The cortical organization of lexical knowledge: A dual lexicon model of spoken language processing

Brain and Language

Volumn 121, Issue 3, 2012, Pages 273-288

  Gow, David W ^a,b,c  

^a MASSACHUSETTS GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

^b SALEM STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c HARVARD MIT DIVISION OF HEALTH SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aphasia; Dual stream model; Language; Lexical access; Lexicon; Localization; Neuroimaging; Speech perception; Speech production; Spoken word recognition

Indexed keywords

APHASIA; BRAIN REGION; COGNITION; DUAL LEXICON MODEL; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; GRAMMAR; HUMAN; LANGUAGE PROCESSING; LEARNING; LINGUISTICS; MATHEMATICAL MODEL; MIDDLE TEMPORAL SULCUS; NEUROANATOMY; PHONETICS; POSTERIOR SUPERIOR TEMPORAL SULCUS; REVIEW; SEMANTICS; SPEECH ANALYSIS; SPEECH ARTICULATION; SPEECH DISCRIMINATION; SPEECH PERCEPTION; SPELLING; SUPERIOR TEMPORAL GYRUS; SUPERIOR TEMPORAL SULCUS; SUPRAMARGINAL GYRUS; WORD RECOGNITION;

CEREBRAL CORTEX; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; PHONETICS; SPEECH PERCEPTION;

EID: 84860467036     PISSN: 0093934X     EISSN: 10902155     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2012.03.005     Document Type: Review

References (200)

1. Allport D.A. Speech production and comprehension: One lexicon or two?. Cognition and motor processes 1984, 209-228. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. W. Prinz, A.F. Sanders (Eds.).
2. Axer H., Keyeserlink A.G., Berks G., von Keyservink D.G. Supra- and infrasylvian conduction aphasia. Brain and Language 2001, 76(3):317-331.
3. Baese-Berk M., Goldrick M. Mechanisms of interaction in speech production. Language and Cognitive Processes 2009, 24(4):527-554.
4. Basso A., Casati G., Vignolo L.A. Phonemic identification defects in aphasia. Cortex 1977, 13(1):84-95.
5. Beddor P.S., Harnsberger J.D., Lindemann S. Language-specific patterns of vowel-to-vowel coarticulation: Acoustic structures and their perceptual correlates. Journal of Phonetics 2002, 20(4):591-627.
6. Bell A., Jurafsky D., Fosler-Lussier E., Girand C., Gregory M., Gildea D. Effects of disfluencies, predictability, and utterance position on word form variation in English conversational speech. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2003, 113(2):1001-1024.
7. Bellgowan P.S.F., Saad Z.S., Bandettini P.A. Understanding neural system dynamics through task modulation and measurement of functional MRI amplitude, latency, and width. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2003, 100(3):1415-1419.
8. Berreta A., Campbell C., Carr T.H., Huang J., Schmitt L.M., Christianson K., et al. An ER-fMRI investigation of morphological inflection in German reveals that the brain makes a distinction between regular and irregular forms. Brain and Language 2003, 85(1):67-92.
9. Binder J., Frost J., Hammeke T., Bellgowan P., Springer J., Kaufman J., et al. Human temporal lobe activation by speech and nonspeech sounds. Cerebral Cortex 2000, 10(5):512-528.
10. Blumstein S.E., Baker S.E., Goodglass H. Phonological factors in auditory comprehension in aphasia. Neuropsychologia 1977, 15(1):371-383.
11. Blumstein S.E., Cooper W.E., Zurif E.B. The perception and production of voice onset time in aphasia. Neuropsychologia 1977, 15(3):371-383.
12. Blumstein S.E., Myers E.B., Rissman J. The perception of voice onset time: An fMRI investigation of phonetic category structure. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2005, 17(9):1353-1366.
13. Boatman D., Gordon B., Hart J., Selnes O., Miglioretti D., Lenz F. Transcortical sensory aphasia: Revisited and revised. Brain 2000, 123(pt. 8):1634-1642.
14. Bresnan J. Lexical-functional syntax 2001, Blackwell, Cambridge.
15. Bright P., Moss H., Tyler L.K. Unitary versus multiple semantics: PET studies of word and picture meaning. Brain and Language 2004, 89(3):417-432.
16. Browman C.P., Goldstein L. Articulatory phonology: An overview. Phonetica 1992, 49(3-4):155-180.
17. Buchsbaum B., Hickok G., Humphries C. Role of left posterior superior temporal cortex in auditory sentence comprehension: An fMRI study. NeuroReport 2001, 12(8):1749-1752.
18. Burton M.W., Small S.L., Blumstein S.E. The role of segmentation in phonological processing: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2000, 12(4):679-690.
19. Buschbaum, B. R., Baldo, J., Okada, K., Berman, K. F., Dronkers, N., D'Esposito, M., & Hickok, G. (in press). Conduction aphasia, sensory motor integration, and phonological short-term memory - An aggregate analysis of lesion and fMRI data. Brain and Language. PMCID: PMC3090694.
20. Caplan D. Functional neuroimaging studies of syntactic processing in sentence comprehension: A selective critical review. Language and Linguistics Compass 2007, 1(1-2):32-47.
21. Caplan D., Gow D., Makris N. Analysis of lesions by MRI in stroke patients with acoustic-phonetic processing deficits. Neurology 1995, 45(2):293-298.
22. Caplan D., Utman J.A. Selective acoustic phonetic impairment and lexical access in an aphasic patient. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 1994, 95(1):512-517.
23. Caplan D., Vanier M., Baker C. A case study of reproduction conduction aphasia. I. Word production. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1986, 3(1):99-128.
24. Caramazza A., Miceli G., Villa G. The role of the (output) phonological buffer in reading, writing and repetition. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1986, 3(6):37-76.
25. Catani M., Jones D.K., Ffytche D.H. Perisylvian language networks of the human brain. Annals of Neurology 2005, 57(1):8-16.
26. Chang E.F., Rieger J.W., Johnson K., Berger M.S., Barbaro N.M., Knight R.T. Categorical speech representation in human superior temporal gyrus. Nature Neuroscience 2010, 13(11):1428-1432.
27. Chen C.-C., Kisseberth C. Ikorovere Makua tonology (part 1). Studies in Linguistic Sciences 1979, 9(1):3-63.
28. Chomsky N., Halle M. The sound pattern of English 1968, MIT Press, Cambridge.
29. Clements G.N. Vowel harmony in nonlinear generative phonology 1980, Indiana University Linguistics Club, Bloomington.
30. Clements, G.N., & Keyser, S.J. (1981). A three-tiered theory of the syllable. Occasional paper no. 19. The Center for Cognitive Science, MIT.
31. Cohen L., Jobert A., Le Bihan D., Dehaene S. Unimodal and multimodal regions for word processing in the left temporal cortex. NeuroImage 2004, 23(4):1256-1270.
32. Coleman J. Cognitive reality and the phonological lexicon: A review. Journal of Neurolinguistics 1998, 11(3):295-320.
33. Coltheart M. Are there lexicons?. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 2004, 57(7):1153-1171.
34. Connine C., Blasko D.G., Titone D. Do the beginnings of words have special status in auditory word recognition?. Journal of Memory and Language 1993, 32(2):193-210.
35. Cornelissen K., Laine M., Renvall K., Saarinen T., Martin N., Salmelin R. Learning new names for new objects: Cortical effects as measured by magnetoencephalography. Brain and Language 2004, 89(3):617-622.
36. Coslett H.B., Roeltgen D.P., Gonzalez Rothl L., Heilman K.M. Transcortical sensory aphasia: Evidence for subtypes. Brain and Language 1987, 32(2):362-378.
37. Crinion J.T., Lambon-Ralph M.A., Warburton E.A., Howard D., Wise R.J.S. Temporal lobe regions engaged during normal speech comprehension. Brain 2003, 126(5):1193-1201.
38. Cullinan W.L., Erdos E., Schaefer R., Tekieli M.E. Perception of temporal order of vowels and consonant-vowel syllables. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research 1977, 20:742-751.
39. Damasio H., Damasio A.R. The anatomical basis of conduction aphasia. Brain 1980, 103(2):337-350.
40. Damasio A.R., Damasio H. Cortical systems for retrieval of concrete knowledge: The convergence zone framework. Large-scale neuronal theories of the brain 1994, 61-74. MIT Press, Cambridge. C. Koch, J.L. Davis (Eds.).
41. Damasio A.R., McKee J., Damasio H. Determinants of performance in color anomia. Brain and Language 1979, 7(10):74-85.
42. Davis M.H., Coleman M.R., Absalom A.R., Rodd J.M., Johnsrude I.S., Matta B.F., et al. Dissociating speech perception and comprehension at reduced levels of awareness. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2007, 104(41):16032-16037.
43. Davis M.H., DiBetta A.M., MacDonald M.J., Gaskell M.G. Learning and consolidation of novel spoken words. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2009, 21(4):803-820.
44. Davis M.H., Gaskell M.G. A complementary systems account of word learning: Neural and behavioral evidence. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 2009, 364(1536):3773-3800.
45. Davis M.H., Johnsrude I. Hierarchical processing in spoken language comprehension. Journal of Neuroscience 2003, 23(8):3423-3431.
46. de Zubicaray G.I., Wilson S.J., McMahon K.L., Muthiah S. The semantic interference effect in the picture-word paradigm: An event-related fMRI study employing overt responses. Human Brain Mapping 2001, 14(4):218-227.
47. Dehaene-Lambertz G., Dehaene S., Anton J.L., Campagne A., Ciuciu P., Dehaene G.P., et al. Functional segregation of cortical language areas by sentence repetition. Human Brain Mapping 2006, 27(5):360-371.
48. Dehaene-Lambertz G., Pallier C., Serniclaes W., Sprenger-Charolles L., Jobert A., Dehaene S. Neural correlates of switching from auditory to speech perception. NeuroImage 2005, 24(1):21-33.
49. Dell G.S., Schwartz M.F., Martin N., Saffran E.M., Gagnon D.A. Lexical access in aphasic and nonaphasic speakers. Psychological Review 1997, 104(4):801-838.
50. Dennis M. Dissociated naming and locating of body parts after left anterior temporal lobe resection: An experimental case study. Brain and Language 1976, 3(2):147-163.
51. Desai R., Liebenthal E., Waldron E., Binder J.R. Left posterior temporal regions are sensitive to auditory categorization. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2008, 20(7):1174-1188.
52. Dubois, J., Hecaen, H., Anelergues, R. (1964/1973). Maufras de chatelier. A., Marcie, P. Etude neurolinguistique de l'aphasie de conduction. Neuropsychologia, 2, 9-44. Translated in H. Goodglass and S. E. Blumstein (Eds.), Psycholinguistics and aphasia (pp. 284-300). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
53. Elman J.L., McClelland J.L. Cognitive penetration of the mechanisms of perception: Compensation for coarticulation of lexically restored phonemes. Journal of Memory and Language 1988, 27(2):143-165.
54. Foss D.J., Swinney D.A. On the psychological reality of the phoneme: Perception, identification, and consciousness. Journal of Verbal Memory and Verbal Behavior 1973, 12(2):246-257.
55. Foulk å., Sticht T.G. Review of the research on the intelligibility and comprehension of accelerated speech. Psychological Bulletin 1969, 72:50-62.
56. Franklin S., Howard D., Patterson K. Abstract word meaning deafness. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1994, 11(1):1-34.
57. Franklin S., Turner J., Lambon Ralph M.A., Morris J., Bailey P. A distinctive case of word meaning deafness?. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1996, 13(8):1139-1162.
58. Frisch S.A., Large N., Pisoni D. Wordlikeness: Effects of segmental probability and length on the processing of nonwords. Journal of Memory and Language 2000, 42(4):481-496.
59. Fromkin V.A. Speech errors as linguistic evidence 1973, Mouton, The Hague.
60. Gainotti G., Silveri M.C., Villa G., Micelli G. Anomia with and without lexical comprehension disorders. Brain and Language 1986, 29(1):18-33.
61. Ganong W.F. Phonetic categorization in auditory word recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology 1980, 6(1):110-125.
62. Gaskell M.G., Dumay N. Lexical competition and the acquisition of novel words. Cognition 2003, 89(2):105-132.
63. Gaskell M.G., Marslen-Wilson W.D. Representation and competition in the perception of spoken words. Cognitive Psychology 2002, 45(2):220-266.
64. Gathercole S.E., Martin A.J. Interactive processes in phonological memory. Models of short-term memory 1996, 73-100. Psychology Press, Hove. S.E. Gathercole (Ed.).
65. Gathercole S., Willis C., Emisle H., Baddeley A.D. The influences of number of syllables and wordlikeness on children's repetition of nonwords. Applied Psycholinguistics 1991, 12(3):349-367.
66. Gennari S.P., MacDonald M.C., Postle B.R., Seidenberg M.S. Context-dependent interpretation of words: Evidence for interactive neural processes. NeuroImage 2007, 35(3):1278-1286.
67. Giraud A.-L., Kleinschmidt A., Poeppel D., Lund T.E., Frackowiak R.S.J., Laufs H. Endogenonous cortical rhythms determine cerebral specialization for speech perception and production. Neuron 2007, 56(6):1127-11134.
68. Goldinger S.D., Azuma T. Puzzle-solving science. The quixotic quest for units in speech perception. Journal of Phonetics 2003, 31(3-4):305-320.
69. Goldrick M., Rapp B. Lexical and post-lexical phonological representations in spoken production. Cognition 2007, 102(2):219-260.
70. Goldsmith J. Autosegmental and metrical phonology 1990, Blackwell, Basil.
71. Goldstein K. Language and language disturbances 1948, Grune & Stratton, New York.
72. Gow D.W., Caplan D.C. An examination of impaired acoustic-phonetic processing in aphasia. Brain and Language 1996, 52(2):386-407.
73. Gow D.W., Gordon P.C. Lexical and prelexical influences on word segmentation: Evidence from priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1995, 21(2):344-359.
74. Gow D.W., Segawa J.A. Articulatory mediation of speech perception: A causal analysis of multi-modal imaging data. Cognition 2009, 110(2):222-236.
75. Gow D.W., Segawa J.A., Alfhors S., Lin F.-H. Lexical influences on speech perception: A Granger causality analysis of MEG and EEG source estimates. NeuroImage 2008, 43(3):614-623.
76. Graham K., Patterson K., Hodges J.R. Progressive pure anomia: Insufficient activation of phonology by meaning. Neurocase 1995, 1(1):25-38.
77. Graves W.W., Grabowski T.J., Mehta S., Gordon J.K. A neural signature of phonological access: Distinguishing the effects of word frequency from familiarity and length in overt picture naming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2007, 19(4):617-631.
78. Green D.W., Crinion J., Price C.J. Exploring cross-linguistic vocabulary effects on brain structure using voxel-based morphometry. Bilingualism 2007, 10(2):189-199.
79. Griffiths T.D., Buchel C., Frackowiak R.S., Patterson R.D. Analysis of temporal structure in sound by the human brain. Nature Neuroscience 1998, 1(5):422-427.
80. Grodzinsky Y., Friederici A.D. Neuroimaging of syntax and syntactic processing. Current Opinion ion Neurobiology 2006, 16(2):240-246.
81. Grosvald M. Long-distance coarticulation in spoken and signed language: An overview. Language and Linguistics Compass 2010, 4(6):348-362.
82. Hale M., Ross C. The phonological enterprise 2008, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
83. Hall D.A., Riddoch M.J. Word meaning deafness: Spelling words that are not understood. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1997, 14(8):1131-1164.
84. Henson R.N. Neuroimaging studies of priming. Progress in Neurobiology 2003, 70(1):53-81.
85. Hickok, G. (2010). No mirror neurons: Who's stuff do I have to read this week. Accessed 11.03.10. http://www.talkingbrains.org.
86. Hickok, G., & Rogalsky, C. (2011). What does Broca's area activation to sentences reflect?, 2629-2631.
87. Hickok G., Buchsbaum B., Humphries C., Muftuler T. Auditory-motor interaction revealed by fMRI: Speech, music, and working memory in area Spt. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2003, 15(5):673-682.
88. Hickok G., Poeppel D. Towards a functional neuroanatomy of speech perception. Trends in Cognitive Science 2000, 4(1):131-138.
89. Hickok G., Poeppel D. Dorsal and ventral streams: A framework for understanding aspects of the functional anatomy of language. Cognition 2004, 92(1-2):67-99.
90. Hickok G., Poeppel D. The cortical organization of speech processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2007, 8(5):393-402.
91. Hinton G.E., McClelland J.L., Rumelhart D.E. Distributed representations. Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition 1986, 77-109. MIT Press, Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA. J.L. McClelland, D.E. Rumelhart (Eds.).
92. Howard M.A., Volkov I.O., Mirsky R., Garell P.C., Noh M.D., Granner M., et al. Auditory cortex on the human posterior superior temporal gyrus. Journal of Comparative Neurology 2000, 416(1):79-92.
93. Humphries C., Love T., Swinney D., Hickok G. Response of anterior temporal cortex to syntactic and prosodic manipulations during sentence processing. Human Brain Mapping 2005, 26(2):128-138.
94. Jackendoff R.S. Foundations of language: Brain, meaning grammar, and evolution 2002, Oxford University Press.
95. Joanisse M.F., Seidenberg M.A. Imaging the past: Neural activation in frontal and temporal regions during regular and irregular past tense processing. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neurology 2005, 5(3):282-296.
96. Knobel M., Finkbeiner M., Caramazza A. The many places of frequency: Evidence for a novel locus of the frequency effect in word production. Cognitive Neuropsychology 2008, 25(2):256-286.
97. Kohn S.E., Smith K.L. Distinctions between two phonological output deficits. Applied Psycholinguistics 1994, 15(1):75-95.
98. Kotz S.A., Cappa C.F., von Cramon D.Y., Friederici A.D. Modulation of the lexical semantic network by auditory semantic-priming: An event-related functional MRI study. NeuroImage 2002, 17(4):1761-1772.
99. Lee H.L., Devlin J.T., Shakeshaft C., Stewart L.H., Brennan A., Glensman J., et al. Anatomical traces of vocabulary acquisition in the adolescent brain. Journal of Neuroscience 2007, 27(5):1184-1189.
100. Levelt W.J.M., Roelofs A., Meyer A.S. A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 1999, 22(1):1-75.
101. Lewis R.L., Vasishth S., van Dyke J.A. Computational principles of working memory in sentence comprehension. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2006, 10(10):447-454.
102. Luce P.A., Large N.R. Phonotactics, density, and entropy in spoken word recognition. Language and Cognitive Processes 2001, 16(5/6):565-581.
103. Luce P.A., Pisoni D.B. Recognizing spoken words: The neighborhood activation model. Ear and Hearing 1998, 19(1):1-36.
104. Majerus S., Can der Linden M., Collette F., Laureys S., Poncelet M., Degueldre C., et al. Modulation of brain activity during phonological familiarization. Brain and Language 2005, 92(3):320-331.
105. Makris N., Meyer J.W., Bates J.F., Yeterian E.H., Kennedy D.N., Caviness V.S. MRI-based topographic parcellation of human cerebral white matter and nuclei II. Rationale and applications with systematics of cerebral connectivity. NeuroImage 1999, 9(1):18-45.
106. Makris N., Pandya D.N. The extreme capsule in humans and rethinking of the language circuitry. Brain Structure and Function 2008, 213(3):343-358.
107. Makris N., Papadimitriou G.M., Kaiser J.R., Sorg S., Kennedy D.N., Pandya D.N. Delineation of the middle longitudinal fascicle in humans: a quantitative, in vivo. DT-MRI study. Cerebral Cortex 2009, 19(4):777-785.
108. Mandonnet E., Nouet A., Gatignol P., Capelle L., Duffau H. Does the left inferior longitudinal fasciculus play a role in language? A brain stimulation study. Brain 2007, 13(3):623-629.
109. Marslen-Wilson W.D. Functional parallelism in spoken word-recognition. Cognition 1987, 25(1-2):71-102.
110. Marslen-Wilson W.D., Tyler L.K. Dissociating types of mental computation. Nature 1997, 387(6633):592-594.
111. Martin A. The representation of object concepts in the brain. Annual Review of Psychology 2007, 58(1):25-45.
112. Martin J.G., Bunnell H.T. Perception of anticipatory coarticulation effects in vowel-stop consonant-stop sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1982, 8(3):473-488.
113. McClelland J.L., Elman J.L. Interactive processes in speech recognition: The TRACE model. Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition 1986, 58-121. MIT Press, Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA. J.L. McClelland, D.E. Rumelhart (Eds.).
114. McClelland J.L., Patterson K. Rules or connections in past-tense inflections: What does the evidence rule out?. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2002, 6(11):465-472.
115. McClelland J.L., Rumelhart D.E. On learning the past tenses of English verbs. Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition 1986, 216-271. MIT Press, Bradford Books, Cambridge, MA. J.L. McClelland, D.E. Rumelhart (Eds.).
116. Mechelli A., Crinion J.T., Noppeney U., O'Doherty J., Ashburner J., Frackowiak R.S.J., et al. Neurolinguistics: Structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature 2004, 431(7010):757.
117. Merriman W.E., Bowman L.L. The mutual exclusivity bias in children's word learning. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 1989, 54(3-4):1-132.
118. Miceli G., Gainotti G., Caltagirone C., Masullo C. Some aspects of phonological impairment in aphasia. Brain and Language 1980, 11(1):159-169.
119. Miceli G., Turriziani P., Caltagirone C., Capasso R., Tomaiuolo F., Caramazza A. The neural correlates of grammatical gender: An fMRI investigation. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2002, 14(4):618-628.
120. Miller G.A. The science of words 1991, Scientific American Library, New York.
121. Misiursky C., Blumstein S.E., Rissman J., Berman D. The role of lexical competition and acoustic-phonetic structure in lexical processing: Evidence from normal subjects and aphasic patients. Brain and Language 2005, 93(1):64-787.
122. Morais J., Cary L., Alegria J., Bertelson P. Does awareness of speech as a sequence of phones arise spontaneously?. Cognition 1979, 7(4):323-331.
123. Morton J. Interaction of information in word recognition. Psychological Review 1969, 76(1):165-178.
124. Mummery M.R.C.P., Patterson K., Price C.J., Ashburner J., Frackowiak R.S.J., Hodges J.R. A voxel-based morphometry study of semantic dementia: Relationship between temporal lobe atrophy and semantic memory. Annals of Neurology 2000, 476(1):36-45.
125. Munson B. Lexical access, representation, and vowel production. Laboratory phonology 2007, Vol. 9:201-227. Mouter de Gruyter, Berlin.
126. Munson B., Solomon N.P. The influence of phonological neighborhood density on vowel articulation. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 2004, 48(5):108-124.
127. Newman S.D., Twieg D. Differences in auditory processing of words and pseudowords: An fMRI study. Human Brain Mapping 2001, 14(1):39-47.
128. Norris D. Shortlist: A connectionist model of continuous speech recognition. Cognition 1994, 52(3):189-234.
129. Norris D., Cutler A., McQueen J.M., Butterfield S. Phonological and conceptual activation in speech comprehension. Cognitive Psychology 2006, 53(1):146-193.
130. Norris D., McQueen J.M., Cutler A. Merging information in speech recognition: Feedback is never necessary. Brain and Behavioral Sciences 2000, 23(3):299-370.
131. Norris D., McQueen J.M., Cutler A. Perceptual learning in speech. Cognitive Psychology 2003, 47(2):204-238.
132. Notoya M., Suzuki S., Kurachi M. Repetition performance in conduction aphasia. Brain and Nerve 1982, 34(5):499-508.
133. Orfanidou E., Marslen-Wilson W.D., Davis M.H. Neural response suppression predicts repetition priming of spoken words and pseudowords. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2006, 18(8):1237-1252.
134. Parks, R., Ray, J., Bland, S. (1998). Wordsmyth English dictionary-Thesaurus. University of Chicago. http://www.wordsmyth.net/.
135. Patterson K., Nestor P.J., Rogers T.T. Where do you know what you know? The representation of semantic knowledge in the human brain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2007, 8(12):976-987.
136. Paulesu E., Frith C.D., Frackowiak R.S.J. The neural correlates of the verbal component of working memory. Nature 1993, 362(6418):342-345.
137. Peramunage D., Blumstein S.E., Myers E.B., Goldrik M., Baese-Berk M. Phonological neighborhood effects in spoken word production: An fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2011, 23(3):593-603.
138. Petrides M., Pandya D.N. Association fiber pathways to the frontal cortex from the superior temporal region in the rhesus monkey. Journal of Comparative Neurology 1988, 273(1):52-66.
139. Pinker S. Words and rules: The ingredients of language 1999, Basic Books, New York.
140. Pisoni D.B. Word identification in noise. Language and Cognitive Processes 1996, 11(6):681-687.
141. Pitt M.A., Samuel A.G. An empirical and meta-analytic evaluation of the phoneme identification task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 1993, 19(4):699-725.
142. Plaut D., McClelland J.L. Locating object knowledge in the brain: Comment on Bower's (2009) attempt to review the grandmother cell hypothesis. Psychological Review 2010, 117(1):284-288.
143. Plaut D.C., McClelland J.L., Seidenberg M.S., Patterson K. Understanding normal and impaired word reading: Computational principles in quasi-regular domains. Psychological Review 1996, 103(1):56-115.
144. Pluymaekers M., Ernestus M., Baayen R. Lexical frequency and acoustic reduction in spoken Dutch. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 2005, 118(4):2561-2569.
145. Poeppel D. The analysis of speech in different temporal integration windows: Cerebral lateralization as 'asymmetric sampling in time'. Speech Communication 2003, 41(1):245-255.
146. Prabhakaran R., Blumstein S.W., Myers E.B., Hutchinson E., Britton B. An event-related fMRI investigation of phonological-lexical competition. Neuropsychologia 2006, 44(12):2209-2221.
147. Pustejovsky J. The generative lexicon 1996, MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
148. Raettig T., Kotz S.A. Auditory processing of different types of pseudowords: An event-related fMRI study. NeuroImage 2008, 39(3):1420-1428.
149. Raizada R.D., Poldrack R.A. Selective amplification of stimulus differences during categorical perception of speech. Neuron 2007, 56(4):726-740.
150. Rauschecker J.P., Scott S.K. Maps and streams in the auditory cortex: Nonhuman primates illuminate human speech processing. Nature Neuroscience 2009, 12(6):718-724.
151. Read C.A., Zhang Y., Nie H., Ding B. The ability to manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic writing. Cognition 1986, 24(1):31-44.
152. Richardson F.M., Thomas M.S.C., Filippi R., Harth H., Price C.J. Contrasting effects of vocabulary knowledge on temporal and parietal brain structure across lifespan. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2010, 22(5):943-954.
153. Righi G., Blumstein S.E., Mertus J., Worden M.S. Neural systems underlying lexical competition: An eyetracking and fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2010, 22(2):213-224.
154. Rissman J., Eliassen J.C., Blumstein S.E. An event-related fMRI investigation of implicit semantic priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2003, 15(8):1160-1175.
155. Rodd J.M., Davis M.H., Johnsrude I.S. The neural mechanisms of speech comprehension: fMRI studies of semantic ambiguity. Cerebral Cortex 2005, 15(8):1261-1269.
156. Rogers T.T., Hocking J., Noppeney U., Mechelli A., Gorno-Tempini M.L., Patterson K., et al. Anterior temporal cortex and semantic memory: Reconciling findings from neuropsychology and functional imaging. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience 2006, 6(3):201-213.
157. Romani C., Galluzzi C., Olsen A. Phonological-lexical activation: A lexical component or an output buffer? Evidence from aphasia errors. Cortex 2011, 47(2):217-235.
158. Rugg M.D. Event-related brain potentials dissociate repetition effects of high- and low-frequency words. Memory and Cognition 1990, 18(4):367-379.
159. Sabri M., Binder J.R., Desai R., Medlar D.A., Leitl M.D., Liebenthal E. Attentional and linguistic interactions in speech production. NeuroImage 2008, 39(3):1444-1456.
160. Saito A., Yoshimura T., Itakra T., Ralph M.A.L. Demonstrating a wordlikeness effect on nonword repetition performance in a conduction aphasia patient. Brain and Language 2003, 85(2):222-230.
161. Sass K., Krach S., Sachs O., Kircher T. Lion-tiger-stripes: Neural correlates of indirect semantic priming across processing modalities. NeuroImage 2009, 45(1):224-236.
162. Schilling H.E.H., Rayner K., Chumbley J.I. Comparing naming, lexical decision, and eye fixation times: Word frequency effects and individual differences. Memory & Cognition 1998, 26:1270-1281.
163. Scott S.K. Auditory processing - speech, space and auditory objects. Current Opinion in Neurobiology 2005, 15(2):197-201.
164. Scott S.K., Blank C.C., Rosen S., Wise R.J. Identification of a pathway for intelligible speech in the left temporal lobe. Brain 2000, 123(12):2400-2406.
165. Scott S.K., Wise R.J.S. The functional neuroanatomy of prelexical processing n speech perception. Cognition 2004, 92(1-2):13-45.
166. Seidenberg M.S., McClelland J.L. A distributed, developmental model of word recognition and naming. Psychological Review 1989, 96(4):523-568.
167. Shallice T., Rumiati R.I., Zadini A. The selective impairment of the phonological output buffer. Cognitive Neuropsychology 2000, 17(6):517-546.
168. Shallice T., Warrington E.K. Independent functioning of verbal memory stores: A neuropsychological study. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 1970, 22(2):261-273.
169. Shallice T., Warrington E.K. Auditory-verbal short-term memory impairment and conduction aphasia. Brain and Language 1977, 4(4):479-491.
170. Shattuck-Hufnagel S. Speech errors as evidence for a serial-order mechanism in sentence production. Sentence processing: Psycholinguistic studies presented to Merrill Garrett 1979, 295-342. Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. W.E. Cooper, E.C.T. Walker (Eds.).
171. Snijders T.M., Petersson K.M., Hagoort P. Effective connectivity of cortical and subcortical regions during unification of sentence structure. NeuroImage 2010, 52(4):1633-1644.
172. Snijders T.M., Vosse T., Kempen G., van Berkum J.A., Petersson K.M., Hagoport P. Retrieval and unification of syntactic structure in sentence comprehension: An fMRI study using word-category ambiguity. Cerebral Cortex 2009, 19(7):1493-1503.
173. Stamatakis E.A., Marslen-Wilson W.D., Tyler L.K., Fletcher P.C. Cingulate control of fronto-temporal integration reflects linguistic demands: A three way interaction in functional connectivity. NeuroImage 2005, 15(1):115-121.
174. Strub R.L., Gardner H. The repetition deficit in conduction aphasia: Mnestic or linguistic?. Brain and Language 1974, 1(3):241-255.
175. Swinney D.A. Lexical access during sentence comprehension (re)consideration of context effects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 1979, 18(6):645-659.
176. Thierry G., Giraud A.L., Price C. Hemispheric dissociation in access to the human semantic system. Neuron 2003, 38(3):499-506.
177. Thompson-Schill S.I., D'Esposito M., Aguirre G.K., Farah M. Role of left inferior prefrontal cortex in retrieval of semantic knowledge: A reevaluation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1997, 94(26):14792-14797.
178. Turkletaub P.E., Coslett H.B. Localization of sublexical speech components. Brain and Language 2010, 114(1):1-15.
179. Tyler L.K., Randall B., Marslen-Wilson W.D. Phonology and neuropsychology of the English past tense. Neuropsychologia 2002, 40(8):1154-1166.
180. Tyler L.K., Stamatakis E.A., Bright P., Acres K., Abdallah S., Rodd S.M., et al. Processing objects at different levels of specificity. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2004, 16(3):351-362.
181. Tyler L.K., Stamatakis E.A., Post B., Randall B., Marslen-Wilson W. Temporal and frontal systems in speech comprehension: An fMRI study of past tense processing. Neuropsychologia 2005, 43(13):1963-1974.
182. Ullman M.T., Pancheva R., Love T., Yee E., Swinney D., Hickok G. Neural correlates of lexicon and grammar: Evidence from the production, reading and judgment of inflection in aphasia. Brain and Language 2005, 93(2):185-238.
183. Valler G., Baddeley A. Phonological short-term store, phonological processing, and sentence comprehension: An neuropsychological case study. Cognitive Neuropsychology 1984, 1(1):121-141.
184. Vigneau M., Jobard G., Mazoyer B., Tzourio-Mazoyer N. Word and non-word reading: What role for the visual word form area?. NeuroImage 2005, 27(3):694-705.
185. Visser M., Jefferies E., Lambon Ralph M.A. Semantic processing in the anterior temporal lobes: A meta-analysis of the functional neuroimaging literature. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2009, 22(6):1083-1094.
186. Vitevitch M.S., Luce P.A. When words compete: Levels of processing in spoken word recognition. Psychological Science 1998, 9(4):325-329.
187. Vitevitch M.S., Luce P.A. Probabilistic phonotactics and neighborhood activation in spoken word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language 1999, 40(3):374-408.
188. Vitevitch M.S., Luce P.A. Increases in phonotactic probability facilitate spoken nonword repetition. Journal of Memory and Language 2005, 52(2):193-204.
189. Wagner A., Paré-Blagoev E.J., Clark J., Plodrak R.A. Recovering meaning: Left prefrontal cortex guides controlled semantic retrieval. Neuron 2001, 31(2):329-338.
190. Warren R.M. Auditory perception: A new analysis and synthesis 1992, University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge. 2nd ed.
191. Warren R.M., Bashford J.A., Gardner D.A. Tweaking the lexicon: Organization of vowel sequences into words. Perception and Psychophysics 1990, 47(5):423-432.
192. Warren J.E., Wise R.J., Warren J.D. Sounds do-able: Auditory-motor transformations and the posterior temporal plane. Trends in Neuroscience 2005, 28(12):636-643.
193. Wernicke, C. (1874/1969). The symptom complex of aphasia: A psychological study on an anatomical basis. In R. S. Cohen, & M. W. Wartofsky (Eds.), Studies in the philosophy of science (pp. 34-97). Dordrecht: D. Reidel.
194. Wise R.J.S. Language systems in normal and aphasic human subjects: Functional imaging studies and inferences from animal studies. British Medical Bulletin 2003, 65(1):95-119.
195. Wright R.A. Factors of lexical competition in vowel articulation. Papers in laboratory phonology VI 2004, 75-87. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. J.J. Local, R. Ogden, R. Temple (Eds.).
196. Xiao Z., Zhang J.X., Wang X., Wu R., Hu X., Weng X., et al. Differential activity in left inferior frontal gyrus for pseudowords and real words: An event-related fMRI study on auditory lexical decision. Human Brain Mapping 2005, 25(2):212-221. (New York, NY).
197. Yamadori A., Ikamura G. Central or conduction aphasia in a Japanese patient. Cortex 1975, 11(1):73-82.
198. Yokoyama S., Miyamoto T., Riera J., Kim J., Akitsuki Y., Iwata K., et al. Cortical mechanisms involved in the processing of verbs: An fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience 2006, 18(8):1304-1313.
199. Zempleni M.Z., Renken R., Hoeks J.C.J., Hoogduin J.M., Stowe L.A. Semantic ambiguity processing in sentence comprehension: Evidence from event-related fMRI. NeuroImage 2007, 34(3):1270-1279.
200. Zevin J.D., McCandliss B.D. Dishabituation of the BOLD response to speech sounds. Behavioral and Brain Functions 2005, 1(1):4.