The stroma-a key regulator in prostate function and malignancy

Cancers

Volumn 4, Issue 2, 2012, Pages 531-548

  Hägglöf, Christina ^a   Bergh, Anders ^a  

^a UMEÅ UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Cancer; Metastasis; Microenvironment; Prostate; Stroma

Indexed keywords

AGE; CANCER ASSOCIATED FIBROBLAST; CANCER GROWTH; CARCINOGENESIS; CASTRATION; EPITHELIUM; EPITHELIUM CELL; EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX; FIBROBLAST; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; INFLAMMATORY CELL; LYMPH VESSEL; METASTASIS; MORPHOLOGY; NONHUMAN; ORGANOGENESIS; PROGNOSIS; PROSTATE CANCER; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBER; STROMA; TREATMENT RESPONSE;

EID: 84862674419     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20726694     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/cancers4020531     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Schroder, F.H.; Hugosson, J.; Roobol, M.J.; Tammela, T.L.; Ciatto, S.; Nelen, V.; Kwiatkowski, M.; Lujan, M.; Lilja, H.; Zappa, M.; et al. Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study. N. Engl. J. Med. 2009, 360, 1320-1328.
2. Pietras, K.; Ostman, A. Hallmarks of cancer: Interactions with the tumor stroma. Exp. Cell Res. 2010, 316, 1324-1331.
3. Hanahan, D.; Weinberg, R.A. Hallmarks of cancer: The next generation. Cell 2011, 144, 646-674.
4. McAllister, S.S.; Weinberg, R.A. Tumor-host interactions: A far-reaching relationship. J. Clin. Oncol. 2010, 28, 4022-4028.
5. Cunha, G.R. Mesenchymal-epithelial interactions: Past, present, and future. Differentiation 2008, 76, 578-586.
6. Cunha, G.R.; Hayward, S.W.; Wang, Y.Z. Role of stroma in carcinogenesis of the prostate. Differentiation 2002, 70, 473-485.
7. Niu, Y.N.; Xia, S.J. Stroma-epithelium crosstalk in prostate cancer. Asian J. Androl. 2009, 11, 28-35.
8. Taylor, R.A.; Risbridger, G.P. Prostatic tumor stroma: A key player in cancer progression. Curr. Cancer Drug Targets 2008, 8, 490-497.
9. Zhou, X. Roles of androgen receptor in male and female reproduction: Lessons from global and cell-specific androgen receptor knockout (ARKO) mice. J. Androl. 2010, 31, 235-243.
10. Wu, C.T.; Altuwaijri, S.; Ricke, W.A.; Huang, S.P.; Yeh, S.; Zhang, C.; Niu, Y.; Tsai, M.Y.; Chang, C. Increased prostate cell proliferation and loss of cell differentiation in mice lacking prostate epithelial androgen receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2007, 104, 12679-12684.
11. Niu, Y.; Altuwaijri, S.; Yeh, S.; Lai, K.P.; Yu, S.; Chuang, K.H.; Huang, S.P.; Lardy, H.; Chang, C. Targeting the stromal androgen receptor in primary prostate tumors at earlier stages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 12188-12193.
12. Niu, Y.; Altuwaijri, S.; Lai, K.P.; Wu, C.T.; Ricke, W.A.; Messing, E.M.; Yao, J.; Yeh, S.; Chang, C. Androgen receptor is a tumor suppressor and proliferator in prostate cancer. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 12182-12187.
13. Lai, K.P.; Yamashita, S.; Vitkus, S.; Shyr, C.R.; Yeh, S.; Chang, C. Suppressed prostate epithelial development with impaired branching morphogenesis in mice lacking stromal fibromuscular androgen receptor. Mol. Endocrinol. 2012, 26, 52-66.
14. Nelles, J.L.; Hu, W.Y.; Prins, G.S. Estrogen action and prostate cancer. Expert Rev. Endocrinol. Metab. 2011, 6, 437-451.
15. Kurita, T.; Wang, Y.Z.; Donjacour, A.A.; Zhao, C.; Lydon, J.P.; O'Malley, B.W.; Isaacs, J.T.; Dahiya, R.; Cunha, G.R. Paracrine regulation of apoptosis by steroid hormones in the male and female reproductive system. Cell Death Differ. 2001, 8, 192-200.
16. Lekas, E.; Johansson, M.; Widmark, A.; Bergh, A.; Damber, J.E. Decrement of blood flow precedes the involution of the ventral prostate in the rat after castration. Urol. Res. 1997, 25, 309-314.
17. Lissbrant, I.F.; Lissbrant, E.; Damber, J.E.; Bergh, A. Blood vessels are regulators of growth, diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets in prostate cancer. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 2001, 35, 437-452.
18. Franck-Lissbrant, I.; Haggstrom, S.; Damber, J.E.; Bergh, A. Testosterone stimulates angiogenesis and vascular regrowth in the ventral prostate in castrated adult rats. Endocrinology 1998, 139, 451-456.
19. Lekas, E.; Engstrand, C.; Bergh, A.; Damber, J.E. Transient ischemia induces apoptosis in the ventral prostate of the rat. Urol. Res. 1999, 27, 174-179.
20. Johansson, A.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; Kilter, S.; Bergh, A. Targeting castration-induced tumour hypoxia enhances the acute effects of castration therapy in a rat prostate cancer model. BJU Int. 2011, 107, 1818-1824.
21. Buttyan, R.; Ghafar, M.A.; Shabsigh, A. The effects of androgen deprivation on the prostate gland: Cell death mediated by vascular regression. Curr. Opin. Urol. 2000, 10, 415-420.
22. Johansson, A.; Jones, J.; Pietras, K.; Kilter, S.; Skytt, A.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; Bergh, A. A stroma targeted therapy enhances castration effects in a transplantable rat prostate cancer model. Prostate 2007, 67, 1664-1676.
23. Lissbrant, I.F.; Hammarsten, P.; Lissbrant, E.; Ferrara, N.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; Bergh, A. Neutralizing VEGF bioactivity with a soluble chimeric VEGF-receptor protein flt(1-3)IgG inhibits testosterone-stimulated prostate growth in castrated mice. Prostate 2004, 58, 57-65.
24. Ikehara, A.; Maeda, H.; Kimura, T.; Saito, S.; Ochiai, A. Bone marrow-derived macrophages are associated with androgen modulated prostate regeneration. Prostate 2012, 72, 1-11.
25. Placencio, V.R.; Li, X.; Sherrill, T.P.; Fritz, G.; Bhowmick, N.A. Bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells incorporate into the prostate during regrowth. PloS One 2010, 5, e12920.
26. Li, X.; Placencio, V.; Iturregui, J.M.; Uwamariya, C.; Sharif-Afshar, A.R.; Koyama, T.; Hayward, S.W.; Bhowmick, N.A. Prostate tumor progression is mediated by a paracrine TGF-β/Wnt3a signaling axis. Oncogene 2008, 27, 7118-7130.
27. Placencio, V.R.; Sharif-Afshar, A.R.; Li, X.; Huang, H.; Uwamariya, C.; Neilson, E.G.; Shen, M.M.; Matusik, R.J.; Hayward, S.W.; Bhowmick, N.A. Stromal transforming growth factor-beta signaling mediates prostatic response to androgen ablation by paracrine Wnt activity. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 4709-4718.
28. van der Heul-Nieuwenhuijsen, L.; Hendriksen, P.J.; van der Kwast, T.H.; Jenster, G. Gene expression profiling of the human prostate zones. BJU Int. 2006, 98, 886-897.
29. Shaikhibrahim, Z.; Lindstrot, A.; Ellinger, J.; Rogenhofer, S.; Buettner, R.; Wernert, N. Genes differentially expressed in the peripheral zone compared to the transitional zone of the normal human prostate and their potential regulation by ETS factors. Mol. Med. Report 2012, 5, 32-36.
30. Timms, B.G.; Hofkamp, L.E. Prostate development and growth in benign prostatic hyperplasia. Differentiation 2011, 82, 173-183.
31. Barclay, W.W.; Woodruff, R.D.; Hall, M.C.; Cramer, S.D. A system for studying epithelial-stromal interactions reveals distinct inductive abilities of stromal cells from benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostate cancer. Endocrinology 2005, 146, 13-18.
32. Montico, F.; Hetzl, A.C.; Candido, E.M.; Favaro, W.J.; Cagnon, V.H. Hormonal therapy in the senescence: Prostatic microenvironment structure and adhesion molecules. Micron 2011, 42, 642-655.
33. Bavik, C.; Coleman, I.; Dean, J.P.; Knudsen, B.; Plymate, S.; Nelson, P.S. The gene expression program of prostate fibroblast senescence modulates neoplastic epithelial cell proliferation through paracrine mechanisms. Cancer Res. 2006, 66, 794-802.
34. Wang, Y.C.; Yu, S.Q.; Wang, X.H.; Han, B.M.; Zhao, F.J.; Zhu, G.H.; Hong, Y.; Xia, S.J. Differences in phenotype and gene expression of prostate stromal cells from patients of varying ages and their influence on tumour formation by prostate epithelial cells. Asian J. Androl. 2011, 13, 732-741.
35. Hill, R.; Song, Y.; Cardiff, R.D.; van Dyke, T. Selective evolution of stromal mesenchyme with p53 loss in response to epithelial tumorigenesis. Cell 2005, 123, 1001-1011.
36. Thompson, T.C.; Timme, T.L.; Kadmon, D.; Park, S.H.; Egawa, S.; Yoshida, K. Genetic predisposition and mesenchymal-epithelial interactions in ras+myc-induced carcinogenesis in reconstituted mouse prostate. Mol. Carcinog. 1993, 7, 165-179.
37. Camps, J.L.; Chang, S.M.; Hsu, T.C.; Freeman, M.R.; Hong, S.J.; Zhau, H.E.; von Eschenbach, A.C.; Chung, L.W. Fibroblast-mediated acceleration of human epithelial tumor growth in vivo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1990, 87, 75-79.
38. Yanagisawa, N.; Li, R.; Rowley, D.; Liu, H.; Kadmon, D.; Miles, B.J.; Wheeler, T.M.; Ayala, G.E. Stromogenic prostatic carcinoma pattern (carcinomas with reactive stromal grade 3) in needle biopsies predicts biochemical recurrence-free survival in patients after radical prostatectomy. Hum. Pathol. 2007, 38, 1611-1620.
39. Egevad, L.; Granfors, T.; Karlberg, L.; Bergh, A.; Stattin, P. Prognostic value of the Gleason score in prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2002, 89, 538-542.
40. Lissbrant, I.F.; Stattin, P.; Wikstrom, P.; Damber, J.E.; Egevad, L.; Bergh, A. Tumor associated macrophages in human prostate cancer: Relation to clinicopathological variables and survival. Int. J. Oncol. 2000, 17, 445-451.
41. Johansson, A.; Rudolfsson, S.; Hammarsten, P.; Halin, S.; Pietras, K.; Jones, J.; Stattin, P.; Egevad, L.; Granfors, T.; Wikstrom, P.; et al. Mast cells are novel independent prognostic markers in prostate cancer and represent a target for therapy. Am. J. Pathol. 2010, 177, 1031-1041.
42. Karja, V.; Aaltomaa, S.; Lipponen, P.; Isotalo, T.; Talja, M.; Mokka, R. Tumour-infiltrating lymphocytes: A prognostic factor of PSA-free survival in patients with local prostate carcinoma treated by radical prostatectomy. Anticancer Res. 2005, 25, 4435-4438.
43. Tomas, D.; Spajic, B.; Milosevic, M.; Demirovic, A.; Marusic, Z.; Kruslin, B. Intensity of stromal changes predicts biochemical recurrence-free survival in prostatic carcinoma. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 2010, 44, 284-290.
44. Mucci, L.A.; Powolny, A.; Giovannucci, E.; Liao, Z.; Kenfield, S.A.; Shen, R.; Stampfer, M.J.; Clinton, S.K. Prospective study of prostate tumor angiogenesis and cancer-specific mortality in the health professionals follow-up study. J. Clin. Oncol. 2009, 27, 5627-5633.
45. Ayala, G.; Tuxhorn, J.A.; Wheeler, T.M.; Frolov, A.; Scardino, P.T.; Ohori, M.; Wheeler, M.; Spitler, J.; Rowley, D.R. Reactive stroma as a predictor of biochemical-free recurrence in prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2003, 9, 4792-4801.
46. Josefsson, A.; Adamo, H.; Hammarsten, P.; Granfors, T.; Stattin, P.; Egevad, L.; Laurent, A.E.; Wikstrom, P.; Bergh, A. Prostate cancer increases hyaluronan in surrounding nonmalignant stroma, and this response is associated with tumor growth and an unfavorable outcome. Am. J. Pathol. 2011, 179, 1961-1968.
47. Ricciardelli, C.; Mayne, K.; Sykes, P.J.; Raymond, W.A.; McCaul, K.; Marshall, V.R.; Horsfall, D.J. Elevated levels of versican but not decorin predict disease progression in early-stage prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 1998, 4, 963-971.
48. Tischler, V.; Fritzsche, F.R.; Wild, P.J.; Stephan, C.; Seifert, H.H.; Riener, M.O.; Hermanns, T.; Mortezavi, A.; Gerhardt, J.; Schraml, P.; et al. Periostin is up-regulated in high grade and high stage prostate cancer. BMC Cancer 2010, 10, 273.
49. Escaff, S.; Fernandez, J.M.; Gonzalez, L.O.; Suarez, A.; Gonzalez-Reyes, S.; Gonzalez, J.M.; Vizoso, F.J. Collagenase-3 expression by tumor cells and gelatinase B expression by stromal fibroblast-like cells are associated with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy in patients with prostate cancer. World J. Urol. 2011, 29, 657-663.
50. Wikstrom, P.; Marusic, J.; Stattin, P.; Bergh, A. Low stroma androgen receptor level in normal and tumor prostate tissue is related to poor outcome in prostate cancer patients. Prostate 2009, 69, 799-809.
51. Hagglof, C.; Hammarsten, P.; Josefsson, A.; Stattin, P.; Paulsson, J.; Bergh, A.; Ostman, A. Stromal PDGFRβ expression in prostate tumors and non-malignant prostate tissue predicts prostate cancer survival. PloS One 2010, 5, e10747.
52. Anees, M.; Horak, P.; El-Gazzar, A.; Susani, M.; Heinze, G.; Perco, P.; Loda, M.; Lis, R.; Krainer, M.; Oh, W.K. Recurrence-free survival in prostate cancer is related to increased stromal TRAIL expression. Cancer 2011, 117, 1172-1182.
53. Black, P.C.; Mize, G.J.; Karlin, P.; Greenberg, D.L.; Hawley, S.J.; True, L.D.; Vessella, R.L.; Takayama, T.K. Overexpression of protease-activated receptors-1, -2, and -4 (PAR-1, -2, and -4) in prostate cancer. Prostate 2007, 67, 743-756.
54. di Vizio, D.; Morello, M.; Sotgia, F.; Pestell, R.G.; Freeman, M.R.; Lisanti, M.P. An absence of stromal caveolin-1 is associated with advanced prostate cancer, metastatic disease and epithelial Akt activation. Cell Cycle 2009, 8, 2420-2424.
55. Mukherjee, S.; Richardson, A.M.; Rodriguez-Canales, J.; Ylaya, K.; Erickson, H.S.; Player, A.; Kawasaki, E.S.; Pinto, P.A.; Choyke, P.L.; Merino, M.J.; et al. Identification of EpCAM as a molecular target of prostate cancer stroma. Am. J. Pathol. 2009, 175, 2277-2287.
56. Tomita, K.; van Bokhoven, A.; van Leenders, G.J.; Ruijter, E.T.; Jansen, C.F.; Bussemakers, M.J.; Schalken, J.A. Cadherin switching in human prostate cancer progression. Cancer Res. 2000, 60, 3650-3654.
57. Planche, A.; Bacac, M.; Provero, P.; Fusco, C.; Delorenzi, M.; Stehle, J.C.; Stamenkovic, I. Identification of prognostic molecular features in the reactive stroma of human breast and prostate cancer. PloS One 2011, 6, e18640.
58. Bacac, M.; Provero, P.; Mayran, N.; Stehle, J.C.; Fusco, C.; Stamenkovic, I. A mouse stromal response to tumor invasion predicts prostate and breast cancer patient survival. PloS One 2006, 1, e32.
59. Dakhova, O.; Ozen, M.; Creighton, C.J.; Li, R.; Ayala, G.; Rowley, D.; Ittmann, M. Global gene expression analysis of reactive stroma in prostate cancer. Clin. Cancer Res. 2009, 15, 3979-3989.
60. Orr, B.; Riddick, A.C.; Stewart, G.D.; Anderson, R.A.; Franco, O.E.; Hayward, S.W.; Thomson, A.A. Identification of stromally expressed molecules in the prostate by tag-profiling of cancer-associated fibroblasts, normal fibroblasts and fetal prostate. Oncogene 2011, 31, 1130-1142.
61. Ostman, A.; Augsten, M. Cancer-associated fibroblasts and tumor growth-Bystanders turning into key players. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 2009, 19, 67-73.
62. Direkze, N.C.; Hodivala-Dilke, K.; Jeffery, R.; Hunt, T.; Poulsom, R.; Oukrif, D.; Alison, M.R.; Wright, N.A. Bone marrow contribution to tumor-associated myofibroblasts and fibroblasts. Cancer Res. 2004, 64, 8492-8495.
63. Iwano, M.; Plieth, D.; Danoff, T.M.; Xue, C.; Okada, H.; Neilson, E.G. Evidence that fibroblasts derive from epithelium during tissue fibrosis. J. Clin. Invest. 2002, 110, 341-350.
64. Zeisberg, M.; Hanai, J.; Sugimoto, H.; Mammoto, T.; Charytan, D.; Strutz, F.; Kalluri, R. BMP-7 counteracts TGF-β1-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition and reverses chronic renal injury. Nat. Med. 2003, 9, 964-968.
65. Zeisberg, E.M.; Potenta, S.; Xie, L.; Zeisberg, M.; Kalluri, R. Discovery of endothelial to mesenchymal transition as a source for carcinoma-associated fibroblasts. Cancer Res. 2007, 67, 10123-10128.
66. Zhao, H.; Peehl, D.M. Tumor-promoting phenotype of CD90hi prostate cancer-associated fibroblasts. Prostate 2009, 69, 991-1000.
67. Ishii, K.; Mizokami, A.; Tsunoda, T.; Iguchi, K.; Kato, M.; Hori, Y.; Arima, K.; Namiki, M.; Sugimura, Y. Heterogenous induction of carcinoma-associated fibroblast-like differentiation in normal human prostatic fibroblasts by co-culturing with prostate cancer cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 2011, 112, 3604-3611.
68. Kiskowski, M.A.; Jackson, R.S., 2nd; Banerjee, J.; Li, X.; Kang, M.; Iturregui, J.M.; Franco, O.E.; Hayward, S.W.; Bhowmick, N.A. Role for stromal heterogeneity in prostate tumorigenesis. Cancer Res. 2011, 71, 3459-3470.
69. Franco, O.E.; Jiang, M.; Strand, D.W.; Peacock, J.; Fernandez, S.; Jackson, R.S., 2nd; Revelo, M.P.; Bhowmick, N.A.; Hayward, S.W. Altered TGF-β signaling in a subpopulation of human stromal cells promotes prostatic carcinogenesis. Cancer Res. 2011, 71, 1272-1281.
70. Cunha, G.R.; Hayward, S.W.; Wang, Y.Z.; Ricke, W.A. Role of the stromal microenvironment in carcinogenesis of the prostate. Int. J. Cancer. 2003, 107, 1-10.
71. Halin, S.; Hammarsten, P.; Adamo, H.; Wikström, P.; Bergh, A. Tumor indicating normal tissue could be a new source of diagnostic and prognostic markers for prostate cancer. Expert Opin. Med. Diagn. 2011, 5, 37-47.
72. Gueron, G.; de Siervi, A.; Vazquez, E. Advanced prostate cancer: Reinforcing the strings between inflammation and the metastatic behavior. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2011, doi:10.1038/pcan.2011.64.
73. Halin, S.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; van Rooijen, N.; Bergh, A. Extratumoral macrophages promote tumor and vascular growth in an orthotopic rat prostate tumor model. Neoplasia 2009, 11, 177-186.
74. Ammirante, M.; Luo, J.L.; Grivennikov, S.; Nedospasov, S.; Karin, M. B-cell-derived lymphotoxin promotes castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nature 2010, 464, 302-305.
75. Bhowmick, N.A.; Chytil, A.; Plieth, D.; Gorska, A.E.; Dumont, N.; Shappell, S.; Washington, M.K.; Neilson, E.G.; Moses, H.L. TGF-β signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia. Science 2004, 303, 848-851.
76. Wikstrom, P.; Stattin, P.; Franck-Lissbrant, I.; Damber, J.E.; Bergh, A. Transforming growth factor β1 is associated with angiogenesis, metastasis, and poor clinical outcome in prostate cancer. Prostate 1998, 37, 19-29.
77. Hägglöf, C.; Bergh, A. Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden. Unpublished work, 2012.
78. Micke, P.; Ostman, A. Exploring the tumour environment: Cancer-associated fibroblasts as targets in cancer therapy. Expert Opin. Ther. Targets 2005, 9, 1217-1233.
79. Hammarsten, P.; Karalija, A.; Josefsson, A.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; Wikstrom, P.; Egevad, L.; Granfors, T.; Stattin, P.; Bergh, A. Low levels of phosphorylated epidermal growth factor receptor in nonmalignant and malignant prostate tissue predict favorable outcome in prostate cancer patients. Clin. Cancer Res. 2010, 16, 1245-1255.
80. Gao, J.; Arnold, J.T.; Isaacs, J.T. Conversion from a paracrine to an autocrine mechanism of androgen-stimulated growth during malignant transformation of prostatic epithelial cells. Cancer Res. 2001, 61, 5038-5044.
81. Ohlson, N.; Wikstrom, P.; Stattin, P.; Bergh, A. Cell proliferation and apoptosis in prostate tumors and adjacent non-malignant prostate tissue in patients at different time-points after castration treatment. Prostate 2005, 62, 307-315.
82. Bergström, S.; Rudolfsson, S.; Bergh, A. Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden. Unpublished work, 2012.
83. Cano, P.; Godoy, A.; Escamilla, R.; Dhir, R.; Onate, S.A. Stromal-epithelial cell interactions and androgen receptor-coregulator recruitment is altered in the tissue microenvironment of prostate cancer. Cancer Res. 2007, 67, 511-519.
84. Crnalic, S.; Hornberg, E.; Wikstrom, P.; Lerner, U.H.; Tieva, A.; Svensson, O.; Widmark, A.; Bergh, A. Nuclear androgen receptor staining in bone metastases is related to a poor outcome in prostate cancer patients. Endocr. Relat. Cancer 2010, 17, 885-895.
85. Ohlson, N.; Bergh, A.; Stattin, P.; Wikstrom, P. Castration-induced epithelial cell death in human prostate tissue is related to locally reduced IGF-1 levels. Prostate 2007, 67, 32-40.
86. Johansson, A.; Rudolfsson, S.H.; Wikstrom, P.; Bergh, A. Altered levels of angiopoietin 1 and tie 2 are associated with androgen-regulated vascular regression and growth in the ventral prostate in adult mice and rats. Endocrinology 2005, 146, 3463-3470.
87. Ryan, C.J.; Tindall, D.J. Androgen receptor rediscovered: The new biology and targeting the androgen receptor therapeutically. J. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 29, 3651-3658.
88. Yap, T.A.; Zivi, A.; Omlin, A.; de Bono, J.S. The changing therapeutic landscape of castration-resistant prostate cancer. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 8, 597-610.
89. Patel, L.R.; Camacho, D.F.; Shiozawa, Y.; Pienta, K.J.; Taichman, R.S. Mechanisms of cancer cell metastasis to the bone: A multistep process. Future Oncol. 2011, 7, 1285-1297.
90. Dayyani, F.; Gallick, G.E.; Logothetis, C.J.; Corn, P.G. Novel therapies for metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 2011, 103, 1665-1675.
91. Josson, S.; Matsuoka, Y.; Chung, L.W.; Zhau, H.E.; Wang, R. Tumor-stroma co-evolution in prostate cancer progression and metastasis. Semin. Cell Dev. Biol. 2010, 21, 26-32.
92. Duda, D.G.; Duyverman, A.M.; Kohno, M.; Snuderl, M.; Steller, E.J.; Fukumura, D.; Jain, R.K. Malignant cells facilitate lung metastasis by bringing their own soil. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2010, 107, 21677-21682
93. Li, X.; Sterling, J.A.; Fan, K.H.; Vessella, R.L.; Shyr, Y.; Hayward, S.W.; Matrisian, L.M.; Bhowmick, N.A. Loss of TGF-β responsiveness in prostate stromal cells alters chemokine levels and facilitates the development of mixed osteoblastic/osteolytic bone lesions. Mol. Cancer Res. 2012, 10, 494-503.
94. Coulson-Thomas, V.J.; Gesteira, T.F.; Coulson-Thomas, Y.M.; Vicente, C.M.; Tersariol, I.L.; Nader, H.B.; Toma, L. Fibroblast and prostate tumor cell cross-talk: Fibroblast differentiation, TGF-β, and extracellular matrix down-regulation. Exp. Cell Res. 2010, 316, 3207-3226.
95. Wikstrom, P.; Lindahl, C.; Bergh, A. Characterization of the autochthonous transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate (TRAMP) as a model to study effects of castration therapy. Prostate 2005, 62, 148-164.
96. Zurgil, N.; Deutsch, A.; Afrimzon, E.; Shafran, Y.; Tirosh, R.; Sandbank, J.; Pappo, I.; Deutsch, M. Functional analysis of individual cells and microenvironment of breast cancer-draining lymph nodes. Cancer Sci. 2008, 99, 936-945.
97. Margolin, D.A.; Silinsky, J.; Grimes, C.; Spencer, N.; Aycock, M.; Green, H.; Cordova, J.; Davis, N.K.; Driscoll, T.; Li, L. Lymph node stromal cells enhance drug-resistant colon cancer cell tumor formation through SDF-1α/CXCR4 paracrine signaling. Neoplasia 2011, 13, 874-886.
98. Sturge, J.; Caley, M.P.; Waxman, J. Bone metastasis in prostate cancer: Emerging therapeutic strategies. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 2011, 8, 357-368.
99. Wan, X.; Li, Z.G.; Yingling, J.M.; Yang, J.; Starbuck, M.W.; Ravoori, M.K.; Kundra, V.; Vazquez, E.; Navone, N.M. Effect of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) receptor I kinase inhibitor on prostate cancer bone growth. Bone 2012, 50, 695-703.
100. Taichman, R.S.; Cooper, C.; Keller, E.T.; Pienta, K.J.; Taichman, N.S.; McCauley, L.K. Use of the stromal cell-derived factor-1/CXCR4 pathway in prostate cancer metastasis to bone. Mol. Cancer Res. 2002, 62, 1832-1837.
101. Hamada, T.; Mohle, R.; Hesselgesser, J.; Hoxie, J.; Nachman, R.L.; Moore, M.A.; Rafii, S. Transendothelial migration of megakaryocytes in response to stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1) enhances platelet formation. J. Exp. Med. 1998, 188, 539-548.
102. Peled, A.; Petit, I.; Kollet, O.; Magid, M.; Ponomaryov, T.; Byk, T.; Nagler, A.; Ben-Hur, H.; Many, A.; Shultz, L.; et al. Dependence of human stem cell engraftment and repopulation of NOD/SCID mice on CXCR4. Science 1999, 283, 845-848.
103. Wang, J.F.; Liu, Z.Y.; Groopman, J.E. The α-chemokine receptor CXCR4 is expressed on the megakaryocytic lineage from progenitor to platelets and modulates migration and adhesion. Blood 1998, 92, 756-764.
104. Sun, Y.X.; Schneider, A.; Jung, Y.; Wang, J.; Dai, J.; Wang, J.; Cook, K.; Osman, N.I.; Koh-Paige, A.J.; Shim, H.; et al. Skeletal localization and neutralization of the SDF-1(CXCL12)/CXCR4 axis blocks prostate cancer metastasis and growth in osseous sites in vivo. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2005, 20, 318-329.
105. Clarke, N.W.; Hart, C.A.; Brown, M.D. Molecular mechanisms of metastasis in prostate cancer. Asian J. Androl. 2009, 11, 57-67.
106. Tokuda, Y.; Satoh, Y.; Fujiyama, C.; Toda, S.; Sugihara, H.; Masaki, Z. Prostate cancer cell growth is modulated by adipocyte-cancer cell interaction. BJU Int. 2003, 91, 716-720
107. Brown, M.D.; Hart, C.A.; Gazi, E.; Bagley, S.; Clarke, N.W. Promotion of prostatic metastatic migration towards human bone marrow stoma by Omega 6 and its inhibition by Omega 3 PUFAs. Br. J. Cancer 2006, 94, 842-853.
108. Riethdorf, S.; Wikman, H.; Pantel, K. Review: Biological relevance of disseminated tumor cells in cancer patients. Int. J. Cancer 2008, 123, 1991-2006.
109. Economos, C.; Morrissey, C.; Vessella, R.L. Circulating tumor cells as a marker of response: Implications for determining treatment efficacy and evaluating new agents. Curr. Opin. Urol. 2012, 22, 190-196.