Environmental and Gene-Environment Interactions and Risk of Rheumatoid Arthritis

Rheumatic Disease Clinics of North America

Volumn 38, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 405-426

  Karlson, Elizabeth W ^a   Deane, Kevin ^b  

^a BRIGHAM AND WOMEN S HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COLORADO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Environmental risk factors; Gene environment interactions; Rheumatoid arthritis

Indexed keywords

ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIOXIDANT; ASCORBIC ACID; AUTOANTIBODY; BETA CRYPTOXANTHIN; HORMONE; TOBACCO SMOKE; ZINC;

AIR POLLUTION; AUTOIMMUNITY; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; FAMILY HISTORY; GENETIC RISK; GENOTYPE ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; HUMAN; INHERITANCE; JOINT; MUCOSA INFLAMMATION; NONHUMAN; OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS; SYMPTOM;

ARTHRITIS, RHEUMATOID; DELAYED DIAGNOSIS; GENE-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES; HUMANS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84863997661     PISSN: 0889857X     EISSN: 15583163     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rdc.2012.04.002     Document Type: Review

References (203)

1. Majka D.S., Deane K.D., Parrish L.A., et al. Duration of preclinical rheumatoid arthritis-related autoantibody positivity increases in subjects with older age at time of disease diagnosis. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67:801-807.
2. Deane K.D., O'Donnell C.I., Hueber W., et al. The number of elevated cytokines and chemokines in preclinical seropositive rheumatoid arthritis predicts time to diagnosis in an age-dependent manner. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:3161-3172.
3. Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S., de Jong B.A., Berglin E., et al. Antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptide and IgA rheumatoid factor predict the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2003, 48:2741-2749.
4. Nielen M.M., van Schaardenburg D., Reesink H.W., et al. Specific autoantibodies precede the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis: a study of serial measurements in blood donors. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:380-386.
5. Chibnik L.B., Mandl L.A., Costenbader K.H., et al. Comparison of threshold cutpoints and continuous measures of anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies in predicting future rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2009, 36:706-711.
6. Kokkonen H., Mullazehi M., Berglin E., et al. Antibodies of IgG, IgA and IgM isotypes against cyclic citrullinated peptide precede the development of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2010, 13:R13.
7. Kokkonen H., Soderstrom I., Rocklov J., et al. Up-regulation of cytokines and chemokines predates the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:383-391.
8. Jorgensen K.T., Wiik A., Pedersen M., et al. Cytokines, autoantibodies and viral antibodies in premorbid and postdiagnostic sera from patients with rheumatoid arthritis: case-control study nested in a cohort of Norwegian blood donors. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67:860-866.
9. Arnett F.C., Edworthy S.M., Bloch D.A., et al. The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1988, 31:315-324.
10. Aletaha D., Neogi T., Silman A.J., et al. Rheumatoid arthritis classification criteria: an American College of Rheumatology/European League Against Rheumatism collaborative initiative. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:2569-2581.
11. Leslie D., Lipsky P., Notkins A.L. Autoantibodies as predictors of disease. J Clin Invest 2001, 108:1417-1422.
12. Arbuckle M.R., McClain M.T., Rubertone M.V., et al. Development of autoantibodies before the clinical onset of systemic lupus erythematosus. N Engl J Med 2003, 349:1526-1533.
13. Klareskog L., Stolt P., Lundberg K., et al. A new model for an etiology of rheumatoid arthritis: smoking may trigger HLA-DR (shared epitope)-restricted immune reactions to autoantigens modified by citrullination. Arthritis Rheum 2006, 54:38-46.
14. Vessey M.P., Villard-Mackintosh L., Yeates D. Oral contraceptives, cigarette smoking and other factors in relation to arthritis. Contraception 1987, 35:457-464.
15. Hernandez-Avila M., Liang M.H., Willett W.C., et al. Reproductive factors, smoking, and the risk for rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology 1990, 1:285-291.
16. Hernandez-Avila M., Liang M.H., Willett W.C., et al. Exogenous sex hormones and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990, 33:947-953.
17. Hazes J.M., Dijkmans B.A., Vandenbroucke J.P., et al. Lifestyle and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption. Ann Rheum Dis 1990, 49:980-982.
18. Heliovaara M., Aho K., Aromaa A., et al. Smoking and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1993, 20:1830-1835.
19. Voigt L.F., Koepsell T.D., Nelson J.L., et al. Smoking, obesity, alcohol consumption, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology 1994, 5:525-532.
20. Symmons D.P., Bankhead C.R., Harrison B.J., et al. Blood transfusion, smoking, and obesity as risk factors for the development of rheumatoid arthritis: results from a primary care-based incident case-control study in Norfolk, England. Arthritis Rheum 1997, 40:1955-1961.
21. Karlson E.W., Lee I.M., Cook N.R., et al. A retrospective cohort study of cigarette smoking and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in female health professionals. Arthritis Rheum 1999, 42:910-917.
22. Uhlig T., Hagen K.B., Kvien T.K. Current tobacco smoking, formal education, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1999, 26:47-54.
23. Kallberg H., Ding B., Padyukov L., et al. Smoking is a major preventable risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis: estimations of risks after various exposures to cigarette smoke. Ann Rheum Dis 2011, 70:508-511.
24. Criswell L.A., Merlino L.A., Cerhan J.R., et al. Cigarette smoking and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis among postmenopausal women: results from the Iowa Women's Health Study. Am J Med 2002, 112:465-471.
25. Krishnan E., Sokka T., Hannonen P. Smoking-gender interaction and risk for rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2003, 5:R158-R162.
26. Stolt P., Bengtsson C., Nordmark B., et al. Quantification of the influence of cigarette smoking on rheumatoid arthritis: results from a population based case-control study, using incident cases. Ann Rheum Dis 2003, 62:835-841.
27. Costenbader K.H., Feskanich D., Mandl L.A., et al. Smoking intensity, duration, and cessation, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis in women. Am J Med 2006, 119:503-511.
28. Doran M.F., Crowson C.S., O'Fallon W.M., et al. The effect of oral contraceptives and estrogen replacement therapy on the risk of rheumatoid arthritis: a population based study. J Rheumatol 2004, 31:207-213.
29. Spector T.D., Roman E., Silman A.J. The pill, parity, and rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1990, 33:782-789.
30. Brennan P., Bankhead C., Silman A., et al. Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis: results from a primary care-based incident case-control study. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1997, 26:817-823.
31. Hazes J.M., Dijkmans B.C., Vandenbroucke J.P., et al. Reduction of the risk of rheumatoid arthritis among women who take oral contraceptives. Arthritis Rheum 1990, 33:173-179.
32. Jorgensen C., Picot M.C., Bologna C., et al. Oral contraception, parity, breast feeding, and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1996, 55:94-98.
33. Vandenbroucke J.P., Valkenburg H.A., Boersma J.W., et al. Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis: further evidence for a preventive effect. Lancet 1982, 2:839-842.
34. Vandenbroucke J.P., Witteman J.C., Valkenburg H.A., et al. Noncontraceptive hormones and rheumatoid arthritis in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. JAMA 1986, 255:1299-1303.
35. Wingrave S.J., Kay C.R. Reduction in incidence of rheumatoid arthritis associated with oral contraceptives. Lancet 1978, 1:569-571.
36. Walitt B., Pettinger M., Weinstein A., et al. Effects of postmenopausal hormone therapy on rheumatoid arthritis: the women's health initiative randomized controlled trials. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 59:302-310.
37. Merlino L.A., Cerhan J.R., Criswell L.A., et al. Estrogen and other woman reproductive risk factors are not strongly associated with the development of rheumatoid arthritis in elderly women. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2003, 33:72-82.
38. Karlson E.W., Mandl L.A., Hankinson S.E., et al. Do breast-feeding and other reproductive factors influence future risk of rheumatoid arthritis? Results from the Nurses' Health Study. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:3458-3467.
39. Pikwer M., Bergstrom U., Nilsson J.A., et al. Breast feeding, but not use of oral contraceptives, is associated with a reduced risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:526-530.
40. Berglin E., Kokkonen H., Einarsdottir E., et al. Influence of female hormonal factors, in relation to autoantibodies and genetic markers, on the development of rheumatoid arthritis in northern Sweden: a case-control study. Scand J Rheumatol 2010, 39:454-460.
41. Pikwer M., Bergstrom U., Nilsson J.A., et al. Early menopause is an independent predictor of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2012, 71:378-381.
42. Stolt P., Kallberg H., Lundberg I., et al. Silica exposure is associated with increased risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Swedish EIRA study. Ann Rheum Dis 2005, 64:582-586.
43. Sluis-Cremer G.K., Hessel P.A., Hnizdo E., et al. Relationship between silicosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Thorax 1986, 41:596-601.
44. Turner S., Cherry N. Rheumatoid arthritis in workers exposed to silica in the pottery industry. Occup Environ Med 2000, 57:443-447.
45. Klockars M., Koskela R.S., Jarvinen E., et al. Silica exposure and rheumatoid arthritis: a follow up study of granite workers 1940-81. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987, 294:997-1000.
46. Steenland K., Sanderson W., Calvert G.M. Kidney disease and arthritis in a cohort study of workers exposed to silica. Epidemiology 2001, 12:405-412.
47. Hart J.E., Laden F., Puett R.C., et al. Exposure to traffic pollution and increased risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Environ Health Perspect 2009, 117:1065-1069.
48. de Pablo P., Chapple I.L., Buckley C.D., et al. Periodontitis in systemic rheumatic diseases. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2009, 5:218-224.
49. Kallberg H., Jacobsen S., Bengtsson C., et al. Alcohol consumption is associated with decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis: results from two Scandinavian case-control studies. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:222-227.
50. Pedersen M., Jacobsen S., Klarlund M., et al. Environmental risk factors differ between rheumatoid arthritis with and without auto-antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptides. Arthritis Res Ther 2006, 8:R133.
51. Jacobsson L.T., Jacobsson M.E., Askling J., et al. Perinatal characteristics and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. BMJ 2003, 326:1068-1069.
52. Mandl L.A., Costenbader K.H., Simard J.F., et al. Is birthweight associated with risk of rheumatoid arthritis? Data from a large cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:514-518.
53. Hemminki K., Li X., Sundquist J., et al. Familial associations of rheumatoid arthritis with autoimmune diseases and related conditions. Arthritis Rheum 2009, 60:661-668.
54. Stahl E.A., Raychaudhuri S., Remmers E.F., et al. Genome-wide association study meta-analysis identifies seven new rheumatoid arthritis risk loci. Nat Genet 2010, 42:508-514.
55. Costenbader K.H., Chang S.C., De Vivo I., et al. Genetic polymorphisms in PTPN22, PADI-4, and CTLA-4 and risk for rheumatoid arthritis in two longitudinal cohort studies: evidence of gene-environment interactions with heavy cigarette smoking. Arthritis Res Ther 2008, 10:R52.
56. Karlson E.W., Chang S.C., Cui J., et al. Gene-environment interaction between HLA-DRB1 shared epitope and heavy cigarette smoking in predicting incident rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:54-60.
57. Mahdi H., Fisher B.A., Kallberg H., et al. Specific interaction between genotype, smoking and autoimmunity to citrullinated alpha-enolase in the etiology of rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Genet 2009, 41:1319-1324.
58. Karlson E.W., Chibnik L.B., Kraft P., et al. Cumulative association of 22 genetic variants with seropositive rheumatoid arthritis risk. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:1077-1085.
59. del Puente A., Knowler W.C., Pettitt D.J., et al. The incidence of rheumatoid arthritis is predicted by rheumatoid factor titer in a longitudinal population study. Arthritis Rheum 1988, 31:1239-1244.
60. Del Puente A., Knowler W.C., Pettitt D.J., et al. High incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis in Pima Indians. Am J Epidemiol 1989, 129:1170-1178.
61. Silman A.J., Hennessy E., Ollier B. Incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in a genetically predisposed population. Br J Rheumatol 1992, 31:365-368.
62. Aho K., Heliovaara M., Maatela J., et al. Rheumatoid factors antedating clinical rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1991, 18:1282-1284.
63. Aho K., Palusuo T., Kurki P. Marker antibodies of rheumatoid arthritis: diagnostic and pathogenetic implications. Semin Arthritis Rheum 1994, 23:379-387.
64. Aho K., Palosuo T., Heliovaara M., et al. Antifilaggrin antibodies within "normal" range predict rheumatoid arthritis in a linear fashion. J Rheumatol 2000, 27:2743-2746.
65. Berglin E., Padyukov L., Sundin U., et al. A combination of autoantibodies to cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) and HLA-DRB1 locus antigens is strongly associated with future onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2004, 6:R303-R308.
66. Nielen M.M., van Schaardenburg D., Reesink H.W., et al. Simultaneous development of acute phase response and autoantibodies in preclinical rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:535-537.
67. Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S., Boman K., Tarkowski A., et al. Up regulation of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 expression in anti-citrulline antibody and immunoglobulin M rheumatoid factor positive subjects precedes onset of inflammatory response and development of overt rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:121-123.
68. Bos W.H., Ursum J., de Vries N., et al. The role of the shared epitope in arthralgia with anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies (anti-CCP), and its effect on anti-CCP levels. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67:1347-1350.
69. Bos W.H., Wolbink G.J., Boers M., et al. Arthritis development in patients with arthralgia is strongly associated with anti-citrullinated protein antibody status: a prospective cohort study. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:490-494.
70. Majka D.S., Holers V.M. Can we accurately predict the development of rheumatoid arthritis in the preclinical phase?. Arthritis Rheum 2003, 48:2701-2705.
71. Deane K.D., Norris J.M., Holers V.M. Preclinical rheumatoid arthritis: identification, evaluation, and future directions for investigation. Rheum Dis Clin North Am 2010, 36:213-241.
72. Chouinard E., Walter S. Recall bias in case-control studies: an empirical analysis and theoretical framework. J Clin Epidemiol 1995, 48:245-254.
73. Merlino L.A., Curtis J., Mikuls T.R., et al. Vitamin D intake is inversely associated with rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Iowa Women's Health Study. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:72-77.
74. Symmons D.P., Silman A.J. The Norfolk Arthritis Register (NOAR). Clin Exp Rheumatol 2003, 21:S94-S99.
75. Kolfenbach J.R., Deane K.D., Derber L.A., et al. A prospective approach to investigating the natural history of preclinical rheumatoid arthritis (RA) using first-degree relatives of probands with RA. Arthritis Rheum 2009, 61:1735-1742.
76. El-Gabalawy H.S., Robinson D.B., Hart D., et al. Immunogenetic risks of anti-cyclical citrullinated peptide antibodies in a North American Native population with rheumatoid arthritis and their first-degree relatives. J Rheumatol 2009, 36:1130-1135.
77. Padyukov L., Silva C., Stolt P., et al. A gene-environment interaction between smoking and shared epitope genes in HLA-DR provides a high risk of seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:3085-3092.
78. Stolt P., Yahya A., Bengtsson C., et al. Silica exposure among male current smokers is associated with a high risk of developing ACPA-positive rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:1072-1076.
79. Makrygiannakis D., Hermansson M., Ulfgren A.K., et al. Smoking increases peptidylarginine deiminase 2 enzyme expression in human lungs and increases citrullination in BAL cells. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67:1488-1492.
80. Verpoort K.N., Cheung K., Ioan-Facsinay A., et al. Fine specificity of the anti-citrullinated protein antibody response is influenced by the shared epitope alleles. Arthritis Rheum 2007, 56:3949-3952.
81. Snir O., Widhe M., von Spee C., et al. Multiple antibody reactivities to citrullinated antigens in sera from patients with rheumatoid arthritis: association with HLA-DRB1 alleles. Ann Rheum Dis 2009, 68:736-743.
82. Feitsma A.L., van der Voort E.I., Franken K.L., et al. Identification of citrullinated vimentin peptides as T cell epitopes in HLA-DR4-positive patients with rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:117-125.
83. Bhatia S.S., Majka D.S., Kittelson J.M., et al. Rheumatoid factor seropositivity is inversely associated with oral contraceptive use in women without rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:267-269.
84. Hughes D.A., Haslam P.L., Townsend P.J., et al. Numerical and functional alterations in circulatory lymphocytes in cigarette smokers. Clin Exp Immunol 1985, 61:459-466.
85. Robbins C.S., Dawe D.E., Goncharova S.I., et al. Cigarette smoke decreases pulmonary dendritic cells and impacts antiviral immune responsiveness. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2004, 30:202-211.
86. Moszczynski P., Zabinski Z., Moszczynski P., et al. Immunological findings in cigarette smokers. Toxicol Lett 2001, 118:121-127.
87. Burton R.C. Smoking, immunity, and cancer. Med J Aust 1983, 2:411-412.
88. Bermudez E.A., Ridker P.M. C-reactive protein, statins, and the primary prevention of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Prev Cardiol 2002, 5:42-46.
89. Tracy R.P., Psaty B.M., Macy E., et al. Lifetime smoking exposure affects the association of C-reactive protein with cardiovascular disease risk factors and subclinical disease in healthy elderly subjects. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 1997, 17:2167-2176.
90. Tuomi T., Heliovaara M., Palosuo T., et al. Smoking, lung function, and rheumatoid factors. Ann Rheum Dis 1990, 49:753-756.
91. Abhishek A., Butt S., Gadsby K., et al. Anti-TNF-alpha agents are less effective for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis in current smokers. J Clin Rheumatol 2010, 16:15-18.
92. Saevarsdottir S., Wedren S., Seddighzadeh M., et al. Patients with early rheumatoid arthritis who smoke are less likely to respond to treatment with methotrexate and tumor necrosis factor inhibitors: observations from the Epidemiological Investigation of Rheumatoid Arthritis and the Swedish Rheumatology Register cohorts. Arthritis Rheum 2011, 63:26-36.
93. Sverdrup B., Kallberg H., Bengtsson C., et al. Association between occupational exposure to mineral oil and rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Swedish EIRA case-control study. Arthritis Res Ther 2005, 7:R1296-R1303.
94. Kleinau S., Erlandsson H., Holmdahl R., et al. Adjuvant oils induce arthritis in the DA rat. I. Characterization of the disease and evidence for an immunological involvement. J Autoimmun 1991, 4:871-880.
95. Cannon G.W., Woods M.L., Clayton F., et al. Induction of arthritis in DA rats by incomplete Freund's adjuvant. J Rheumatol 1993, 20:7-11.
96. Lundberg I., Alfredsson L., Plato N., et al. Occupation, occupational exposure to chemicals and rheumatological disease. A register based cohort study. Scand J Rheumatol 1994, 23:305-310.
97. Linos A., Worthington J.W., O'Fallon W.M., et al. The epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota: a study of incidence, prevalence, and mortality. Am J Epidemiol 1980, 111:87-98.
98. Symmons D.P., Barrett E.M., Bankhead C.R., et al. The incidence of rheumatoid arthritis in the United Kingdom: results from the Norfolk Arthritis Register. Br J Rheumatol 1994, 33:735-739.
99. Goemaere S., Ackerman C., Goethals K., et al. Onset of symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in relation to age, sex and menopausal transition. J Rheumatol 1990, 17:1620-1622.
100. Silman A., Kay A., Brennan P. Timing of pregnancy in relation to the onset of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 1992, 35:152-155.
101. Wilder R.L. Adrenal and gonadal steroid hormone deficiency in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol Suppl 1996, 44:10-12.
102. Wilder R.L., Elenkov I.J. Hormonal regulation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-12 and interleukin-10 production by activated macrophages. A disease-modifying mechanism in rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus?. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999, 876:14-31. [review].
103. Allebeck P., Ahlbom A., Ljungstrom K., et al. Do oral contraceptives reduce the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis? A pilot study using the Stockholm County medical information system. Scand J Rheumatol 1984, 13:140-146.
104. Linos A., Worthington J.W., O'Fallon W.M., et al. Case-control study of rheumatoid arthritis and prior use of oral contraceptives. Lancet 1983, 1:1299-1300.
105. Del Junco D.J., Annegers J.F., Luthra H.S., et al. Do oral contraceptives prevent rheumatoid arthritis?. JAMA 1985, 254:1938-1941.
106. Hannaford P.C., Kay C.R., Hirsch S. Oral contraceptives and rheumatoid arthritis: new data from the Royal College of General Practitioners' oral contraception study. Ann Rheum Dis 1990, 49:744-746.
107. Deighton C.M., Sykes H., Walker D.J. Rheumatoid arthritis, HLA identity, and age at menarche. Ann Rheum Dis 1993, 52:322-326.
108. Brun J.G., Nilssen S., Kvale G. Breast feeding, other reproductive factors and rheumatoid arthritis. A prospective study. Br J Rheumatol 1995, 34:542-546.
109. Dugowson C.E., Koepsell T.D., Voigt L.F., et al. Rheumatoid arthritis in women. Incidence rates in group health cooperative, Seattle, Washington, 1987-1989. Arthritis Rheum 1991, 34:1502-1507.
110. Doran M.F., Pond G.R., Crowson C.S., et al. Trends in incidence and mortality in rheumatoid arthritis in Rochester, Minnesota, over a forty-year period. Arthritis Rheum 2002, 46:625-631.
111. van de Sande M.G., de Hair M.J., van der Leij C., et al. Different stages of rheumatoid arthritis: features of the synovium in the preclinical phase. Ann Rheum Dis 2011, 70:772-777.
112. Lundberg K., Kinloch A., Fisher B.A., et al. Antibodies to citrullinated alpha-enolase peptide 1 are specific for rheumatoid arthritis and cross-react with bacterial enolase. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 58:3009-3019.
113. Lundberg K., Wegner N., Yucel-Lindberg T., et al. Periodontitis in RA-the citrullinated enolase connection. Nature Rev 2010, 6:727-730.
114. Mikuls T.R. Help stop tooth decay. And prevent RA?. J Rheumatol 2010, 37:1083-1085.
115. Mikuls T.R., Payne J.B., Reinhardt R.A., et al. Antibody responses to Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) in subjects with rheumatoid arthritis and periodontitis. Int Immunopharmacol 2009, 9:38-42.
116. Wegner N., Wait R., Sroka A., et al. Peptidylarginine deiminase from Porphyromonas gingivalis citrullinates human fibrinogen and alpha-enolase: implications for autoimmunity in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:2662-2672.
117. Ramirez A.S., Rosas A., Hernandez-Beriain J.A., et al. Relationship between rheumatoid arthritis and Mycoplasma pneumoniae: a case-control study. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2005, 44:912-914.
118. Silman A.J., Pearson J.E. Epidemiology and genetics of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res 2002, 4(Suppl 3):S265-S272.
119. Demoruelle M.K., Weisman M.H., Simonian P.L., et al. Airways abnormalities and rheumatoid arthritis-related autoantibodies in subjects without arthritis: early injury or initiating site of autoimmunity?. Arthritis Rheum 2012, 64(6):1756-1761.
120. Gizinski A.M., Mascolo M., Loucks J.L., et al. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-specific autoantibodies in patients with interstitial lung disease and absence of clinically apparent articular RA. Clin Rheumatol 2009, 28:611-613.
121. Scher J.U., Abramson S.B. The microbiome and rheumatoid arthritis. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2011, 7:569-578.
122. Blankenberg-Sprenkels S.H., Fielder M., Feltkamp T.E., et al. Antibodies to Klebsiella pneumoniae in Dutch patients with ankylosing spondylitis and acute anterior uveitis and to Proteus mirabilis in rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 1998, 25:743-747.
123. Ebringer A., Rashid T., Wilson C. Rheumatoid arthritis, Proteus, anti-CCP antibodies and Karl Popper. Autoimmun Rev 2010, 9:216-223.
124. Vaahtovuo J., Toivanen P., Eerola E. Bacterial composition of murine fecal microflora is indigenous and genetically guided. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2003, 44:131-136.
125. Edwards C.J. Commensal gut bacteria and the etiopathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. J Rheumatol 2008, 35:1477-1497.
126. Linos A., Kaklamani V.G., Kaklamani E., et al. Dietary factors in relation to rheumatoid arthritis: a role for olive oil and cooked vegetables?. Am J Clin Nutr 1999, 70:1077-1082.
127. Linos A., Kaklamanis E., Kontomerkos A., et al. The effect of olive oil and fish consumption on rheumatoid arthritis-a case control study. Scand J Rheumatol 1991, 20:419-426.
128. Shapiro J.A., Koepsell T.D., Voigt L.F., et al. Diet and rheumatoid arthritis in women: a possible protective effect of fish consumption. Epidemiology 1996, 7:256-263.
129. Cerhan J.R., Saag K.G., Merlino L.A., et al. Antioxidant micronutrients and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in a cohort of older women. Am J Epidemiol 2003, 157:345-354.
130. Pattison D.J., Silman A.J., Goodson N.J., et al. Vitamin C and the risk of developing inflammatory polyarthritis: prospective nested case-control study. Ann Rheum Dis 2004, 63:843-847.
131. Pattison D.J., Symmons D.P., Lunt M., et al. Dietary beta-cryptoxanthin and inflammatory polyarthritis: results from a population-based prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:451-455.
132. Pattison D.J., Symmons D.P., Lunt M., et al. Dietary risk factors for the development of inflammatory polyarthritis: evidence for a role of high level of red meat consumption. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:3804-3812.
133. Pedersen M., Stripp C., Klarlund M., et al. Diet and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in a prospective cohort. J Rheumatol 2005, 32:1249-1252.
134. Benito-Garcia E., Feskanich D., Hu F.B., et al. Protein, iron, and meat consumption and risk for rheumatoid arthritis: a prospective cohort study. Arthritis Res Ther 2007, 9:R16.
135. Karlson E.W., Shadick N.A., Cook N.R., et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of rheumatoid arthritis: the Women's Health Study. Arthritis Rheum 2008, 59:1589-1595.
136. Costenbader K.H., Feskanich D., Holmes M., et al. Vitamin D intake and risks of systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis in women. Ann Rheum Dis 2008, 67:530-535.
137. Costenbader K.H., Kang J.H., Karlson E.W. Antioxidant intake and risks of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus in women. Am J Epidemiol 2010, 172:205-216.
138. Munger K.L., Levin L.I., Hollis B.W., et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and risk of multiple sclerosis. JAMA 2006, 296:2832-2838.
139. Hernan M.A., Olek M.J., Ascherio A. Geographic variation of MS incidence in two prospective studies of US women. Neurology 1999, 53:1711-1718.
140. Arnson Y., Amital H., Shoenfeld Y. Vitamin D and autoimmunity: new aetiological and therapeutic considerations. Ann Rheum Dis 2007, 66:1137-1142.
141. Kamen D.L., Cooper G.S., Bouali H., et al. Vitamin D deficiency in systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmun Rev 2006, 5:114-117.
142. Canning M.O., Grotenhuis K., de Wit H., et al. 1-alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)(2)D(3)) hampers the maturation of fully active immature dendritic cells from monocytes. Eur J Endocrinol 2001, 145:351-357.
143. Cantorna M.T., Hayes C.E., DeLuca H.F. 1,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol inhibits the progression of arthritis in murine models of human arthritis. J Nutr 1998, 128:68-72.
144. Feser M., Derber L.A., Deane K.D., et al. Plasma 25,OH vitamin D concentrations are not associated with rheumatoid arthritis (RA)-related autoantibodies in individuals at elevated risk for RA. J Rheumatol 2009, 36:943-946.
145. Patel S., Farragher T., Berry J., et al. Association between serum vitamin D metabolite levels and disease activity in patients with early inflammatory polyarthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2007, 56:2143-2149.
146. Andjelkovic Z., Vojinovic J., Pejnovic N., et al. Disease modifying and immunomodulatory effects of high dose 1 alpha (OH) D3 in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1999, 17:453-456.
147. James M.J., Gibson R.A., Cleland L.G. Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory mediator production. Am J Clin Nutr 2000, 71:343S-348S.
148. Rosell M., Wesley A.M., Rydin K., et al. Dietary fish and fish oil and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology 2009, 20:896-901.
149. Stamp L.K., James M.J., Cleland L.G. Diet and rheumatoid arthritis: a review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum 2005, 35:77-94.
150. Simopoulos A.P. Omega-3 fatty acids in inflammation and autoimmune diseases. J Am Coll Nutr 2002, 21:495-505.
151. Heliovaara M., Knekt P., Aho K., et al. Serum antioxidants and risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Ann Rheum Dis 1994, 53:51-53.
152. Knekt P., Heliovaara M., Aho K., et al. Serum selenium, serum alpha-tocopherol, and the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Epidemiology 2000, 11:402-405.
153. Comstock G.W., Burke A.E., Hoffman S.C., et al. Serum concentrations of alpha tocopherol, beta carotene, and retinol preceding the diagnosis of rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Rheum Dis 1997, 56:323-325.
154. Nissen M.J., Gabay C., Scherer A., et al. The effect of alcohol on radiographic progression in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:1265-1272.
155. Maxwell J.R., Gowers I.R., Moore D.J., et al. Alcohol consumption is inversely associated with risk and severity of rheumatoid arthritis. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2010, 49:2140-2146.
156. Cerhan J.R., Saag K.G., Criswell L.A., et al. Blood transfusion, alcohol use, and anthropometric risk factors for rheumatoid arthritis in older women. J Rheumatol 2002, 29:246-254.
157. Lu B., Solomon D.H., Costenbader K.H., et al. Alcohol consumption and markers of inflammation in women with preclinical rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2011, 62:3554-3559.
158. Imhof A., Froehlich M., Brenner H., et al. Effect of alcohol consumption on systemic markers of inflammation. Lancet 2001, 357:763-767.
159. Cooper C.L., Cameron D.W. Effect of alcohol use and highly active antiretroviral therapy on plasma levels of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in patients coinfected with HIV and HCV. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41(Suppl 1):S105-S109.
160. Boe D.M., Nelson S., Zhang P., et al. Alcohol-induced suppression of lung chemokine production and the host defense response to Streptococcus pneumoniae. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2003, 27:1838-1845.
161. Nelson S., Bagby G.J., Bainton B.G., et al. The effects of acute and chronic alcoholism on tumor necrosis factor and the inflammatory response. J Infect Dis 1989, 160:422-429.
162. Szabo G., Mandrekar P., Catalano D. Inhibition of superantigen-induced T cell proliferation and monocyte IL-1 beta, TNF-alpha, and IL-6 production by acute ethanol treatment. J Leukoc Biol 1995, 58:342-350.
163. Thould A.K., Thould B.T. Arthritis in Roman Britain. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1983, 287:1909-1911.
164. Rothschild B.M., Turner K.R., DeLuca M.A. Symmetrical erosive peripheral polyarthritis in the Late Archaic Period of Alabama. Science 1988, 241:1498-1501.
165. Fischer K.M. Hypothesis: tobacco use is a risk factor in rheumatoid arthritis. Med Hypotheses 1991, 34:116-117.
166. Bengtsson C., Nordmark B., Klareskog L., et al. Socioeconomic status and the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis: results from the Swedish EIRA study. Ann Rheum Dis 2005, 64:1588-1594.
167. Neidell M.J. Air pollution, health, and socio-economic status: the effect of outdoor air quality on childhood asthma. J Health Econ 2004, 23:1209-1236.
168. Apelberg B.J., Buckley T.J., White R.H. Socioeconomic and racial disparities in cancer risk from air toxics in Maryland. Environ Health Perspect 2005, 113:693-699.
169. Penard-Morand C., Charpin D., Raherison C., et al. Long-term exposure to background air pollution related to respiratory and allergic health in schoolchildren. Clin Exp Allergy 2005, 35:1279-1287.
170. Sunyer J. Urban air pollution and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a review. Eur Respir J 2001, 17:1024-1033.
171. Karakatsani A., Andreadaki S., Katsouyanni K., et al. Air pollution in relation to manifestations of chronic pulmonary disease: a nested case-control study in Athens, Greece. Eur J Epidemiol 2003, 18:45-53.
172. Dockery D.W., Pope C.A., Xu X., et al. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. N Engl J Med 1993, 329:1753-1759.
173. van Eeden S.F., Yeung A., Quinlam K., et al. Systemic response to ambient particulate matter: relevance to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2005, 2:61-67.
174. Kunzli N., Jerrett M., Mack W.J., et al. Ambient air pollution and atherosclerosis in Los Angeles. Environ Health Perspect 2005, 113:201-206.
175. Pope C.A., Burnett R.T., Thun M.J., et al. Lung cancer, cardiopulmonary mortality, and long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution. JAMA 2002, 287:1132-1141.
176. Nafstad P., Haheim L.L., Oftedal B., et al. Lung cancer and air pollution: a 27 year follow up of 16 209 Norwegian men. Thorax 2003, 58:1071-1076.
177. Pereira F.A., de Assuncao J.V., Saldiva P.H., et al. Influence of air pollution on the incidence of respiratory tract neoplasm. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 2005, 55:83-87.
178. Schwartz J., Dockery D.W., Neas L.M. Is daily mortality associated specifically with fine particles?. J Air Waste Manag Assoc 1996, 46:927-939.
179. Schwartz J., Laden F., Zanobetti A. The concentration-response relation between PM(2.5) and daily deaths. Environ Health Perspect 2002, 110:1025-1029.
180. Laden F., Neas L.M., Dockery D.W., et al. Association of fine particulate matter from different sources with daily mortality in six U.S. cities. Environ Health Perspect 2000, 108:941-947.
181. Costenbader K.H., Chang S.C., Laden F., et al. Geographic variation in rheumatoid arthritis incidence among women in the United States. Arch Intern Med 2008, 168:1664-1670.
182. Vieira V.M., Hart J.E., Webster T.F., et al. Association between residences in U.S. northern latitudes and rheumatoid arthritis: a spatial analysis of the Nurses' Health Study. Environ Health Perspect 2010, 118:957-961.
183. Silman A.J., MacGregor A.J., Thomson W., et al. Twin concordance rates for rheumatoid arthritis: results from a nationwide study. Br J Rheumatol 1993, 32:903-907.
184. Linn-Rasker S.P., van der Helm-van Mil A.H., van Gaalen F.A., et al. Smoking is a risk factor for anti-CCP antibodies only in rheumatoid arthritis patients who carry HLA-DRB1 shared epitope alleles. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:366-371.
185. Lee H.S., Irigoyen P., Kern M., et al. Interaction between smoking, the shared epitope, and anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide: a mixed picture in three large North American rheumatoid arthritis cohorts. Arthritis Rheum 2007, 56:1745-1753.
186. Keenan B.T., Chibnik L.B., Cui J., et al. Effect of interactions of glutathione S-transferase T1, M1, and P1 and HMOX1 gene promoter polymorphisms with heavy smoking on the risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum 2010, 62:3196-3210.
187. Criswell L.A., Saag K.G., Mikuls T.R., et al. Smoking interacts with genetic risk factors in the development of rheumatoid arthritis among older Caucasian women. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:1163-1167.
188. Mikuls T.R., Gould K.A., Bynote K.K., et al. Anticitrullinated protein antibody (ACPA) in rheumatoid arthritis: influence of an interaction between HLA-DRB1 shared epitope and a deletion polymorphism in glutathione S-transferase in a cross-sectional study. Arthritis Res Ther 2010, 12:R213.
189. Mikuls T.R., Levan T., Gould K.A., et al. Impact of interactions of cigarette smoking with NAT2 polymorphisms on rheumatoid arthritis risk in African Americans. Arthritis Rheum 2012, 64:655-664.
190. Hill J.A., Southwood S., Sette A., et al. Cutting edge: the conversion of arginine to citrulline allows for a high-affinity peptide interaction with the rheumatoid arthritis-associated HLA-DRB1*0401 MHC class II molecule. J Immunol 2003, 171:538-541.
191. Karlson E.W., Chibnik L.B., Kraft P., et al. Cumulative association of 22 genetic variants with seropositive rheumatoid arthritis risk. Ann Rheum Dis 2010, 69:1077-1085.
192. Demoruelle M.K., Deane K. Antibodies to citrullinated protein antigens (ACPAs): clinical and pathophysiologic significance. Curr Rheumatol Rep 2011, 13(5):421-430.
193. Cooles F.A., Isaacs J.D. Pathophysiology of rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol 2011, 23:233-240.
194. Kakumanu P., Sobel E.S., Narain S., et al. Citrulline dependence of anti-cyclic citrullinated peptide antibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus as a marker of deforming/erosive arthritis. J Rheumatol 2009, 36:2682-2690.
195. Alenius G.M., Berglin E., Rantapaa-Dahlqvist S. Antibodies against cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP) in psoriatic patients with or without joint inflammation. Ann Rheum Dis 2006, 65:398-400.
196. Kuhn K.A., Kulik L., Tomooka B., et al. Antibodies against citrullinated proteins enhance tissue injury in experimental autoimmune arthritis. J Clin Invest 2006, 116:961-973.
197. Sokolove J., Zhao X., Chandra P.E., et al. Immune complexes containing citrullinated fibrinogen costimulate macrophages via Toll-like receptor 4 and Fcgamma receptor. Arthritis Rheum 2011, 63:53-62.
198. Zhao X., Okeke N.L., Sharpe O., et al. Circulating immune complexes contain citrullinated fibrinogen in rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Res Ther 2008, 10:R94.
199. Okamoto S., Adachi M., Chujo S., et al. Etiological role of cigarette smoking in rheumatoid arthritis: nasal exposure to cigarette smoke condensate extracts augments the development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011, 404:1088-1092.
200. Lindblad S.S., Mydel P., Jonsson I.M., et al. Smoking and nicotine exposure delay development of collagen-induced arthritis in mice. Arthritis Res Ther 2009, 11:R88.
201. Breban M.A., Moreau M.C., Fournier C., et al. Influence of the bacterial flora on collagen-induced arthritis in susceptible and resistant strains of rats. Clin Exp Rheumatol 1993, 11:61-64.
202. Moudgil K.D., Kim E., Yun O.J., et al. Environmental modulation of autoimmune arthritis involves the spontaneous microbial induction of T cell responses to regulatory determinants within heat shock protein 65. J Immunol 2001, 166:4237-4243.
203. Kinloch A.J., Alzabin S., Brintnell W., et al. Immunization with Porphyromonas gingivalis enolase induces autoimmunity to mammalian alpha-enolase and arthritis in DR4-IE-transgenic mice. Arthritis Rheum 2011, 63:3818-3823.