morosus that monitor middle leg position. J. Neurophysiol. 72, 1208-1219 (1994)
32. Bucher, D., Akay, T., Dicaprio, R.A., Büschges, A.: Interjoint coordination in the stick insect leg-control system: The role of positional signaling. J. Neurophysiol. 89, 1245-1255 (2003)
33. Burrows, M.: The Neurobiology of an Insect Brain. Oxford University Press, Oxford (1996)
34. Büschges, A., Schmitz, J., Bässler, U.: Rhythmic patterns in the thoracic nerve cord of the stick insect induced by pilocarpine. J. Exp. Biol. 198, 435-456 (1995)
35. Camhi, J.M., Johnson, E.N.: High-frequency steering maneuvers mediated by tactile cues: Antennal wall-following in the cockroach. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 631-643 (1999)
36. Chasserat, C., Clarac, F.: Interlimb coordinating factors during driven walking in crustacea. A comparative study of absolute and relative coordination. J. Comp. Physiol. 139, 293-306 (1980)
37. Cocatre-Zilgien, J.H., Delcomyn, F.: Modeling stress and strain in an insect leg for simulation of campaniform sensilla responsses to external forces. Biol. Cybern. 81, 149-160 (1999)
38. Comer, C.M., Parks, L., Halvorsen, M.B., Breese-Terteling, A.: The antennal system and cockroach evasive behavior ii. Stimulus identification and localization are separable antennal functions. J. Comp. Physiol. A 189, 97-103 (2003)
39. Copp, N., Jamon, M.: Kinematics of rotation in place during defense turning in the crayfish Procambarus clarkii. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 471-486 (2001)
40. Cowan, N.J., Ma, E.J., Cutkosky, M., Full, R.J.: A biologically inspired passive antenna for steering control of a running robot. In: Dario, P., Chatila, R. (eds.) Robotics Research. The Eleventh International Symposium. Springer, Wien (2003)
41. Cruse, H.: On the function of the legs in the free walking stick insect Carausius morosus. J. Comp. Physiol. 112, 235-262 (1976a)
42. Cruse, H.: The control of body position in the stick insect (Carausius morosus), when walking over uneven surfaces. Biol. Cybern. 24, 25-33 (1976b)
43. Cruse, H.: The control of the anterior extreme position of the hindleg of a walking insect, Carausius morosus. Physiol. Entomol. 4, 121-124 (1979)
44. Cruse, H.: The influence of load, position and velocity on the control of leg movement of a walking insect. In: Gewecke, M., Wendler, G. (eds.) Insect Locomotion, pp. 19-26. Parey, Hamburg (1985a)
45. Cruse, H.: Which parameters control the leg movement of a walking insect? i. velocity control during the stance phase. J. Exp. Biol. 116, 343-355 (1985b)
46. Cruse, H.: Which parameters control the leg movement of a walking insect? ii. the start of the swing phase. J. Exp. Biol. 116, 357-362 (1985c)
47. Cruse, H.: What mechanisms coordinate leg movement in walking arthropods? Trends Neurosci. 13, 15-21 (1990)
48. Cruse, H.: The functional sense of central oscillations in walking. Biol. Cybern. 86, 271-280 (2002)
49. Cruse, H., Bartling, C.: Movement of joint angles in the legs of a walking insect, Carausius morosus. J. Insect Physiol. 41, 761-771 (1995)
50. Cruse, H., Bartling, C., Dean, J., Kindermann, T., Schmitz, J., Schumm, M., Wagner, H.: Coordination in a six-legged walking system. simple solutions to complex problems by exploitation of physical properties. In: Maes, P., et al. (eds.) From Animals to Animats, vol. 4, pp. 84-93. The MIT Press/Bradford Books, Cambridge (1996)
51. Cruse, H., Bartling, C., Dreifert, M., Schmitz, J., Brunn, D.E., Dean, J., Kindermann, T.: Walking: a complex behaviour controlled by simple networks. Adapt. Behav. 3, 385-418 (1995)
52. Cruse, H., Kindermann, T., Schumm, M., Dean, J., Schmitz, J.: Walknet - a biologically inspired network to control six-legged walking. Neural Networks 11, 1435-1447 (1998)
53. Cruse, H., Kühn, S., Park, S., Schmitz, J.: Adaptive control for insect leg position: controller properties depend on substrate compliance. J. Comp. Physiol. A 190, 983-991 (2004)
54. Cruse, H., Müller, U.: A new method measuring leg position of walking crustaceans shows that motor output during return stroke depends upon load. J. Exp. Biol. 110, 319-322 (1984)
55. Cruse, H., Müller-Wilm, U., Dean, J.: Artificial neural nets for controlling a 6-legged walking system. In: Meyer, J.A., Roitblat, H., Wilson, S. (eds.) From animals to animats, pp. 52-60. MIT Press, Cambridge (1993a)
56. Cruse, H., Riemenschneider, D., Stammer, W.: Control of body position of a stick insect standing on uneven surfaces. Biol. Cybern. 61, 71-77 (1989)
57. Cruse, H., Saxler, G.: Oscillations of force in the standing legs of a walking insect (Carausius morosus). Biol. Cybern. 36, 159-163 (1980)
58. Cruse, H., Schmitz, J., Braun, U., Schweins, A.: Control of body height in a stick insect walking on a treadwheel. J. Exp. Biol. 181, 141-155 (1993b)
59. Cruse, H., Silva Saavedra, M.G.: Curve walking in crayfish. J. Exp. Biol. 199, 1477-1482 (1996)
60. Cruse, H., Warnecke, H.: Coordination of the legs of a slow-walking cat. Exp. Brain Res. 89, 147-156 (1992)
61. Cuénot, L.: Regeneration de pattes á la place d'antennes sectionnées chez un phasme. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. Paris 172, 949-952 (1921)
62. Dean, J.: Coding proprioceptive information to control movement to a target: simulation with a simple neural network. Biol. Cybern. 63, 115-120 (1990)
63. Dean, J.: A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. i. a geometrical consideration of contralateral and ipsilateral coordination mechanisms between two adjacent legs. Biol. Cybern. 64, 393-402 (1991a)
64. Dean, J.: A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. ii. Description of the kinematic model and simulation of normal step patterns. Biol. Cybern. 64, 403-411 (1991b)
65. Dean, J.: Effect of load on leg movement and step coordination of the stick insect Carausius morosus. J. Exp. Biol. 159, 449-471 (1991c)
66. Dean, J.: A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. iii. Responses to perturbations of normal coordination. Biol. Cybern. 66, 335-343 (1992a)
67. Dean, J.: A model of leg coordination in the stick insect, Carausius morosus. iv. Comparisons of different forms of coordinating mechanisms. Biol. Cybern. 66, 345-355 (1992b)
68. Dean, J., Cruse, H.: Evidence for the control of velocity as well as position in leg protraction and retraction by the stick insect. In: Heuer, H., Fromm, C. (eds.) Generation and modulation of action patterns, vol. 15, pp. 263-274. Springer, Heidelberg (1986)
69. Dean, J., Cruse, H.: Motor pattern generation. In: Arbib, M. (ed.) Handbook for Brain Theory and Neural Network, pp. 696-701. Bradford Book/MIT Press, Cambridge (2003)
70. Dean, J., Wendler, G.: Stick insects walking on a wheel: Perturbations induced by obstruction of leg protraction. J. Comp. Physiol. 148, 195-207 (1982)
71. Dean, J., Wendler, G.: Stick insect locomotion on a walking wheel: interleg coordination of leg position. J. Exp. Biol. 103, 75-94 (1983)
72. Degtyarenko, A.M., Simon, E.S., Norden-Krichmar, T., Burke, R.E.: Modulation of oligosynaptic cutaneous and muscle afferent reflex pathways during fictive locomotion and scratching in the cat. J. Neurophysiol. 79, 447-463 (1998)
73. Delcomyn, F.: Insect locomotion on land. In: Herreid, C.F., Fourtner, C.R. (eds.) Locomotion and Energetics in Arthropods, pp. 103-125. Plenum, New York (1981)
74. Delcomyn, F.: Acitvity and structure of movement-signalling (corollary discharge) interneurons in a cockroach. J. Comp. Physiol. 150, 185-193 (1983)
75. Delcomyn, F.: Motor activity during searching and walking movemets of cockroach legs. J. Exp. Biol. 133, 111-120 (1987)
76. Delcomyn, F.: Walking in the american coackroach: the timing of motor activity in the legs during straight walking. Biol. Cybern. 60, 373-384 (1989)
77. Delcomyn, F.: Activity and directional sensitivity of leg campaniform sensilla in a stick insect. J. Comp. Physiol. A 168, 113-119 (1991)
78. Dicaprio, R.A., Clarac, F.: Reversal of a walking leg reflex elicited by a muscle receptor. J. Exp. Biol. 90, 197-203 (1981)
79. Dreller, C., Kirchner, W.H.: Hearing in honeybees: localization of the auditory sense organ. J. Comp. Physiol. A 173, 275-279 (1993)
80. Dürr, V.: Stereotypic leg searching-movements in the stick insect: Kinematic analysis, behavioural context and simulation. J. Exp. Biol. 204, 1589-1604 (2001)
81. Dürr, V.: Context-dependent changes in strength and efficacy of leg coordination mechanisms. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 2253-2267 (2005)
82. Dürr, V.: Context-dependent changes in strength and efficacy of leg coordination mechanisms. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 2253-2267 (2005a)
83. Dürr, V., Ebeling, W.: The behavioural transition from straight to curve walking: kinetics of leg movement parameters and the initiation of turning. J. Exp. Biol. 208, 2237-2252 (2005)
84. Dürr, V., König, Y., Kittmann, R.: The antennal motor system of the stick insect Carausius morosus: anatomy and antennal movement pattern during walking. J. Comp. Physiol. A 187, 131-144 (2001)
85. Dürr, V., Krause, A.: The stick insect antenna as a biological paragon for an actively moved tactile probe for obstacle detection. In: Berns, K., Dillmann, R. (eds.) Climbing and Walking Robots - From Biology to Industrial Applications. Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Climbing and Walking Robots (CLAWAR 2001), Karlsruhe, pp. 87-96. Professional Engineering Publishing, Bury St. Edmunds (2001)
86. Dürr, V., Krause, A., Schmitz, J., Cruse, H.: Neuroethological concepts and their transfer to walking machines. Int. J. Robotics Res. 22, 151-167 (2003)
87. Duysens, J., Clarac, F., Cruse, H.: Load-regulating mechanisms in gait and posture: Comparative aspects. Physiol. Rev. 80, 83-133 (2000)
88. Ebeling, W., Dürr, V.: Perturbation of leg protraction causes context-dependent modulation of inter-leg coordination, but not of avoidance reflexes. Journal of Experimental Biology 209, 2199-2214 (2006)
89. Ekeberg, O., Blümel, M., Büschges, A.: Dynamic simulation of insect walking. Arthropod Structure & Development 33, 287-300 (2004)
90. Espenschied, K.S., Quinn, R.D., Beer, R.D., Chiel, H.J.: Biologically based distributed control and local reflexes improve rough terrain locomotion in a hexapod robot. Robot. Autonom. Sys. 18, 59-64 (1996)
91. Fielding, M.R., Dunlop, R.: Exponential fields to establish inter-leg influences for omnidirectional hexapod gait. In: Berns, K., Dillmann, R. (eds.) Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Climbing and Walking Robots (CLAWAR 2001), pp. 587-594. Professional Engineering Publishers, London (2001)
92. Fischer, H., Schmidt, J., Haas, R., Büschges, A.: Pattern generation for walking and searching movements of a stick insect leg. i. coordination of motor activity. J. Neurophysiol. 85, 341-353 (2001)
93. Franklin, R., Bell, W.J., Jander, R.: Rotational locomotion by the cockroach Blattella germanica. J. Insect Physiol. 27, 249-255 (1981)
94. Frantsevich, L., Cruse, H.: Leg coordination during turning on an extremely narrow substrate in a bug, Mesocerus marginatus (heteroptera, coreidae). J. Insect Physiol. 51, 1092-1104 (2005)
95. Frazier, S.F., Larsen, G.S., Neff, D., Quimby, L., Carney, M., Dicaprio, R.A., Zill, S.N.: Elasticity and movements of the cockroach tarsus in walking. J. Comp. Physiol. A 185, 157-172 (1999)
96. Full, R.J.: Integration of individual leg dynamics with whole body movement in arthropod locomotion. In: Beer, R., Ritzmann, R.E., McKenna, T. (eds.) Biological Neural Networks in Invertebrate Neuroethology and Robotics, pp. 3-20. Academic Press, San Diego (1993)
97. Full, R.J., Blickhan, R.: Locomotion wnergetics of the ghost crab. J. Exp. Biol. 130, 155-175 (1987)
98. Full, R.J., Koditschek, D.E.: Templates and anchors: neuromechanical hypotheses of legged locomotion on land. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 3325-3332 (1999)
99. Full, R.J., Kubow, T.M., Schmitt, J., Holmes, P., Koditscheck, D.E.: Quantifying dynamic stability and maneuverbility in legged locomotion. Integ. and Comp. Biol. 42, 149-157 (2002)
100. Full, R.J., Tu, M.S.: Mechanics of six-legged runners. J. Exp. Biol. 148, 129-146 (1990)
101. Full, R.J., Tu, M.S.: Mechanics of a rapid running insect: two-, four- and six-legged locomotion. J. Exp. Biol. 156, 215-231 (1991)
102. Gienger, M., Löffler, K., Pfeiffer, F.: A biped robot that jogs. In: Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics Automation, vol. 4, pp. 3334-3339 (2000)
103. Gnatzy, W., Heußlein, R.: Digger wasp against crickets. i. receptors involved in the antipredator strategies of the prey. Naturwiss. 73, 212-215 (1986)
104. Göpfert, M.C., Briegel, H., Robert, D.: Mosquito hearing: sound-induced antennal vibrations in male and female Aedes aegypti. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 2727-2738 (1999)
105. Göpfert, M.C., Robert, D.: The mechanical basis of Drosophila audition. J. Exp. Biol. 205, 1199-1208 (2002)
106. Gorb, S.N., Jiao, Y., Scherge, M.: Ultrastructural architecture and mechanical properties of attachment pads in Tettigonia viridissima (orthoptera, tettigoniidae). J. Comp. Physiol. A 186, 821-831 (2000)
107. Graham, D.: A behavioural analysis of the temporal organisation of walking movements in the 1st instar and adult stick insect (Carausius morosus). J. Comp. Physiol. 81, 23-52 (1972)
108. Graham, D.: Pattern and control of walking in insects. Adv. Insect Physiol. 81, 31-140 (1985)
109. Gregory, G.: Neuroanatomy of the mesothoracic ganglion of the cockroach periplaneta americana (l.). ii. median neuron cell body groups. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 306, 191-218 (1984)
110. Guthrie, D.M.: Multipolar stretch receptors and the insect leg reflex. J. Insect Physiol. 13, 1637-1644 (1967)
111. Hess, D., Büschges, A.: Role of propriosceptive signals from an insect femur-tibia joint in patterning motoneuronal activity of an adjacent leg joint. J. Neurophysiol. 81, 1856-1865 (1999)
112. Hofmann, T., Bässler, U.: Anatomy and physiology of trochanteral campaniform sensilla in the stick insect, cuniculina impigra. Physiol. Entomol. 7, 413-426 (1982)
113. Hofmann, T., Koch, U.T., Bässler, U.: Physiology of the femoral chordotonal organ in the stick insect, Cuniculina impigra. J. Exp. Biol. 114, 207-223 (1985)
114. Holst, E.v.: Die relative koordination als phänomen und als methode zentralnervöser funktionsanalyse. Erg. Physiol. 42, 228-306 (1939)
115. Holst, E.v.: Über relative koordination bei arthropoden. Pflügers Arch. 246, 847-865 (1943)
116. Höltje, M., Hustert, R.: Rapid mechano-sensory pathways code leg impact and elicit very rapid reflexes in insects. J. Exp. Biol. 206, 2715-2724 (2003)
117. Honegger, H.W.: A preliminary note on a new optomotor response in crickets: Antennal tracking of moving targets. J. Comp. Physiol. A 142, 419-421 (1981)
118. Horn, E., Bischof, H.J.: Gravity reception in crickets: the influence of cercal and antennal afferents on the head position. J. Comp. Physiol. A 150, 93-98 (1983)
119. Horseman, B.G., Gebhardt, M.J., Honegger, H.W.: Involvement of the suboesophageal and thoracic ganglia in the control of antennal movements in crickets. J. Comp. Physiol. A 181, 195-204 (1997)
120. Hu, J., Pratt, J., Chew, C., Herr, H., Pratt, G.: Adaptive virtual model control of a bipedal walking robot. In: Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Intel. Sys., pp. 245-251 (1998)
121. Hustert, R.: Proprioceptor responses and convergence of proprioceptive influence on motorneurones in the mesothoracic thoraco-coxal joint of locusts. J. Comp. Physiol. 150, 77-86 (1983)
122. Hustert, R., Pflüger, H.J., Bräunig, P.: Distribution and specific central projections in the thorax and proximal leg joints of locusts. iii. the external mechanoreceptors: The campaniform sensille. Cell Tissue Res. 216, 97-111 (1981)
123. Imms, A.D.: On the antennal musculature in insects and other arthropods. Quart. J.Microsc. Sci. 81, 273-320 (1939)
124. Inman, V.T., Ralston, H.J., Todd, F.: Human walking. Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore (1981)
125. Jander, J.P.: Untersuchungen zum mechanismus und zur zentralnervösen steuerung des kurvenlaufs bei stabheuschrecken (Carausius morosus). Ph.D. thesis, University of Köln, Germany (1982)
126. Jander, J.P.: Mechanical stability in stick insects when walking straight and around curves. In: Gewecke, M., Wendler, G. (eds.) Insect Locomotion, pp. 33-42. Paul Parey, Hamburg (1985)
127. Jindrich, D.L., Full, R.J.: Many-legged maneuverability: Dynamics of turning in hexapods. J. Exp. Biol. 202, 1603-1623 (1999)
128. Jindrich, D.L., Full, R.J.: Dynamic stabilization of rapid hexapedal locomotion. J. Exp. Biol. 205, 2803-2823 (2002)
129. Kaliyamoorthy, S., Zill, S.N., Quinn, R.D., Ritzmann, R.: Finite element analysis of strains in the Blaberus cockroach leg segment while climbing. In: Intelligent Robots and Systems IEEE/RSJ Proceedings, vol. 2, pp. 833-838 (2001)
130. Kaneko, M., Kanayma, N., Tsuji, T.: Active antenna for contact sensing. IEEE Trans. Robot. Autom. 14, 278-291 (1998)
131. Karg, G., Breutel, G., Bässler, U.: Sensory influences on the coordination of two leg joints during searching movements of stick insects. Biol. Cybern. 64, 329-335 (1991)
132. Kawato, M., Gomi, H.: The cerebellum and vor/okr learning-models. Trends Neurosci. 15, 445-453 (1992)
133. Kemmerling, S., Varju, D.: Regulation of the body-substrate-distance in the stick insect: Step responses and modelling the control system. Biol. Cybern. 44, 59-66 (1982)
134. Kendall, M.D.: The anatomy of the tarsi of Schistocerca gregoria forskål. Z. Zellforsch. 109, 112-137 (1970)
135. Kindermann, T.: Behavior and adaptability of a six-legged walking system with highly distributed control. Adapt. Behav. 9, 16-41 (2002)
136. Kittmann, R., Dean, J., Schmitz, J.: An atlas of the thoracic ganglia of the stick insect, carausius morosus. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 331, 101-121 (1991)
137. Knop, G., Denzer, L., Buschges, A.: A central pattern-generating network contributes to "reflex-reversal"-like leg motoneuron activity in the locust. J. Neurophysiol. 86, 3065-3068 (2001)
138. Krause, A.F., Dürr, V.: Tactile efficiency of insect antennae with two hinge joints. Biol. Cybern. 91, 168-181 (2004)
139. Land, M.F.: Stepping movements made by jumping spiders during turns mediated by the lateral eyes. J. Exp. Biol. 57, 15-40 (1972)
140. Lange, O., Reimann, B., Saenz, J., Dürr, V., Elkmann, N.: Insectoid obstacle detection based on an active tactile approach. In: Witte, H. (ed.) Proc. Int. Symp. Adapt. Motion Anim. Mach. (2005)
141. Lewinger, W.A., Harley, C.M., Ritzmann, R.E., Branicky, M.S., Quinn, R.D.: Insect-like antennal sensing for climbing and tunneling behavior in a biologically-inspired mobile robot. In: Procceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA 2005), Barcelona, April 18-22 (2005)
142. Linder, C.: Self-organization in a simple task of motor control based on spatial encoding. Adaptive Behavior (2005)
143. Linder, C.R.: Self organisation in a simple task of motor control. In: Hallam, B., et al. (eds.) From animals to animats, vol. 7, pp. 185-194. MIT Press, Cambridge (2002)
144. Linsenmair, K.E.: Die windorientierung laufender insekten. Fortschr. Zool. 21, 59-79 (1973)
145. Manning, A.: Antennae and sexual receptivity in Drosophila melanogaster females. Science 158, 136-137 (1967)
146. Marchand, A.R., Leibrock, C.S., Auriac, M.C., Barnes, W.J.P., Clarac, F.: Morphology, physiology and in vivo activity of cuticular stress detector afferents in crayfish. J. Comp. Physiol. A. 176, 409-424 (1995)
147. Matheson, T.: Range fractionation in the locust metathoracic femoral chordotonal organ. J. Comp. Physiol. A 170, 509-520 (1992)
148. Matheson, T., Field, L.H.: An elaborate tension receptor system highlights sensory complexity in the hind leg of the locust. J. Exp. Biol. 198, 1673-1689 (1995)
149. Müller-Wilm, U., Dean, J., Cruse, H., Weidemann, H.J., Eltze, J., Pfeiffer, F.: Kinematic model of stick insect as an example of a 6-legged walking system. Adapt. Behav. 1, 155-169 (1992)
150. Newland, P.L.: Morphology and somatotopic organisation of the central projections of afferents from tactile hairs on the hind leg of the locust. J. Comp. Neurol. 312, 493-508 (1991)
151. Newland, P.L., Emptage, N.J.: The central connections and actions during walking of tibial campaniform sensilla in the locust. J. Comp. Physiol. A 178, 749-762 (1996)
152. Noah, J.A., Quimby, L., Frazier, S.F., Zill, S.N.: Force detection in cockroach walking reconsidered: discharges of proximal tibial campaniform sensilla when body load is altered. J. Comp. Physiol. A 187, 769-784 (2001)
153. Noah, J.A., Quimby, L., Frazier, S.F., Zill, S.N.: Sensing the effect of body load in legs: responses of tibial campaniform sensilla to forces applied to the thorax in freely standing cockroaches. J. Comp. Physiol. A 190, 201-215 (2004)
154. Okada, J., Toh, Y.: The role of antennal hair plates in object-guided tactile orientation of the cockroach (Periplaneta americana). J. Comp. Physiol. A (2000)
155. Pearson, K.G.: Central programming and reflex control of walking in the cockroach. J. Exp. Biol. 56, 173-193 (1972)
156. Pearson, K.G.: Common principles of motor control in vertebrates and invertebrates. Ann. Rev. Neurosci. 16, 265-297 (1993)
157. Pearson, K.G., Franklin, R.: Characteristics of leg movements and patterns of coordination in locusts walking on rough terrain. Int. J. Robotics Res. 3, 101-112 (1984)
158. Pearson, K.G., Iles, F.J.: Nervous mechanisms underlying intersegmental co-ordination of leg movements during walking in the cockroach. J. Exp. Biol. 58, 725-744 (1973)
159. Pelletier, Y., McLeod, C.D.: Obstacle perception by insect antennae during terrestrial locomotion. Physiol. Entomol. 19, 360-362 (1994)
160. Petryszak, A., Fudalewicz-Niemczyk, W.: External proprioceptors on the legs of insects of higher orders. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia 36, 13-22 (1994)
161. Pflüger, H.J., Braeunig, P., Hustert, R.: The organization of mechanosensory neuropiles in locust thoracic ganglia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 321, 1-26 (1988)
162. Porta, J.M., Celaya, E.: Efficient gait generation using reinforcement learning. In: Berns, K., Dillmann, R. (eds.) Proc. 4th Int. Conf. Climbing and Walking Robots (CLAWAR 2001), pp. 411-418. Professional Engineering Publishing, London (2001)
163. Pringle, J.W.S.: Proprioception in insects. ii. the action of the campaniform sensilla on the legs. J. Exp. Biol. 15, 114-131 (1938)
164. Prochazka, A., Gillard, D., Bennett, D.J.: Implications of positive feedback in the control of movement. J. Neurophysiol. 77, 3237-3251 (1997a)
165. Prochazka, A., Gillard, D., Bennett, D.J.: Positive force feedback control of muscles. J. Neurophysiol. 77, 3226-3236 (1997b)
166. Quinn, R.D., Nelson, G.M., Bachmann, R.J., Ritzmann, R.E.: Toward mission capable legged robots through biological inspiration. Autonomous Robots 11, 215-220 (2001)
167. Radnikow, G., Bässler, U.: Function of a muscle whose apodeme travels through a joint moved by other muscles: why the retractor unguis muscle in stick insects is tripartite and has no antagonist. J. Exp. Biol. 157, 87-99 (1991)
168. Ridgel, A.L., Frazier, S.F., Dicaprio, R.A., Zill, S.N.: Active signaling of leg loading and unloading in the cockroach. J. Neurophysiol. 81, 1432-1437 (1999)
169. Ridgel, A.L., Frazier, S.F., Dicaprio, R.A., Zill, S.N.: Encoding of forces by cockroach tibial campaniform sensilla: implications in dynamic control of posture and locomotion. J. Comp. Physiol. A 186, 359-374 (2000)
170. Ridgel, A.L., Frazier, S.F., Zill, S.N.: Dynamic responses of tibial campaniform sensilla studied by substrate displacement in freely moving cockroaches. J. Comp. Physiol. A 187, 405-420 (2001)
171. Ritzmann, R.E., Pollack, A.J., Archinal, J., Ridgel, A.L., Quinn, R.D.: Descending control of body attitude in the cockroach blaberus discoidalis and its role in incline climbing. J. Comp. Physiol. A 191, 253-264 (2005)
172. Roeder, K.D.: The control of tonus and locomotor activity in the praying mantis (Mantis religiosa l). J. exp. Zool. 76, 353-374 (1937)
173. Roggendorf, T.: Comparing different controllers for the coordination of a six-legged walker. Biol. Cybern. 92, 261-274 (2005)
174. Schilling, M., Cruse, H., Arena, P.: Hexapod walking: an expansion to walknet dealing with leg amputations and force oscillations. Biological Cybernetics 96(3), 323-340 (2007)
175. Schmitt, J., Garcia, M., Razo, R.C., Holmes, P., Full, R.J.: Dynamics and stability of legged locomotion in the horizontal plane: a test case using insects. Biol. Cybern. 86, 343-353 (2002)
176. Schmitz, J.: Load-compensating reactions in the proximal leg joints of stick insects during standing and walking. J. Exp. Biol. 183, 15-33 (1993)
177. Schmitz, J., Bartling, C., Brunn, D.E., Cruse, H., Dean, J., Kindermann, T., Schumm, M., Wagner, H.: Adaptive properties of "hard-wired" neuronal systems. Verh. Dt. Zool. Ges. 88, 165-179 (1995)
178. Schmitz, J., Dean, J., Kindermann, T., Schumm, M., Cruse, H.: A biologically inspired controller for hexapod walking: simple solutions by exploiting physical properties. Biol. Bull. 200, 195-200 (2001)
179. Schmitz, J., Dean, J., Kittmann, R.: Central projections of leg sense organs in Carausius morosus (insecta, phasmida). Zoomorphol. 111, 19-33 (1991)
180. Schmitz, J., Kamp, A., Kindermann, T., Cruse, H.: Adaptations to increased load in a control system governing movements of biological and artificial walking machines. In: Blickhan, R., Nachtigall, W. (eds.) BIONA reports 13: Motor System (2000)
181. Schmitz, J., Schumann, K., Kamp, A.v.: Mechanisms for self-adaptation of posture and movement to increased load. Abstract Viewer/Itinerary Planner. Society for Neuroscience, Washington (CD-ROM, 2000, Program No. 368.7) (2000)
182. Schmitz, J., Stein, W.: Convergence of load and movement information onto leg motoneurons in insects. J. Neurobiol. 42, 424-436 (2000)
183. Schneider, A., Cruse, H., Schmitz, J.: A biologically inspired active compliant joint using local positive velocity feedback. lpvf. IEEE Trans. Systems Man Cybern. Part B: Cybernetics 35, 1120-1130 (2005a)
184. Schneider, A., Cruse, H., Schmitz, J.: Switched local positive velocity feedback controllers: Local generation of retraction forces and inter-joint coordination during walking. In: Witte, H. (ed.) 3rd International Symposium on Adaptive Motion in Animals and Machines (AMAM 2005), Ilmenau, September 25-30 (2005b)
185. Schumm, M., Cruse, H.: Control of swing movement: influences of differently shaped substrate. J. Comp. Physiol. A 192 (2006)
186. Seifert, G.: Entomologisches Praktikum, 2nd edn. Thieme, Stuttgart (1975)
187. Seipel, J.E., Holmes, P., Full, R.J.: Dynamics and stability of insect locomotion: a hexapedal model for horizontal plane motions. Biol. Cybern. 91, 76-90 (2004)
188. Sillar, K.T., Skorupski, P., Elson, R.C., Bush, B.M.H.: Two identified afferent neurons entrain a central locomotor rhythm generator. Nature 323, 440-443 (1986)
189. Spinola, S.M., Chapman, K.M.: Proprioceptive indentation of the campaniform sensilla of cockroach legs. J. Comp. Physiol. 96, 257-272 (1975)
190. Staudacher, E., Gebhardt, M.J., Dürr, V.: Antennal movements and mechanoreception: neurobiology of active tactile sensors. Adv. Insect Physiol. 32, 49-205 (2005)
191. Stein, W., Schmitz, J.: Multimodal convergence of presynaptic afferent inhibition in insect proprioceptors. J. Neurophysiol. 82, 512-514 (1999)
192. Stierle, I.E., Getman, M., Comer, C.M.: Multisensory control of escape in the cockroach Periplaneta americana i. Initial evidence from patterns of wind-evoked behavior. J. Comp. Physiol. A 174, 1-11 (1994)
193. Strauss, R., Heisenberg, M.: Coordination of legs during straight walking and turning in Drosophila melanogaster. J. Comp. Physiol. A 167, 403-412 (1990)
194. Ting, L.H., Blickhan, R., Full, R.J.: Dynamic and static stability in hexapedal runners. J. Exp. Biol. 197, 251-269 (1994)
195. Tryba, A.K., Ritzmann, R.E.: Multi-joint coordination during walking and foothold searching in the Blaberus cockroach i. Kinematics and electromyograms. J. Neurophysiol. 83, 3323-3336 (2000)
196. Tsujimura, T., Yabuta, T.: A tactile sensing method employing force/torque information through insensitive probes. In: Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics Automation 1992, pp. 1315-1320 (1992)
197. Tyrer, N., Gregory, G.: A guide to the neuroanatomy of locust suboesophageal and thoracic ganglia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B 297, 91-123 (1982)
198. Ueno, N., Svinin, M.M., Kaneko, M.: Dynamic contact sensing by flexible beam. IEEEASME Trans. Mechatronics 3, 254-264 (1998)
199. Watson, J.T., Ritzmann, R.E.: Leg kinematics and muscle activity during treadmill running in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis: I. slow running. J. Comp. Physiol. A 182, 11-22 (1998)
200. Watson, J.T., Ritzmann, R.E., Zill, S.N., Pollack, A.J.: Control of obstacle climbing in the cockroach, Blaberus discoidalis. i. kinematics. J. Comp. Physiol. A 188, 39-53 (2002)
201. Wendler, G.: Laufen und stehen der stabheuschrecke Carausius morosus: Sinnesborstenfelder in den beingelenken von regelkreisen. Z. vergl. Physiol. 48, 198-250 (1964)
202. Zajac, F.E.: Muscle and tendon: properties, models, scaling, and application to biomechanics and motor control. Critical Reviews in Biomed. Eng. 17, 359-411 (1989)
203. Zeil, J., Sandeman, R., Sandeman, D.C.: Tactile localisation: the function of active antennal movements in the crayfish Cherax destructor. J. Comp. Physiol. A 157, 607-617 (1985)
204. Zill, S., Schmitz, J., Büschges, A.: Load sensing and control of posture and locomotion. Arthropod Structure & Development 33, 273-286 (2004)
205. Zill, S.N.: Load compensatory reactions in insects: Swaying and stepping strategies in posture and locomotion. In: Beer, R.D., Ritzmann, R.E., McKenna, T. (eds.) Biological Neural Networks in Insect Neuroethology and Robotics, pp. 43-68. Academic Press, New York (1993)
206. Zill, S.N., Moran, D.T.: The exoskeleton and insect proprioception. iii. activity of tibial campaniform sensilla during walking in the american cockroach, periplaneta americana. J. Exp. Biol. 94, 57-75 (1981a)
207. Zill, S.N., Moran, D.T.: The exoskeleton and insect propriocetion. i. responses of tibial campaniform sensilla to external and muscle-generated forces in the american cockroach periplaneta americana. J. Exp. Biol. 91, 1-24 (1981b)
208. Zill, S.N., Moran, D.T., Varela, F.G.: The exoskeleton and insect proprioception. ii. reflex effects of tibial campaniform sensilla in the american cockroach, periplaneta americana. J. Exp. Biol. 94, 43-55 (1981)
209. Zill, S.N., Underwood, M.A., Rowley, J.C., Moran, D.T.: A somatotopic organization of groups of afferents in insect peripheral nerves. Brain Res. 198, 253-269 (1980)
210. Zollikofer, C.P.E.: Stepping patterns in ants i. influence of speed and curvature. J. Exp. Biol. 192, 95-106 (1994)
211. Zolotov, V., Frantsevich, L., Falk, E.M.: Kinematik der phototaktischen drehung bei der honigbiene Apis mellifera. J. Comp. Physiol. A 97, 339-353 (1975)