Biofouling in RO system: Mechanisms, monitoring and controlling

Desalination

Volumn 302, Issue , 2012, Pages 1-23

  Al Juboori, Raed A ^a   Yusaf, Talal ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

Biofouling; Controlling biofouling; Microbial adhesion; Monitoring biofouling; Reverse osmosis membrane

Indexed keywords

BIOFILM MONITORING; BIOFOULING CONTROL; COMMON STRATEGY; ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY; FOULING PROBLEMS; KEY SOLUTION; MICROBIAL ADHESION; MONITORING AND CONTROLLING; REVERSE OSMOSIS TECHNOLOGIES; RO MEMBRANE; WATER FLOW SYSTEMS;

ADHESION; BIOFILMS; CELL ADHESION; GROUNDWATER; REVERSE OSMOSIS; SEAWATER; SURFACE WATER RESOURCES; WASTEWATER TREATMENT;

BIOFOULING;

BIOFILM; BIOFOULING; DISINFECTION; GROUNDWATER; MEMBRANE; MONITORING; OSMOSIS; SEAWATER; SURFACE WATER; WASTEWATER; WATER FLOW; WATER RESOURCE; WATER TECHNOLOGY; WATER TREATMENT;

EID: 84864544038     PISSN: 00119164     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.desal.2012.06.016     Document Type: Review

References (254)

1. Khan M.M.T., Stewart P.S., Moll D.J., Mickols W.E., Burr M.D., Nelson S.E., Camper A.K. Assessing biofouling on polyamide reverse osmosis (RO) membrane surfaces in a laboratory system. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 349:429-437.
2. Flemming H.-C. Reverse osmosis membrane biofouling. Exp. Thermal and Fluid Science 1997, 14:382-391.
3. Hori K., Matsumoto S. Bacterial adhesion: from mechanism to control. Biochem. Eng. J. 2010, 48:424-434.
4. Flemming H.-C. Microbial Biofouling: Unsolved Problems, Insufficient Approaches, and Possible Solutions Biofilm Highlights 2011, 81-109. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg. H.-C. Flemming, J. Wingender, U. Szewzyk (Eds.).
5. Schopf J.W., Hayes J.M., Walter M.R. Evolution on earth's earliest ecosystems: recent progress and unsolved problems. Earth's Earliest Biosphere 1983, 361-384. Princeton University Press, New Jersey. J.W. Schopf (Ed.).
6. Flemming H.C. Biofouling in water systems- cases, causes and countermeasures. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2002, 59:629-640.
7. Hall-Stoodley L., Costerton J.W., Stoodley P. Bacterial biofilms: from the natural environment to infectious diseases. Nat. Rev. Microbiol 2004, 2:95-108.
8. Decho A.W. Microbial biofilms in intertidal systems: an overview. Cont. Shelf Res. 2000, 20:1257-1273.
9. Prihasto N., Liu Q.-F., Kim S.-H. Pre-treatment strategies for seawater desalination by reverse osmosis system. Desalination 2009, 249:308-316.
10. Abdul Azis P.K., Al-Tisan I., Sasikumar N. Biofouling potential and environmental factors of seawater at a desalination plant intake. Desalination 2001, 135:69-82.
11. Wingender J. Hygienically Relevant Microorganisms in Biofilms of Man-Made Water Systems Biofilm Highlights 2011, 189-238. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg. H.-C. Flemming, J. Wingender, U. Szewzyk (Eds.).
12. Gristina A. Biomaterial-centered infection: microbial adhesion versus tissue integration. Science 1987, 237:1588-1595.
13. Busscher H.J., Norde W., Sharma P.K., van der Mei H.C. Interfacial re-arrangement in initial microbial adhesion to surfaces. Curr. Opin. Colloid Interface Sci. 2010, 15:510-517.
14. Busscher H.J., Weerkamp A.H. Specific and non-specific interactions in bacterial adhesion to solid substrata. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 1987, 46:165-173.
15. Malte H. The DLVO theory in microbial adhesion. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 1999, 14:105-119.
16. Cuatrecasas P. Membrane receptors. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 1974, 43:169-214.
17. Brant J.A., Childress A.E. Assessing short-range membrane-colloid interactions using surface energetics. J. Membr. Sci. 2002, 203:257-273.
18. Kucera J. Reverse Osmosis: Industrial Applications and Processes 2010, John Wiley&Sons, New Jersey, U.S.A.
19. Altmann J., Ripperger S. Particle deposition and layer formation at the crossflow microfiltration. J. Membr. Sci. 1997, 124:119-128.
20. Sadr Ghayeni S.B., Beatson P.J., Schneider R.P., Fane A.G. Adhesion of waste water bacteria to reverse osmosis membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 1998, 138:29-42.
21. Herzberg M., Elimelech M. Biofouling of reverse osmosis membranes: role of biofilm-enhanced osmotic pressure. J. Membr. Sci. 2007, 295:11-20.
22. Kang G.-D., Gao C.-J., Chen W.-D., Jie X.-M., Cao Y.-M., Yuan Q. Study on hypochlorite degradation of aromatic polyamide reverse osmosis membrane. J. Membr. Sci. 2007, 300:165-171.
23. van Oss C.J. Acid-base interfacial interactions in aqueous media. Colloids Surf. A Physicochem. Eng. Asp. 1993, 78:1-49.
24. Ong Y.-L., Razatos A., Georgiou G., Sharma M.M. Adhesion forces between E. coli bacteria and biomaterial surfaces. Langmuir 1999, 15:2719-2725.
25. Kang S., Choi H. Effect of surface hydrophobicity on the adhesion of S. cerevisiae onto modified surfaces by poly(styrene-ran-sulfonic acid) random copolymers. Colloids Surf. B Biointerfaces 2005, 46:70-77.
26. Herzberg M., Kang S., Elimelech M. Role of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) in biofouling of reverse osmosis membranes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43:4393-4398.
27. Adamczyk Z., Van De Ven T.G.M. Deposition of particles under external forces in laminar flow through parallel-plate and cylindrical channels. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 1981, 80:340-356.
28. Busscher H.J., van der Mei H.C. Microbial adhesion in flow displacement systems. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2006, 19:127-141.
29. Characklis W.G. Microbial biofouling. Biofilms 1990, 523-584. Wiley, New York. W.R. Characklis, K.C. Marshall (Eds.).
30. Gourley L., Britten M., Gauthier S.F., Pouliot Y. Characterization of adsorptive fouling on ultrafiltration membranes by peptides mixtures using contact angle measurements. J. Membr. Sci. 1994, 97:283-289.
31. Vrijenhoek E.M., Hong S., Elimelech M. Influence of membrane surface properties on initial rate of colloidal fouling of reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2001, 188:115-128.
32. Walz J.Y. The effect of surface heterogeneities on colloidal forces. Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 1998, 74:119-168.
33. Liu F., Zhao C.C., Xia L., Yang F., Chang X., Wang Y.Q. Biofouling characteristics and identification of preponderant bacteria at different nutrient levels in batch tests of a recirculating cooling water system. Environ. Technol. 2011, 32:901-910.
34. Koop H.M., Valentijn-Benz M., Nieuw Amerongen A.V., Roukema P.A., Graaff J. Aggregation of 27 oral bacteria by human whole saliva. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1989, 55:277-290.
35. Fletcher M. The effects of culture concentration and age, time, and temperature on bacterial attachment to polystyrene. Can. J. Microbiol. 1977, 23:1-6.
36. Al-Juboori R.A., Yusaf T., Aravinthan V. Investigating the efficiency of thermosonication for controlling biofouling in batch membrane systems. Desalination 2012, 286:349-357.
37. Stoodley P., Wilson S., Hall-Stoodley L., Boyle J.D., Lappin-Scott H.M., Costerton J.W. Growth and detachment of cell clusters from mature mixed-species biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 2001, 67:5608-5613.
38. Nivens D.E., Palmer R.J., White D.C. Continuous nondestructive monitoring of microbial biofilms: a review of analytical techniques. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1995, 15:263-276.
39. Staley J.T. Growth rates of algae determined in situ using an immersed microscope. J. Phycol. 1971, 7:13-17.
40. Caldwell D.E., Lawrence J.R. Study of attached cells in continuous-flow slide culture. CRC Handbook of Laboratory Model Systems for Microbial Ecosystems 1988, 117-138. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. J.W.T. Wimpenny (Ed.).
41. Berg H.C., Block S.M. A miniature flow cell designed for rapid exchange of media under high-power microscope objectives. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1984, 130:2915-2920.
42. Lawrence J.R., Korber D.R., Caldwell D.E. Behavioral analysis of Vibrio parahaemolyticus variants in high- and low-viscosity microenvironments by use of digital image processing. J. Bacteriol. 1992, 174:5732-5739.
43. - Pseudomonas fluorescens. Microb. Ecol. 1989, 18:1-19.
44. Wisniewski N., Moussy F., Reichert W.M. Characterization of implantable biosensor membrane biofouling. Fresenius J. Anal. Chem. 2000, 366:611-621.
45. Wolf G., Crespo J.G., Reis M.A.M. Optical and spectroscopic methods for biofilm examination and monitoring. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2002, 1:227-251.
46. Ridgway H., Rigby M., Argo D. Adhesion of a Mycobacterium sp. to cellulose diacetate membranes used in reverse osmosis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 1984, 47:61-67.
47. Lazarova V., Manem J. Biofilm characterization and activity analysis in water and wastewater treatment. Water Res. 1995, 29:2227-2245.
48. Yu W., Dodds W.K., Banks M.K., Skalsky J., Strauss E.A. Optimal staining and sample storage time for direct microscopic enumeration of total and active bacteria in soil with two fluorescent dyes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol 1995, 61:3367-3372.
49. Lemarchand K., Parthuisot N., Catala P., Lebaron P. Comparative assessment of epifluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and solid-phase cytometry used in the enumeration of specific bacteria in water. Aquat. Microb. Ecol. 2001, 25:301-309.
50. Eighmy T.T., Maratea D., Bishop P.L. Electron microscopic examination of wastewater biofilm formation and structural components. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1983, 45:1921-1931.
51. Surman S.B., Walker J.T., Goddard D.T., Morton L.H.G., Keevil C.W., Weaver W., Skinner A., Hanson K., Caldwell D., Kurtz J. Comparison of microscope techniques for the examination of biofilms. J. Microbiol. Methods 1996, 25:57-70.
52. Lawrence J.R., Korber D.R., Hoyle B.D., Costerton J.W., Caldwell D.E. Optical sectioning of microbial biofilms. J. Bacteriol. 1991, 173:6558-6567.
53. Wolfaardt G.M., Lawrence J.R., Robarts R.D., Caldwell S.J., Caldwell D.E. Multicellular organization in a degradative biofilm community. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60:434-446.
54. Wagner M., Ivleva N.P., Haisch C., Niessner R., Horn H. Combined use of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) and Raman microscopy (RM): investigations on EPS-Matrix. Water Res. 2009, 43:63-76.
55. Li Y., Dick W.A., Tuovinen O.H. Evaluation of fluorochromes for imaging bacteria in soil. Soil Biol. Biochem. 2003, 35:737-744.
56. de Beer D., Stoodley P., Lewandowski Z. Measurement of local diffusion coefficients in biofilms by microinjection and confocal microscopy. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1997, 53:151-158.
57. Huertas E., Herzberg M., Oron G., Elimelech M. Influence of biofouling on boron removal by nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2008, 318:264-270.
58. McFeters G.A., Yu F.P., Pyle B.H., Stewart P.S. Physiological methods to study biofilm disinfection. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1995, 15:333-338.
59. Tansel B., Sager J., Garland J., Xu S., Levine L., Bisbee P. Deposition of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) and microtopographical changes on membrane surfaces during intermittent filtration conditions. J. Membr. Sci. 2006, 285:225-231.
60. Knoell T., Safarik J., Cormack T., Riley R., Lin S.W., Ridgway H. Biofouling potentials of microporous polysulfone membranes containing a sulfonated polyether-ethersulfone/polyethersulfone block copolymer: correlation of membrane surface properties with bacterial attachment. J. Membr. Sci. 1999, 157:117-138.
61. Meng F., Liao B., Liang S., Yang F., Zhang H., Song L. Morphological visualization, componential characterization and microbiological identification of membrane fouling in membrane bioreactors (MBRs). J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 361:1-14.
62. Gilbert E.S., Khlebnikov A., Meyer-Ilse W., Keasling J.D. Use of soft X-ray microscopy for analysis of early-stage biofilm formation. Water Sci. Technol. 1999, 39:269-272.
63. Bluhm H., Andersson K., Araki T., Benzerara K., Brown G.E., Dynes J.J., Ghosal S., Gilles M.K., Hansen H.C., Hemminger J.C., Hitchcock A.P., Ketteler G., Kilcoyne A.L.D., Kneedler E., Lawrence J.R., Leppard G.G., Majzlam J., Mun B.S., Myneni S.C.B., Nilsson A., Ogasawara H., Ogletree D.F., Pecher K., Salmeron M., Shuh D.K., Tonner B., Tyliszczak T., Warwick T., Yoon T.H. Soft X-ray microscopy and spectroscopy at the molecular environmental science beamline at the advanced light source. J. Electron. Spectro. 2006, 150:86-104.
64. Neu T.R., Manz B., Volke F., Dynes J.J., Hitchcock A.P., Lawrence J.R. Advanced imaging techniques for assessment of structure, composition and function in biofilm systems. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2010, 72:1-21.
65. Dynes J.J., Tyliszczak T., Araki T., Lawrence J.R., Swerhone G.D.W., Leppard G.G., Hitchcock A.P. Speciation and quantitative mapping of metal species in microbial biofilms using scanning transmission X-ray microscopy. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40:1556-1565.
66. Lawrence J.R., Swerhone G.D.W., Leppard G.G., Araki T., Zhang X., West M.M., Hitchcock A.P. Scanning Transmission X-ray, laser scanning, and transmission electron microscopy mapping of the exopolymeric matrix of microbial biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69:5543-5554.
67. Pätzold R., Keuntje M., Anders-von Ahlften A. A new approach to non-destructive analysis of biofilms by confocal Raman microscopy. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2006, 386:286-292.
68. Pätzold R., Keuntje M., Theophile K., Müller J., Mielcarek E., Ngezahayo A., Anders-von Ahlften A. In situ mapping of nitrifiers and anammox bacteria in microbial aggregates by means of confocal resonance Raman microscopy. J. Microbiol. Methods 2008, 72:241-248.
69. Palmer R.J., Sternberg C. Modern microscopy in biofilm research: confocal microscopy and other approaches. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 1999, 10:263-268.
70. Ivleva N., Wagner M., Horn H., Niessner R., Haisch C. Towards a nondestructive chemical characterization of biofilm matrix by Raman microscopy. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2009, 393:197-206.
71. Subramanian K., Korber D.R., Wolfaardt G.M., Caldwell D.E. Monitoring the organization of microbial biofilm communities. Handbook of Bacterial Adhesion: Principles, Methods, and Applications 2000, 171-188. Humana Press Inc., Totowa, New Jersey. Y.H. An, R.J. Friedman (Eds.).
72. Lawrence J.R., Korber D.R., Wolfaardt G.M. Image Analysis of Microorganisms, in: Encyclopedia of Environmental Microbiology 2003, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
73. Keevil C.W. Rapid detection of biofilms and pathogens using scanning confocal laser microscopy and episcopic differential interference contrast microscopy. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47:105-116.
74. Salmon E.D., Tran P. Chapter 9 high-resolution video-enhanced differential interference contrast (VE-DIC) light microscopy. Methods in Cell Biology 1998, 153-184. Academic Press. S. Greenfield, E.W. David (Eds.).
75. Amos W.B., Reichelt S., Cattermole D.M., Laufer J. Re-evaluation of differential phase contrast (DPC) in a scanning laser microscope using a split detector as an alternative to differential interference contrast (DIC) optics. J. Microsc. 2003, 210:166-175.
76. Le-Clech P., Marselina Y., Ye Y., Stuetz R.M., Chen V. Visualisation of polysaccharide fouling on microporous membrane using different characterisation techniques. J. Membr. Sci. 2007, 290:36-45.
77. McKinlay K.J., Allison F.J., Scotchford C.A., Grant D.M., Oliver J.M., King J.R., Wood J.V., Brown P.D. Comparison of environmental scanning electron microscopy with high vacuum scanning electron microscopy as applied to the assessment of cell morphology. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. A 2004, 69A:359-366.
78. Kron S.J. Digital time-lapse microscopy of yeast cell growth. Methods in Enzymology 2002, 3-15. Academic Press. G.R.F. Christine Guthrie (Ed.).
79. Escher A., Characklis W.G. Modeling the initial events in biofilm accumulation. Biofilms 1990, 445-486. Wiley, New York. W.G. Characklis, K.C. Marshall (Eds.).
80. Stoodley P., Hall-Stoodley L., Lappin-Scott H.M. [21] Detachment, surface migration, and other dynamic behavior in bacterial biofilms revealed by digital time-lapse imaging. Methods in Enzymology 2001, 306-319. Academic Press. J.D. Ron (Ed.).
81. Dalton H.M., Goodman A.E., Marshall K.C. Diversity in surface colonization behavior in marine bacteria. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1996, 17:228-234.
82. Lee W., Ahn C.H., Hong S., Kim S., Lee S., Baek Y., Yoon J. Evaluation of surface properties of reverse osmosis membranes on the initial biofouling stages under no filtration condition. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 351:112-122.
83. Caldwell D.E., Korber D.R., Lawrence J.R. Confocal laser microscopy and digital image analysis in microbial ecology. Adv. Microb. Ecol. 1992, 12:1-67.
84. Kuehn M., Hausner M., Bungartz H.-J., Wagner M., Wilderer P.A., Wuertz S. Automated confocal laser scanning microscopy and semiautomated image processing for analysis of biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64:4115-4127.
85. Xavier J.B., White D.C., Almeida J.S. Automated biofilm morphology quantification from confocal laser scanning microscopy imaging. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47:31-37.
86. Davis R., Mauer L.J. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy: a rapid tool for detection and analysis of foodborne pathogenic bacteria. Current Research, Technology and Education Topics in Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology 2010, 1982-1594. FORMATEX, Spain. A. Méndez-Vilas (Ed.).
87. Janknecht P., Melo L.F. Online biofilm monitoring. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2003, 2:269-283.
88. Mossoba M.M., Al-Khaldi S.F., Jacobson A., Segarra Crowe L.I., Fry F.S. Application of a disposable transparent filtration membrane to the infrared spectroscopic discrimination among bacterial species. J. Microbiol. Methods 2003, 55:311-314.
89. Tunlid A., Nivens D.E., Jansson H.-B.r., White D.C. Infrared monitoring of the adhesion of Catenaria anguillulae zoospores to solid surfaces. Exp. Mycol. 1991, 15:206-214.
90. Karime M., Bouguecha S., Hamrouni B. RO membrane autopsy of Zarzis brackish water desalination plant. Desalination 2008, 220:258-266.
91. Xu P., Bellona C., Drewes J.E. Fouling of nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes during municipal wastewater reclamation: membrane autopsy results from pilot-scale investigations. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 353:111-121.
92. Bridier A., Tischenko E., Dubois-Brissonnet F., Herry J.-M., Thomas V., Daddi-Oubekka S., Waharte F., Steenkeste K., Fontaine-Aupart M.-P., Briandet R. Deciphering Biofilm Structure and Reactivity by Multiscale Time-Resolved Fluorescence Analysis Bacterial Adhesion 2011, 333-349. Springer, Netherlands. D. Linke, A. Goldman (Eds.).
93. Saxena I.F., Files D.J., Rao S.V., Costerton W.J. Autofluorescence-based bacteria detection using an optical fiber 2002, 106-111. SPIE. L.F. Daniel, C.L. Robert (Eds.).
94. Saxena I., Sturman P.J., Costerton J.W. Development and testing of a fiber-optic probe for biofilm detection and quantification. International Specialized Conference on Biofilm Monitoring, Porto 2002.
95. Hwang S.-N., Choi W., Lim H., Choi J., Kim H., Chang I.S. Fluorescence spectrum-based biofouling prediction method for RO membrane systems. Desalin. Water Treat. 2012, 43:238-245.
96. König K. Cell Damage During Multi-Photon Microscopy Handbook Of Biological Confocal Microscopy 2006, 680-689. Springer, US. J.B. Pawley (Ed.).
97. Olympus Basic Concepts in Fluorescence 2012, Olympus America Inc.
98. Stewart G.S.A.B., Williams P. Lux genes and the applications of bacterial bioluminescence. J. Gen. Microbiol. 1992, 138:1289-1300.
99. Angell P., Arrage A.A., Mittelman M.W., White D.C. On line, non-destructive biomass determination of bacterial biofilms by fluorometry. J. Microbiol. Methods 1993, 18:317-327.
100. Denyer S.P., Jassim S.A.A., Stewart G.S.A.B. In vivo bioluminescence for studying the adhesion of bacteria. Biofouling 1991, 5:125-132.
101. Weinrich L.A., Schneider O.D., LeChevallier M.W. Bioluminescence-based method for measuring assimilable organic carbon in pretreatment water for reverse osmosis membrane desalination. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2011, 77:1148-1150.
102. Veza J.M., Ortiz M., Sadhwani J.J., Gonzalez J.E., Santana F.J. Measurement of biofouling in seawater: some practical tests. Desalination 2008, 220:326-334.
103. Bageshwar D.V., Pawar A.S., Khanvilkar V.V., Kadam V.J. Photoacoustic spectroscopy and its applications - a tutorial review. Eurasian J. Anal. Chem. 2010, 5:187-203.
104. Schmid T., Kazarian L., Panne U., Niessner R. Depth-resolved analysis of biofilms by photoacoustic spectroscopy. Anal. Sci. 2001, 17:s574-s577.
105. Schmid T., Panne U., Haisch C., Hausner M., Niessner R. A photoacoustic technique for depth-resolved in situ monitoring of biofilms. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36:4135-4141.
106. Schmid T., Panne U., Haisch C., Niessner R. Photoacoustic absorption spectra of biofilms. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 2003, 74:755-757.
107. Schmid T., Panne U., Adams J., Niessner R. Investigation of biocide efficacy by photoacoustic biofilm monitoring. Water Res. 2004, 38:1189-1196.
108. Roßteuscher T. Online Monitoring of Biofilm in Microchannels with Thermal Lens Microscopy 2009, Universitätsbibliothek der TU, München.
109. Denkhaus E., Meisen S., Telgheder U., Wingender J. Chemical and physical methods for characterisation of biofilms. Microchim. Acta 2007, 158:1-27.
110. Serafim L.s.S., Lemos P.C., Levantesi C., Tandoi V., Santos H., Reis M.A.M. Methods for detection and visualization of intracellular polymers stored by polyphosphate-accumulating microorganisms. J. Microbiol. Methods 2002, 51:1-18.
111. 13C nuclear magnetic resonance studies on selectively labeled bacterial biofilms. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2001, 26:62-69.
112. 13C NMR spectroscopy and confocal laser scanning microscopy-investigation on biofilm structure and physico-chemical properties. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2010, 65:4691-4700.
113. Creber S.A., Vrouwenvelder J.S., van Loosdrecht M.C.M., Johns M.L. Chemical cleaning of biofouling in reverse osmosis membranes evaluated using magnetic resonance imaging. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 362:202-210.
114. Pintelon T.R.R., Creber S.A., von der Schulenburg D.A.G., Johns M.L. Validation of 3D simulations of reverse osmosis membrane biofouling. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010, 106:677-689.
115. Patterson M.K., Husted G.R., Rutkowski A., Mayette D.C. Bacteria: isolation, identification and microscopic properties of biofilms in high-purity water distribution systems. Ultrapure Water 1991, 8:18-24.
116. Klahre J., Flemming H.C. Monitoring of biofouling in paper mill process waters. Water Res. 2000, 34:3657-3665.
117. Flemming H.-C., Tamachkiarowa A., Klahre J., Schmitt J. Monitoring of fouling and biofouling in technical systems. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 38:291-298.
118. Tamachkiarow A., Flemming H.C. On-line monitoring of biofilm formation in a brewery water pipeline system with a fibre optical device. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47:19.
119. Ruiz A.T., Lopez E.E., Celis J.A.G., Gomez S.G., Abelleira A.S. Chemical treatments against biofouling on industrial equipment associated with marine related power generation technologies, a new approach to an old problem. OCEANS, 2011 2011, 1-9. IEEE, Spain.
120. Ludensky M.L. An automated system for biocide testing on biofilms*. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 1998, 20:109-115.
121. Vrouwenvelder J.S., van Paassen J.A.M., Kruithof J.C., van Loosdrecht M.C.M. Sensitive pressure drop measurements of individual lead membrane elements for accurate early biofouling detection. J. Membr. Sci. 2009, 338:92-99.
122. Vrouwenvelder J.S., van Loosdrecht M.C.M., Kruithof J.C. Early warning of biofouling in spiral wound nanofiltration and reverse osmosis membranes. Desalination 2011, 265:206-212.
123. Kappelhof J.W.N.M., Vrouwenvelder H.S., Schaap M., Kruithof J.C., Kooij D.V.d., Schippers J.C. An in situ biofouling monitor for membrane systems. Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Membranes in Drinking and Industrial Water Production 2002, IWA Publishing, Mur̈lheim.
124. Zhou X.-H., Liu J., Song H.-m., Qiu Y.-Q., Shi H.-C. Estimation of heterotrophic biokinetic parameters in wastewater biofilms from oxygen concentration profiles by microelectrode. Environ. Eng. Sci. 2011, 29(6):466-471.
125. Cloete T.E., Maluleke M.R. The use of the rotoscope as an online, real-time, non-destructive biofilm monitor. Water Sci. Technol. 2005, 52:211-216.
126. Mollica A., Cristiani P. On-line biofilm monitoring by "BIOX" electrochemical probe. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47:715-722.
127. Bressel A., Schultze J.W., Khan W., Wolfaardt G.M., Rohns H.P., Irmscher R., Schöning M.J. High resolution gravimetric, optical and electrochemical investigations of microbial biofilm formation in aqueous systems. Electrochim. Acta 2003, 48:3363-3372.
128. Hong S.H., Jeong J., Shim S., Kang H., Kwon S., Ahn K.H., Yoon J. Effect of electric currents on bacterial detachment and inactivation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2008, 100:379-386.
129. Richards M., Cloete T.E. Nanoenzymes for biofilm removal. Nanotechnology in Water Treatment Applications 2010, 89-102. Caister Academic press, Norfolk, UK. T.E. Cloete, M. Dekwaadsteniet, M. Botes, J.M. Lopez-Romero (Eds.).
130. Hong S., Elimelech M. Chemical and physical aspects of natural organic matter (NOM) fouling of nanofiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 1997, 132:159-181.
131. Louie J.S., Pinnau I., Ciobanu I., Ishida K.P., Ng A., Reinhard M. Effects of polyether-polyamide block copolymer coating on performance and fouling of reverse osmosis membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2006, 280:762-770.
132. Bhattacharya A., Misra B.N. Grafting: a versatile means to modify polymers: techniques, factors and applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2004, 29:767-814.
133. Chapman Wilbert M., Pellegrino J., Zydney A. Bench-scale testing of surfactant-modified reverse osmosis/nanofiltration membranes. Desalination 1998, 115:15-32.
134. Bos R., van der Mei H.C., Busscher H.J. Physico-chemistry of initial microbial adhesive interactions - its mechanisms and methods for study. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 1999, 23:179-230.
135. Kwon B., Lee S., Cho J., Ahn H., Lee D., Shin H.S. Biodegradability, DBP formation, and membrane fouling potential of natural organic matter:characterization and controllability. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 39:732-739.
136. Chen X., Stewart P.S. Biofilm removal caused by chemical treatments. Water Res. 2000, 34:4229-4233.
137. Kristensen J.B., Meyer R.L., Laursen B.S., Shipovskov S., Besenbacher F., Poulsen C.H. Antifouling enzymes and the biochemistry of marine settlement. Biotechnol. Adv. 2008, 26:471-481.
138. Linhardt R., Galliher P., Cooney C. Polysaccharide lyases. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 1987, 12:135-176.
139. Sutherland I.W. Polysaccharide lyases. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 1995, 16:323-347.
140. Leroy C., Delbarre C., Ghillebaert F., Compere C., Combes D. Effects of commercial enzymes on the adhesion of a marine biofilm-forming bacterium. Biofouling 2007, 24:11-22.
141. Webb J.S., Thompson L.S., James S., Charlton T., Tolker-Nielsen T., Koch B., Givskov M., Kjelleberg S. Cell death in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm development. J. Bacteriol. 2003, 185:4585-4592.
142. Davies D.G., Marques C.N.H. A fatty acid messenger is responsible for inducing dispersion in microbial biofilms. J. Bacteriol. 2009, 191:1393-1403.
143. Lee S., Elimelech M. Relating organic fouling of reverse osmosis membranes to intermolecular adhesion forces. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40:980-987.
144. Chemat F., Teunissen P., Chemat S., Bartels P. Sono-oxidation treatment of humic substances in drinking water. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2001, 8:247-250.
145. Chang R. Physical Chemistry for the Biosciences 2005, University Science Books, Sausalito, CA, USA.
146. Mo H., Tay K.G., Ng H.Y. Fouling of reverse osmosis membrane by protein (BSA): effects of pH, calcium, magnesium, ionic strength and temperature. J. Membr. Sci. 2008, 315:28-35.
147. MacArthur A.E., Archibald A.R. Effect of culture pH on the d-alanine ester content of lipoteichoic acid in Staphylococcus aureus. J. Bacteriol. 1984, 160:792-793.
148. Nostro A., Cellini L., Di Giulio M., D'Arrigo M., Marino A., Blanco A.R., Favaloro A., Cutroneo G., Bisignano G. Effect of Alkaline pH on Staphylococcal Biofilm Formation 2012, APMIS, (n/a-n/a).
149. Gross M., Cramton S.E., Götz F., Peschel A. Key role of teichoic acid net charge in Staphylococcus aureus colonization of artificial surfaces. Infect. Immun. 2001, 69:3423-3426.
150. Yu Y., Lee S., Hong S. Effect of solution chemistry on organic fouling of reverse osmosis membranes in seawater desalination. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 351:205-213.
151. Chua K.T., Hawlader M.N.A., Malek A. Pretreatment of seawater: results of pilot trials in Singapore. Desalination 2003, 159:225-243.
152. Sadr Ghayeni S.B., Beatson P.J., Schneider R.P., Fane A.G. Water reclamation from municipal wastewater using combined microfiltration-reverse osmosis (ME-RO): preliminary performance data and microbiological aspects of system operation. Desalination 1998, 116:65-80.
153. Hilal N., Al-Zoubi H., Darwish N.A., Mohamma A.W., Abu Arabi M. A comprehensive review of nanofiltration membranes: treatment, pretreatment, modelling, and atomic force microscopy. Desalination 2004, 170:281-308.
154. Fritzmann C., Löwenberg J., Wintgens T., Melin T. State-of-the-art of reverse osmosis desalination. Desalination 2007, 216:1-76.
155. Zheng X., Mehrez R., Jekel M., Ernst M. Effect of slow sand filtration of treated wastewater as pre-treatment to UF. Desalination 2009, 249:591-595.
156. Yu Y., Lee S., Hong K., Hong S. Evaluation of membrane fouling potential by multiple membrane array system (MMAS): measurements and applications. J. Membr. Sci. 2010, 362:279-288.
157. Kosutic K., Kunst B. Removal of organics from aqueous solutions by commercial RO and NF membranes of characterized porosities. Desalination 2002, 142:47-56.
158. Van der Bruggen B., Schaep J., Wilms D., Vandecasteele C. Influence of molecular size, polarity and charge on the retention of organic molecules by nanofiltration. J. Membr. Sci. 1999, 156:29-41.
159. Wolf P.H., Siverns S., Monti S. UF membranes for RO desalination pretreatment. Desalination 2005, 182:293-300.
160. Griebe T., Flemming H.-C. Biocide-free antifouling strategy to protect RO membranes from biofouling. Desalination 1998, 118:153-156. (IN159).
161. Decarolis J., Hong S., Taylor J. Fouling behavior of a pilot scale inside-out hollow fiber UF membrane during dead-end filtration of tertiary wastewater. J. Membr. Sci. 2001, 191:165-178.
162. Subramani A., Hoek E.M.V. Direct observation of initial microbial deposition onto reverse osmosis and nanofiltration membranes. J. Membr. Sci. 2008, 319:111-125.
163. Gutman R. Membrane Filtration: the Technology of Pressure-Driven Crossflow Processes 1987, IOP Publisher Ltd., Bristol.
164. Chen D., Weavers L.K., Walker H.W., Lenhart J.J. Ultrasonic control of ceramic membrane fouling caused by natural organic matter and silica particles. J. Membr. Sci. 2006, 276:135-144.
165. Hörsch P., Gorenflo A., Fuder C., Deleage A., Frimmel F.H. Biofouling of ultra- and nanofiltration membranes for drinking water treatment characterized by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). Desalination 2005, 172:41-52.
166. Kang S.-T., Subramani A., Hoek E.M.V., Deshusses M.A., Matsumoto M.R. Direct observation of biofouling in cross-flow microfiltration: mechanisms of deposition and release. J. Membr. Sci. 2004, 244:151-165.
167. Kim D., Jung S., Sohn J., Kim H., Lee S. Biocide application for controlling biofouling of SWRO membranes - an overview. Desalination 2009, 238:43-52.
168. Bertheas U., Majamaa K., Arzu A., Pahnke R. Use of DBNPA to control biofouling in RO systems. Desalin. Water Treat. 2009, 3:175-178.
169. Majamaa K., Johnson J.E., Bertheas U. Three steps to control biofouling in reverse osmosis systems. Desalin. Water Treat. 2012, 42:107-116.
170. Munshi H.A., Saeed M.O., Green T.N., Al-Hamza A.A., Farooque M.A., Ismail A.R.A. Impact of UV irradiation on controlling biofouling problems in NF-SWRO desalination process. International Desalination Association (IDA) World Congress Conference, Singapore 2005.
171. López-Rami{dotless}́rez J.A., Sahuquillo S., Sales D., Quiroga J.M. Pre-treatment optimisation studies for secondary effluent reclamation with reverse osmosis. Water Res. 2003, 37:1177-1184.
172. Harif T., Elifantz H., Margalit E., Herzberg M., Lichi T., Minz D. The effect of UV pre-treatment on biofouling of BWRO membranes: a field study. Desalin. Water Treat. 2011, 31:151-163.
173. Schoenbach K.H., Peterkin F.E., Alden R.W., III S.J.Beebe The effect of pulsed electric fields on biological cells: experiments and applications. IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci. 1997, 25:284-292.
174. Cho Y.I., Lane J., Kim W. Pulsed-power treatment for physical water treatment. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer 2005, 32:861-871.
175. Arrojo S., Benito Y., Martínez Tarifa A. A parametrical study of disinfection with hydrodynamic cavitation. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2008, 15:903-908.
176. Richardson S.D., Thruston A.D., Caughran T.V., Chen P.H., Collette T.W., Schenck K.M., Lykins B.W., Rav-Acha C., Glezer V. Identification of new drinking water disinfection by - products from ozone, chlorine dioxide, chloramine, and chlorine. Water, Air, Soil Pollut. 2000, 123:95-102.
177. Oppenländer T. Photochemical purification of water and air: advanced oxidation processes (AOPs). Principles, Reaction Mechanisms, Reactor concepts 2002, WILEY-VCH, Verlag, Germany.
178. Nalepa C.J., Williams T.M. Biocides: selection and application. The Science and Technology of Industrial Water Treatment 2010, IWA Publishing, London, UK. A.Z (Ed.).
179. Hand D.W., Mihelcic J.R., Zhang Q. Water treatment. Environmental Engineering: Fundamentals, Sustainability, Design 2010, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., United States of America. J.R. Mihelcic, J.B. Zimmerman (Eds.).
180. Yang X., Shang C., Westerhoff P. Factors affecting formation of haloacetonitriles, haloketones, chloropicrin and cyanogen halides during chloramination. Water Res. 2007, 41:1193-1200.
181. Richardson S.D. Disinfection by-products and other emerging contaminants in drinking water. TrAC-Trend. Anal. Chem. 2003, 22:666-684.
182. Applegate L.E., Erkenbrecher C.W., Winters H. New chloroamine process to control after growth and biofouling in permasepR B-10 RO surface seawater plants. Desalination 1989, 74:51-67.
183. Sorlini S., Collivignarelli C. Trihalomethane formation during chemical oxidation with chlorine, chlorine dioxide and ozone of ten Italian natural waters. Desalination 2005, 176:103-111.
184. Tanaka S., Numata K., Kuzumoto H., Sekino M. New disinfection method in RO seawater desalination systems. Desalination 1994, 96:191-199.
185. Simonet J., Gantzer C. Degradation of the Poliovirus 1 genome by chlorine dioxide. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2006, 100:862-870.
186. Petrucci G., Rosellini M. Chlorine dioxide in seawater for fouling control and post-disinfection in potable waterworks. Desalination 2005, 182:283-291.
187. 2) and chlorite (ClO2[U+02C9]) to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (4 pp). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2005, 12:302-305.
188. Hoigné J., Bader H. Rate constants of reactions of ozone with organic and inorganic compounds in water-I: non-dissociating organic compounds. Water Res. 1983, 17:173-183.
189. 2 photocatalyst on selected food-borne pathogenic bacteria. Chemosphere 2003, 52:277-281.
190. Al Bsoul A., Magnin J.-P., Commenges-Bernole N., Gondrexon N., Willison J., Petrier C. Effectiveness of ultrasound for the destruction of Mycobacterium sp. strain (6PY1). Ultrason. Sonochem. 2010, 17:106-110.
191. Richardson S.D. Disinfection by-products and other emerging contaminants in drinking water. Trends Anal. Chem. 2003, 22:666-684.
192. Boorsma M.J., Dost S., Klinkhamer S., Schippers J.C. Monitoring and controlling biofouling in an integrated membrane system. Desalin. Water Treat. 2011, 31:347-353.
193. Frayne C. The selection and application of nonoxidizing biocides for cooling water systems. The Analyst 2001, 1-10.
194. Zhang J., Dalal N., Matthews M.A., Waller L.N., Saunders C., Fox K.F., Fox A. Supercritical carbon dioxide and hydrogen peroxide cause mild changes in spore structures associated with high killing rate of Bacillus anthracis. J. Microbiol. Methods 2007, 70:442-451.
195. Davies C.M., Roser D.J., Feitz A.J., Ashbolt N.J. Solar radiation disinfection of drinking water at temperate latitudes: inactivation rates for an optimised reactor configuration. Water Res. 2009, 43:643-652.
196. Navntoft C., Ubomba-Jaswa E., McGuigan K.G., Fernández-Ibáñez P. Effectiveness of solar disinfection using batch reactors with non-imaging aluminium reflectors under real conditions: natural well-water and solar light. J. Photochem. Photobiol., B 2008, 93:155-161.
197. Gill L.W., Price C. Preliminary observations of a continuous flow solar disinfection system for a rural community in Kenya. Energy 2010, 35:4607-4611.
198. Kehoe S.C., Joyce T.M., Ibrahim P., Gillespie J.B., Shahar R.A., McGuigan K.G. Effect of agitation, turbidity, aluminium foil reflectors and container volume on the inactivation efficiency of batch-process solar disinfectors. Water Res. 2001, 35:1061-1065.
199. Downes A., Blunt T.P. Researches on the effect of light upon bacteria and other organisms. Proc. R. Soc. London 1877, 26:488-500.
200. Wegelin M., Canonica S., Mechsner K., Fleischmann T., Pesaro F., Metzler A. Solar water disinfection: scope of the process and analysis of radiation experiments. J. Water Supply Res. Technol. 1994, 43:154-169.
201. Hurst A. Reversible heat damage. Repairable Lesion in Microorganisms 1984, 303-318. Academic Press, London, United Kingdom. A. Hurst, A. Nasim (Eds.).
202. Helander I.M., von Wright A., Mattila-Sandholm T.M. Potential of lactic acid bacteria and novel antimicrobials against Gram-negative bacteria. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 1997, 8:146-150.
203. Condón S., Raso J., Pagán R. Microbial inactivation by ultrasound. Novel Food Processing Technologies 2005, 423-442. B.-C. V. M.S. Tapia, M.P. Cano (Eds.).
204. Al-Ahmad M., Abdul Aleem F.A., Mutiri A., Ubaisy A. Biofouling in RO membrane systems Part 1: fundamentals and control. Desalination 2000, 132:173-179.
205. Bukhari Z., Hargy T.M., Bolton J.R., Dussert B., Clancy J.L. Medium-pressure UV for Oocyst inactivation. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 1999, 92:86-94.
206. Clancy J.L., Bukhari Z., Hargy T.M., Bolton J.R. Using UV to inactivate Cryptosporidium. J. Am. Water Works Assoc. 2000, 92:97-104.
207. Choi Y., Choi Y.-j. The effects of UV disinfection on drinking water quality in distribution systems. Water Res. 2010, 44:115-122.
208. Thomson J., Roddick F., Drikas M. Vacuum ultraviolet irradiation for natural organic matter removal. J. Water Supply Res. 2004, 53:193-206.
209. Parsons S. Advanced Oxidation Processes for Water and Wastewater Treatment 2004, IWA Publishing, Cornwal, UK.
210. 2 photocatalytic disinfection. Water Res. 2004, 38:1069-1077.
211. 2 photocatalysis, sonolysis and UV-C irradiation. Catal. Today 2007, 129:136-142.
212. Schwartz T., Hoffmann S., Obst U. Formation of natural biofilms during chlorine dioxide and u.v. disinfection in a public drinking water distribution system. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2003, 95:591-601.
213. Armstrong G.N., Watson I.A., Stewart-Tull D.E. Inactivation of B. cereus spores on agar, stainless steel or in water with a combination of Nd:YAG laser and UV irradiation. Innov. Food Sc. Emerg. Technol. 2006, 7:94-99.
214. Setlow P. I will survive: protecting and repairing spore DNA. J. Bacteriol. 1992, 174:2737-2741.
215. Harris G.D., Adams V.D., Sorensen D.L., Curtis M.S. Ultraviolet inactivation of selected bacteria and viruses with photoreactivation of the bacteria. Water Res. 1987, 21:687-692.
216. Lu G., Li C., Zheng Y., Zhang Q., Peng J., Fu M. A novel fiber optical device for ultraviolet disinfection of water. J. Photochem. Photobiol., B 2008, 92:42-46.
217. Gómez M., de la Rua A., Garralón G., Plaza F., Hontoria E., Gómez M.A. Urban wastewater disinfection by filtration technologies. Desalination 2006, 190:16-28.
218. Sommer R., Lhotsky M., Haider T., Cabaj A. UV inactivation, liquid-holding recovery, and photoreactivation of Escherichia coli O157 and other pathogenic Escherichia coli strains in water. J. Food Prot. 2000, 63:1015-1120.
219. Giese N., Darby J. Sensitivity of microorganisms to different wavelengths of UV light: implications on modeling of medium pressure UV systems. Water Res. 2000, 34:4007-4013.
220. Kerwick M.I., Reddy S.M., Chamberlain A.H.L., Holt D.M. Electrochemical disinfection, an environmentally acceptable method of drinking water disinfection?. Electrochim. Acta 2005, 50:5270-5277.
221. Guyot S., Ferret E., Boehm J.-B., Gervais P. Yeast cell inactivation related to local heating induced by low-intensity electric fields with long-duration pulses. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2007, 113:180-188.
222. Cho J., Choi H., Kim I.S., Amy G. Chemical aspects and byproducts of electrolyser. Water Sci. Technol. 2001, 1:159-167.
223. Qin G.F., Li Z.Y., Chen X.D., Russell A.B. An experimental study of an NaClO generator for anti-microbial applications in the food industry. J. Food Eng. 2002, 54:111-118.
224. Takayuki O., Takahiro O., Masayuki S. Decomposition of nucleic acid molecules in pulsed electric field and its release from recombinant Escherichia coli. J. Electrost. 1999, 46:163-170.
225. Aronsson K., Lindgren M., Johansson B.R., Rönner U. Inactivation of microorganisms using pulsed electric fields: the influence of process parameters on Escherichia coli, Listeria innocua, Leuconostoc mesenteroides and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Innov. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 2001, 2:41-54.
226. Van Loey A., Verachtert B., Hendrickx M. Effects of high electric field pulses on enzymes. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 2001, 12:94-102.
227. Reyns K.M.F.A., Diels A.M.J., Michiels C.W. Generation of bactericidal and mutagenic components by pulsed electric field treatment. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 93:165-173.
228. Zimmerman U. Electric breakdown, electropermeabilization and electrofusion. Rev. Physiol. Biochem. Pharmacol. 1986, 105:175-256.
229. Dutreux N., Notermans S., Wijtzes T., Góngora-Nieto M.M., Barbosa-Cánovas G.V., Swanson B.G. Pulsed electric fields inactivation of attached and free-living Escherichia coli and Listeria innocua under several conditions. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2000, 54:91-98.
230. Gusbeth C., Frey W., Volkmann H., Schwartz T., Bluhm H. Pulsed electric field treatment for bacteria reduction and its impact on hospital wastewater. Chemosphere 2009, 75:228-233.
231. Zhe C., Hong-wu W., Lu-ming M. Research progress on electrochemical disinfection technology for water treatment. Ind. Water Wastewater 2008, 39:1-5.
232. Gibson J.H., Yong D.H.N., Farnood R.R., Seto P. A literature review of ultrasound technology and its application in wastewater disinfection. Water Qual. Res. J. Can. 2008, 43:23-35.
233. Hulsmans A., Joris K., Lambert N., Rediers H., Declerck P., Delaedt Y., Ollevier F., Liers S. Evaluation of process parameters of ultrasonic treatment of bacterial suspensions in a pilot scale water disinfection system. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2010, 17:1004-1009.
234. Thompson L.H., Doraiswamy L.K. Sonochemistry: science and engineering. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 1999, 38:1215-1249.
235. Gogate P.R., Pandit A.B. Engineering design method for cavitational reactors: I. Sonochem. Reactors. Aiche J. 2000, 46:372-379.
236. Young F.R. Cavitation 1999, Imperial College Press, London.
237. Brennen C.E. Cavitation and Bubble Dynamics 1995, Oxford University Press.
238. Raso J., Pagan R., Condon S., Sala F.J. Influence of temperature and pressure on the lethality of ultrasound. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64:465-471.
239. Neppiras E.A., Hughes D.E. Some experiments on the disintegration of yeast by high intensity ultrasound. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1964, 6:247-270.
240. Gogate P.R., Kabadi A.M. A review of applications of cavitation in biochemical engineering/biotechnology. Biochem. Eng. J. 2009, 44:60-72.
241. Mason T.J., Joyce E., Phull S.S., Lorimer J.P. Potential uses of ultrasound in the biological decontamination of water. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2003, 10:319-323.
242. Doulah M.S. Mechanism of disintegration of biological cells in ultrasonic cavitation. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 1977, 19:649-660.
243. Yusaf T.F. Mechanical Treatment of Microorganisms Using Ultrasound, Shock and Shear Technology 2011, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba.
244. Davies R. Observations on the use of ultrasound waves for the disruption of micro-organisms. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1959, 33:481-493.
245. Ahmed F.I.K., Russell C. Synergism between ultrasonic waves and hydrogen peroxide in the killing of micro-organisms. J. Appl. Microbiol. 1975, 39:31-40.
246. Leadley C.E., Williams A. Pulsed electric field processing, power ultrasound and other emerging technologies. Food Processing: Handbook 2006, WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim, Germany. J.G. Brennan (Ed.).
247. 2. Biochem. Eng. J. 2005, 25:243-248.
248. Chivate M.M., Pandit A.B. Quantification of cavitation intensity in fluid bulk. Ultrason. Sonochem. 1995, 2:S19-S25.
249. Al-juboori R.A., Yusaf T.F. Improving the performance of ultrasonic horn reactor for deactivating microorganisms in water. ICMER 2011: 1st International Conference of Mechanical Engineering Research, University Malaysia Pahang 2011, 411-423. Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kuantan, Malaysia.
250. Gogate P.R. Application of cavitational reactors for water disinfection: current status and path forward. J. Environ. Manage. 2007, 85:801-815.
251. Joyce E., Mason T.J., Phull S.S., Lorimer J.P. The development and evaluation of electrolysis in conjunction with power ultrasound for the disinfection of bacterial suspensions. Ultrason. Sonochem. 2003, 10:231-234.
252. Marschall H.B., Mørch K.A., Keller A.P., Kjeldsen M. Cavitation inception by almost spherical solid particles in water. Phys. Fluids 2003, 15:545.
253. Borkent B.M., Arora M., Ohl C.D. Reproducible cavitation activity in water-particle suspensions. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2007, 121:1406-1412.
254. Chen D., He Z., Weavers L.K., Chin Y.-P., Walker H.W., Hatcher P.G. Sonochemical reactions of dissolved organic matter. Res. Chem. Intermed. 2004, 30:735-753.