Pain Assessment in the Patient Unable to Self-Report: Position Statement with Clinical Practice Recommendations

Pain Management Nursing

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 230-250

  Herr, Keela ^a   Coyne, Patrick J ^b   McCaffery, Margo ^c   Manworren, Renee ^d   Merkel, Sandra ^e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA COLLEGE OF NURSING   (United States)

^b VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c Nursing Care of Patients with Pain   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGED; ANALGESIA; ARTICLE; COMMUNICATION DISORDER; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DEMENTIA; ETHICS; HUMAN; INFANT; NURSING; NURSING DISCIPLINE; NURSING ORGANIZATION; PAIN; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRESCHOOL CHILD; SELF REPORT; STANDARD;

AGED; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; COMMUNICATION BARRIERS; DEMENTIA; HUMANS; INFANT; PAIN; PAIN MANAGEMENT; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; SELF REPORT; SOCIETIES, NURSING; SPECIALTIES, NURSING;

EID: 82455203888     PISSN: 15249042     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pmn.2011.10.002     Document Type: Article

References (160)

1. Agar M., Lawlor P. Delirium in cancer patients: A focus on treatment-induced psychopathology. Current Opinion in Oncology 2008, 20(4):360-366.
2. The management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2002, 50(6 Suppl):S205-S224. American Geriatric Society Panel on Persistent Pain in Older Persons.
3. Ahlers S.J., van der Veen A.M., van Dijk M., Tibboel D., Knibbe C.A. The use of the behavioral pain scale to assess pain in conscious sedated patients. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2010, 110(1):127-133.
4. Ahlers S.J., van Gulik L., van der Veen A.M., van Dongen H.P., Bruins P., Belitser S.V., de Boer A., Tibboel D., Knibbe C.A. Comparison of different pain scoring systems in critically ill patients in a general ICU. Critical Care (London, England) 2008, 12(1):R15.
5. Ahn Y., Jun Y. Measurement of pain-like response to various NICU stimulants for high-risk infants. Early Human Development 2007, 83(4):255-262.
6. Aissaoui Y., Zeggwagh A.A., Zekraoui A., Abidi K., Abouqal R. Validation of a behavioral pain scale in critically ill, sedated, and mechanically ventilated patients. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2005, 101(5):1470-1476.
7. Ambuel B., Hamlett K.W., Marx C.M., Blumer J.L. Assessing distress in pediatric intensive care environments: The COMFORT scale. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 1992, 17(1):95-109.
8. Prevention and management of pain in the neonate: An update. Pediatrics 2006, 118(5):2231-2241. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Fetus and Newborn, American Academy of Pediatrics Section on Surgery, & Canadian Paediatric Society Fetus and Newborn Committee.
9. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2009, 57(8):1331-1346. American Geriatrics Society Panel on Pharmacological Management of Persistent Pain in Older Persons.
10. Code of ethics for nurses with interpretive statements 2001, American Nurses Association, American Nurses Publishing, Silver Springs, MD.
11. Guideline for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain 2008, American Pain Society, American Pain Society, Glenview, IL. 1st ed.
12. Principles of analgesic use in the treatment of acute pain and cancer pain 2009, American Pain Society, American Pain Society, Glenview, IL. 6th ed.
13. Diagnostic & statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV 1994, American Psychiatric Association, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC.
14. Anand K.J. Pain assessment in preterm neonates. Pediatrics 2007, 119(3):605-607.
15. Arbour C., Gelinas C. Are vital signs valid indicators for the assessment of pain in postoperative cardiac surgery ICU adults?. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing 2010, 26(2):83-90.
16. Bosch J.J. Use of directed history and behavioral indicators in the assessment of the child with a developmental disability. Journal of Pediatric Health Care 2002, 16(4):170-179.
17. Bottos S., Chambers C.T. The epidemiology of pain in developmental disabilities. Pain in children and adults with developmental disabilities 2006, Brookes, Baltimore, MD. T.F. Oberlander, F.J. Symons (Eds.).
18. Breau L.M. Non-communicating children's pain checklist: Better pain assessment for severely disabled children. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research 2003, 3(3):327-339.
19. Breau L.M., Camfield C.S. The relation between children's pain behaviour and developmental characteristics: A cross-sectional study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2011, 53(2):e1-e7.
20. Breau L.M., Camfield C., McGrath P.J., Rosmus C., Finley G.A. Measuring pain accurately in children with cognitive impairments: Refinement of a caregiver scale. The Journal of Pediatrics 2001, 138(5):721-727.
21. Breau L.M., Camfield C.S., McGrath P.J., Finley G.A. Risk factors for pain in children with severe cognitive impairments. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2004, 46(6):364-371.
22. Breau L.M., McGrath P.J., Camfield C.S., Finley G.A. Psychometric properties of the noncommunicating children's pain checklist-revised. Pain 2002, 99(1-2):349-357.
23. Breau L.M., McGrath P.J., Camfield C., Rosmus C., Finley G.A. Preliminary validation of an observational pain checklist for persons with cognitive impairments and inability to communicate verbally. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2000, 42(9):609-616.
24. Bringuier S., Picot M.C., Dadure C., Rochette A., Raux O., Boulhais M., Capdevila X. A prospective comparison of post-surgical behavioral pain scales in preschoolers highlighting the risk of false evaluations. Pain 2009, 145(1-2):60-68.
25. Brown K.A., Laferriere A., Moss I.R. Recurrent hypoxemia in young children with obstructive sleep apnea is associated with reduced opioid requirement for analgesia. Anesthesiology 2004, 100(4):806-810.
26. Burkitt C.C., Breau L.M., Zabalia M. Parental assessment of pain coping in individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Research in Developmental Disabilities 2011.
27. Burns J.W., Hodsman N.B., McLintock T.T., Gillies G.W., Kenny G.N., McArdle C.S. The influence of patient characteristics on the requirements for postoperative analgesia. A reassessment using patient-controlled analgesia. Anaesthesia 1989, 44(1):2-6.
28. Busoni P. Difficulties in controlling pain in children. Regional Anesthesia and Pain Medicine 2007, 32(6). 505-506-509.
29. Buttner W., Finke W. Analysis of behavioural and physiological parameters for the assessment of postoperative analgesic demand in newborns, infants and young children: A comprehensive report on seven consecutive studies. Paediatric Anaesthesia 2000, 10(3):303-318.
30. Carlino E., Benedetti F., Rainero I., Asteggiano G., Cappa G., Tarenzi L., Vighetti S., Pollo A. Pain perception and tolerance in patients with frontotemporal dementia. Pain 2010, 151(3):783-789.
31. Carnevale F.A., Razack S. An item analysis of the COMFORT scale in a pediatric intensive care unit. Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 2002, 3(2):177-180.
32. Carr E.G., Owen-Deschryver J.S. Physical illness, pain, and problem behavior in minimally verbal people with developmental disabilities. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2007, 37(3):413-424.
33. Cervo F.A., Bruckenthal P., Chen J.J., Bright-Long L.E., Fields S., Zhang G., Strongwater I. Pain assessment in nursing home residents with dementia: Psychometric properties and clinical utility of the CNA pain assessment tool (CPAT). Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 2009, 10(7):505-510.
34. Cervo F.A., Raggi R.P., Bright-Long L.E., Wright W.K., Rows G., Torres A.E., Levy R.B., Komaroff E. Use of the certified nursing assistant pain assessment tool (CPAT) in nursing home residents with dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias 2007, 22(2):112-119.
35. Chanques G., Payen J.F., Mercier G., de Lattre S., Viel E., Jung B., Cisse M., Lefrant J.Y., Jaber S. Assessing pain in nonintubated critically ill patients unable to self report: An adaptation of the behavioral pain scale. Intensive Care Medicine 2009, 35(12):2060-2067.
36. Chapman C.R. Progress in pain assessment: The cognitively compromised patient. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology 2008, 21(5):610-615.
37. Cohen-Mansfield J. Pain Assessment in Noncommunicative Elderly Persons-PAINE. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2006, 22(6):569-575.
38. Cohen-Mansfield J., Lipson S. The utility of pain assessment for analgesic use in persons with dementia. Pain 2008, 134(1-2):16-23.
39. Costardi D., Rozzini L., Costanzi C., Ghianda D., Franzoni S., Padovani A., Trabucchi M. The Italian version of the Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia (PAINAD) scale. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics 2007, 44(2):175-180.
40. Crellin D., Sullivan T.P., Babl F.E., O'Sullivan R., Hutchinson A. Analysis of the validation of existing behavioral pain and distress scales for use in the procedural setting. Paediatric Anaesthesia 2007, 17(8):720-733.
41. Davies R.B. Pain in children with Down syndrome: Assessment and intervention by parents. Pain Management Nursing 2010, 11(4):259-267.
42. de Jong A., Baartmans M., Bremer M., van Komen R., Middelkoop E., Tuinebreijervan W., von Loey N. Reliability, validity and clinical utility of three types of pain behavioural observation scales for young children with burns aged 0-5 years. Pain 2010, 150(3):561-567.
43. del Fabbro E., Dalal S., Bruera E. Symptom control in palliative care-part III: Dyspnea and delirium. Journal of Palliative Medicine 2006, 9(2):422-436.
44. DeWaters T., Faut-Callahan M., McCann J.J., Paice J.A., Fogg L., Hollinger-Smith L., Sikorski K., Stanaitis H. Comparison of self-reported pain and the PAINAD scale in hospitalized cognitively impaired and intact older adults after hip fracture surgery. Orthopaedic Nursing/National Association of Orthopaedic Nurses 2008, 27(1):21-28.
45. Dubois A., Capdevila X., Bringuier S., Pry R. Pain expression in children with an intellectual disability. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 2010, 14(6):654-660.
46. Eccleston C., Bruce E., Carter B. Chronic pain in children and adolescents. Paediatric Nursing 2006, 18(10):30-33.
47. Eritz H., Hadjistavropoulos T. Do informal caregivers consider nonverbal behavior when they assess pain in people with severe dementia?. The Journal of Pain 2011, 12(3):331-339.
48. Fanurik D., Koh J.L., Harrison R.D., Conrad T.M., Tomerlin C. Pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment an exploration of self-report skills. Clinical Nursing Research 1998, 7(2):103-119. discussion 120-4.
49. Feldt K.S. The checklist of nonverbal pain indicators (CNPI). Pain Management Nursing 2000, 1(1):13-21.
50. Feldt K.S., Ryden M.B., Miles S. Treatment of pain in cognitively impaired compared with cognitively intact older patients with hip-fracture. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 1998, 46(9):1079-1085.
51. Fink R.M., Gates R.A. Pain assessment. Oxford textbook of palliative care 2010, 137-160. Oxford University Press, New York. 3rd ed. B.R. Ferrell, N. Coyle (Eds.).
52. Foster R.L., Yucha C.B., Zuk J., Vojir C.P. Physiologic correlates of comfort in healthy children. Pain Management Nursing 2003, 4(1):23-30.
53. Fuchs-Lacelle S., Hadjistavropoulos T. Development and preliminary validation of the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate (PACSLAC). Pain Management Nursing 2004, 5(1):37-49.
54. Fuchs-Lacelle S., Hadjistavropoulos T., Lix L. Pain assessment as intervention: A study of older adults with severe dementia. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2008, 24(8):697-707.
55. Fuller B.F. Infant behaviors as indicators of established acute pain. Journal of the Society of Pediatric Nurses 2001, 6(3):109-115.
56. Fuller B.F., Conner D.A. The effect of pain on infant behaviors. Clinical Nursing Research 1995, 4(3):253-273.
57. Gauvain-Piquard A., Rodary C., Rezvani A., Serbouti S. The development of the DEGR(R): A scale to assess pain in young children with cancer. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 1999, 3(2):165-176.
58. Gelinas C. Nurses' evaluations of the feasibility and the clinical utility of the critical-care pain observation tool. Pain Management Nursing 2010, 11(2):115-125.
59. Gelinas C., Arbour C. Behavioral and physiologic indicators during a nociceptive procedure in conscious and unconscious mechanically ventilated adults: Similar or different?. Journal of Critical Care 2009, 24(4):628.e7-628.e17.
60. Gelinas C., Fillion L., Puntillo K.A. Item selection and content validity of the critical-care pain observation tool for nonverbal adults. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2009, 65(1):203-216.
61. Gelinas C., Fillion L., Puntillo K.A., Viens C., Fortier M. Validation of the critical-care pain observation tool in adult patients. American Journal of Critical Care 2006, 15(4):420-427.
62. Gelinas C., Johnston C. Pain assessment in the critically ill ventilated adult: Validation of the critical-care pain observation tool and physiologic indicators. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2007, 23(6):497-505.
63. Goodenough B., Thomas W., Champion G.D., Perrott D., Taplin J.E., von Baeyer C.L., Ziegler J.B. Unravelling age effects and sex differences in needle pain: Ratings of sensory intensity and unpleasantness of venipuncture pain by children and their parents. Pain 1999, 80(1-2):179-190.
64. Gordon D.B., Dahl J.L., Miaskowski C., McCarberg B., Todd K.H., Paice J.A., Lipman A.G., Bookbinder M., Sanders S.H., Turk D.C., Carr D.B. American Pain Society Recommendations for Improving the Quality of Acute and Cancer Pain Management: American Pain Society Quality of Care Task Force. Archives of Internal Medicine 2005, 165(14):1574-1580.
65. Gordon D.B., Dahl J., Phillips P., Frandsen J., Cowley C., Foster R.L., Fine P.G., Miaskowski C., Fishman S., Finley R.S. The use of "as-needed" range orders for opioid analgesics in the management of acute pain: A consensus statement of the american society for pain management nursing and the american pain society. Pain Management Nursing 2004, 5(2):53-58. American Society for Pain Management Nursing, & American Pain Society.
66. Grunau R.V.E., Craig K.D. Facial activity as a measure of neonatal pain expression. Advances in pain research and therapy: Pediatric pain 1990, 147-156. Raven, New York. D.C. Tyler, E.J. Krane (Eds.).
67. Hadjistavropoulos T., Herr K., Turk D.C., Fine P.G., Dworkin R.H., Helme R., Jackson K., Parmelee P.A., Rudy T.E., Lynn Beattie B., Chibnall J.T., Craig K.D., Ferrell B., Ferrell B., Fillingim R.B., Gagliese L., Gallagher R., Gibson S.J., Harrison E.L., Katz B., Keefe F.J., Lieber S.J., Lussier D., Schmader K.E., Tait R.C., Weiner D.K., Williams J. An interdisciplinary expert consensus statement on assessment of pain in older persons. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2007, 23(1 Suppl):S1-S43.
68. Hamill-Ruth R.J., Marohn M.L. Evaluation of pain in the critically ill patient. Critical Care Clinics 1999, 15(1):35-54. v-vi.
69. Hatfield L.A., Gusic M.E., Dyer A.M., Polomano R.C. Analgesic properties of oral sucrose during routine immunizations at 2 and 4 months of age. Pediatrics 2008, 121(2):e327-e334.
70. Herr K., Bursch H., Ersek M., Miller L.L., Swafford K. Use of pain-behavioral assessment tools in the nursing home: Expert consensus recommendations for practice. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 2010, 36(3):18-29.
71. Horgas A.L., Nichols A.L., Schapson C.A., Vietes K. Assessing pain in persons with dementia: Relationships among the noncommunicative patient's pain assessment instrument, self-report, and behavioral observations. Pain Management Nursing 2007, 8(2):77-85.
72. HPNA position statement: Pain management 2008, Hospice and Palliative Nurses Association, Retrieved March 4, 2011, from. http://www.hpna.org/DisplayPage.aspx?Title1=PositionStatements.
73. Hummel P., Lawlor-Klean P., Weiss M.G. Validity and reliability of the N-PASS assessment tool with acute pain. Journal of Perinatolog 2010, 30(7):474-478.
74. Hummel P., Puchalski M., Creech S.D., Weiss M.G. Clinical reliability and validity of the N-PASS: Neonatal pain, agitation and sedation scale with prolonged pain. Journal of Perinatology 2008, 28(1):55-60.
75. Hunt A., Goldman A., Seers K., Crichton N., Mastroyannopoulou K., Moffat V., Oulton K., Brady M. Clinical validation of the paediatric pain profile. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2004, 46(1):9-18.
76. Husebo B.S., Strand L.I., Moe-Nilssen R., Borgehusebo S., Aarsland D., Ljunggren A.E. Who suffers most? Dementia and pain in nursing home patients: A cross-sectional study. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 2008, 9(6):427-433.
77. IASP Declaration of Montreal. Statement of access to pain management as a fundamental human right International Association for the Study of Pain, Retrieved February 6, 2011, from. http://www.iasp-pain.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Declaration_of_MontrandNum233_al.
78. Johansson M., Kokinsky E. The COMFORT behavioural scale and the modified FLACC scale in paediatric intensive care. Nursing in Critical Care 2009, 14(3):122-130.
79. Johnston C.C., Fernandes A.M., Campbell-Yeo M. Pain in neonates is different. Pain 2011, 152(3 Suppl):S65-S73.
80. Jones K.R., Fink R., Hutt E., Vojir C., Pepper G.A., Scott-Cawiezell J., Mellis B.K. Measuring pain intensity in nursing home residents. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2005, 30(6):519-527.
81. Kabes A.M., Graves J.K., Norris J. Further validation of the nonverbal pain scale in intensive care patients. Critical Care Nurse 2009, 29(1):59-66.
82. Kappesser J., Williams A.C., Prkachin K.M. Testing two accounts of pain underestimation. Pain 2006, 124(1-2):109-116.
83. Karp J.F., Shega J.W., Morone N.E., Weiner D.K. Advances in understanding the mechanisms and management of persistent pain in older adults. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2008, 101(1):111-120.
84. Kelley A.S., Siegler E.L., Reid M.C. Pitfalls and recommendations regarding the management of acute pain among hospitalized patients with dementia. Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass.) 2008, 9(5):581-586.
85. Klein D.G., Dumpe M., Katz E., Bena J. Pain assessment in the intensive care unit: Development and psychometric testing of the nonverbal pain assessment tool. Heart & Lung: The Journal of Critical Care 2010, 39(6):521-528.
86. Kovach C.R., Noonan P.E., Schlidt A.M., Reynolds S., Wells T. The Serial Trial Intervention: An innovative approach to meeting needs of individuals with dementia. Journal of Gerontological Nursing 2006, 32(4):18-25.
87. Krechel S.W., Bildner J. CRIES: A new neonatal postoperative pain measurement score. initial testing of validity and reliability. Paediatric Anaesthesia 1995, 5(1):53-61.
88. Kunz M., Mylius V., Scharmann S., Schepelman K., Lautenbacher S. Influence of dementia on multiple components of pain. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 2009, 13(3):317-325.
89. Kunz M., Scharmann S., Hemmeter U., Schepelmann K., Lautenbacher S. The facial expression of pain in patients with dementia. Pain 2007, 133(1-3):221-228.
90. Lane P., Kuntupis M., MacDonald S., McCarthy P., Panke J.A., Warden V., Volicer L. A pain assessment tool for people with advanced Alzheimer's and other progressive dementias. Home Healthcare Nurse 2003, 21(1):32-37.
91. Leong I.Y., Chong M.S., Gibson S.J. The use of a self-reported pain measure, a nurse-reported pain measure and the PAINAD in nursing home residents with moderate and severe dementia: A validation study. Age and Ageing 2006, 35(3):252-256.
92. Lester P.E., Daroowalla F., Harisingani R., Sykora A., Lolis J., Patrick P.A., Feuerman M., Berger J.T. Evaluation of housestaff knowledge and perception of competence in palliative symptom management. Journal of Palliative Medicine 2011, 14(2):139-145.
93. Li D., Miaskowski C., Burkhardt D., Puntillo K. Evaluations of physiologic reactivity and reflexive behaviors during noxious procedures in sedated critically ill patients. Journal of Critical Care 2009, 24(3):472.e9-472.e13.
94. Liu J.Y., Briggs M., Closs S.J. The psychometric qualities of four observational pain tools (OPTs) for the assessment of pain in elderly people with osteoarthritic pain. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2010, 40(4):582-598.
95. Lotan M., Ljunggren E.A., Johnsen T.B., Defrin R., Pick C.G., Strand L.I. A modified version of the noncommunicating children pain checklist-revised, adapted to adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Sensitivity to pain and internal consistency. The Journal of Pain 2009, 10(4):398-407.
96. Macintyre P.E., Jarvis D.A. Age is the best predictor of postoperative morphine requirements. Pain 1996, 64(2):357-364.
97. Mahoney A.E., Peters L. The Mahoney pain scale: Examining pain and agitation in advanced dementia. American Journal of Alzheimer's Disease and Other Dementias 2008, 23(3):250-261.
98. Malviya S., Voepel-Lewis T., Burke C., Merkel S., Tait A.R. The revised FLACC observational pain tool: Improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment. Paediatric Anaesthesia 2006, 16(3):258-265.
99. Manfredi P.L., Breuer B., Wallenstein S., Stegmann M., Bottomley G., Libow L. Opioid treatment for agitation in patients with advanced dementia. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry 2003, 18(8):700-705.
100. Manworren R.C., Hynan L.S. Clinical validation of FLACC: Preverbal patient pain scale. Pediatric Nursing 2003, 29(2):140-146.
101. Marmo L., Fowler S. Pain assessment tool in the critically ill post-open heart surgery patient population. Pain Management Nursing 2010, 11(3):134-140.
102. McCaffery M. Nursing practice theories related to cognition, bodily pain, and man-environment interactions 1968, University of California at Los Angeles Students' Store, Los Angeles, CA.
103. McGrath P.J., Johnson G.I., Goodman J.T., Schillinger J., Dunn J., Chapman J. CHEOPS: A behavioral scale for rating postoperative pain in children. Advances in pain research 1985, 395-402. Raven, New York. H.L. Fields (Ed.).
104. McGrath P.J., Walco G.A., Turk D.C., Dworkin R.H., Brown M.T., Davidson K., Eccleston C., Finley G.A., Goldschneider K., Haverkos L., Hertz S.H., Ljungman G., Palermo T., Rappaport B.A., Rhodes T., Schechter N., Scott J., Sethna N., Svensson O.K., Stinson J., von Baeyer C.L., Walker L., Weisman S., White R.E., Zajicek A., Zeltzer L. Core outcome domains and measures for pediatric acute and chronic/recurrent pain clinical trials: PedIMMPACT recommendations. The Journal of Pain 2008, 9(9):771-783. PedIMMPACT.
105. McGuire D.B., Reifsnyder J., Soeken K., Kaiser K.S., Yeager K.A. Assessing pain in nonresponsive hospice patients: Development and preliminary testing of the Multidimensional Objective Pain Assessment Tool (MOPAT). Journal of Palliative Medicine 2011, 14(3):287-292.
106. Merkel S. Pain assessment in infants and young children: The finger span scale. The American Journal of Nursing 2002, 102(11):55-56.
107. Merkel S.I., Voepel-Lewis T., Shayevitz J.R., Malviya S. The FLACC: A behavioral scale for scoring postoperative pain in young children. Pediatric Nursing 1997, 23(3):293-297.
108. Miaskowski C., Cleary J., Burney R., Coyne P., Finley R., Foster R., Grossman S., Janjan N., Ray J., Syrjala K., Weisman S., Zahrbock C. Guideline for the management of cancer pain in adults and children (Clinical practice guidelines series, no. 3) 2005, American Pain Society, Glenville, IL.
109. Nygaard H.A., Jarland M. The Checklist of Nonverbal Pain Indicators (CNPI): Testing of reliability and validity in Norwegian nursing homes. Age and Ageing 2006, 35(1):79-81.
110. Odhner M., Wegman D., Freeland N., Steinmetz A., Ingersoll G.L. Assessing pain control in nonverbal critically ill adults. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing: DCCN 2003, 22(6):260-267.
111. Overdyk F.J., Carter R., Maddox R.R., Callura J., Herrin A.E., Henriquez C. Continuous oximetry/capnometry monitoring reveals frequent desaturation and bradypnea during patient-controlled analgesia. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2007, 105(2):412-418.
112. Paice J.A. Pain at the end of life. Oxford textbook of palliative care 2010, 161-185. Oxford University Press, New York. 3rd ed. B.R. Ferrell, N. Coyle (Eds.).
113. Pasero C., McCaffery M. No self-report means no pain-intensity rating. The American Journal of Nursing 2005, 105(10):50-53.
114. Pasero C., McCaffery M. Pain assessment and pharmacologic management 2011, Mosby, St. Louis.
115. Pautex S., Herrmann F.R., Michon A., Giannakopoulos P., Gold G. Psychometric properties of the doloplus-2 observational pain assessment scale and comparison to self-assessment in hospitalized elderly. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2007, 23(9):774-779.
116. Payen J.F., Bru O., Bosson J.L., Lagrasta A., Novel E., Deschaux I., Lavagne P., Jacquot C. Assessing pain in critically ill sedated patients by using a behavioral pain scale. Critical Care Medicine 2001, 29(12):2258-2263.
117. Pesonen A., Kauppila T., Tarkkila P., Sutela A., Niinisto L., Rosenberg P.H. Evaluation of easily applicable pain measurement tools for the assessment of pain in demented patients. Acta Anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2009, 53(5):657-664.
118. Puntillo K.A., Morris A.B., Thompson C.L., Stanik-Hutt J., White C.A., Wild L.R. Pain behaviors observed during six common procedures: Results from Thunder Project II. Critical Care Medicine 2004, 32(2):421-427.
119. Puntillo K.A., White C., Morris A.B., Perdue S.T., Stanik-Hutt J., Thompson C.L., Wild L.R. Patients' perceptions and responses to procedural pain: Results from Thunder Project II. American Journal of Critical Care 2001, 10(4):238-251.
120. Reuben D., Herr K., Pacala J., Pollack B., Potter J., Semla T. Geriatrics at your fingertips 2010, American Geriatrics Society, New York. 12th ed.
121. Reynolds K.S., Hanson L.C., DeVellis R.F., Henderson M., Steinhauser K.E. Disparities in pain management between cognitively intact and cognitively impaired nursing home residents. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2008, 35(4):388-396.
122. Saliba, D., & Buchanan, J. (2008). Rand Corporation Health: Development & validation of a revised nursing home assessment tool: MDS 3.0. Retrieved April 4, 2011, from http://www.cms.gov/NursingHomeQualityInits/25_NHQIMDS30.asp.
123. Scherder E., Herr K., Pickering G., Gibson S., Benedetti F., Lautenbacher S. Pain in dementia. Pain 2009, 145(3):276-278.
124. Schuler M.S., Becker S., Kaspar R., Nikolaus T., Kruse A., Basler H.D. Psychometric properties of the German "Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia Scale" (PAINAD-G) in nursing home residents. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 2007, 8(6):388-395.
125. Shega J.W., Hougham G.W., Stocking C.B., Cox-Hayley D., Sachs G.A. Pain in community-dwelling persons with dementia: Frequency, intensity, and congruence between patient and caregiver report. Journal of Pain and Symptom Management 2004, 28(6):585-592.
126. Shega J.W., Rudy T., Keefe F.J., Perri L.C., Mengin O.T., Weiner D.K. Validity of pain behaviors in persons with mild to moderate cognitive impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society 2008, 56(9):1631-1637.
127. Simons S.H., van Dijk M., Anand K.S., Roofthooft D., van Lingen R.A., Tibboel D. Do we still hurt newborn babies? A prospective study of procedural pain and analgesia in neonates. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 2003, 157(11):1058-1064.
128. Snow A.L., Weber J.B., O'Malley K.J., Cody M., Beck C., Bruera E., Ashton C., Kunik M.E. NOPPAIN: A nursing assistant-administered pain assessment instrument for use in dementia. Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders 2004, 17(3):240-246.
129. Solodiuk J., Curley M.A. Pain assessment in nonverbal children with severe cognitive impairments: The Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS). Journal of Pediatric Nursing 2003, 18(4):295-299.
130. Solodiuk J.C., Scott-Sutherland J., Meyers M., Myette B., Shusterman C., Karian V.E., Harris S.K., Curley M.A. Validation of the Individualized Numeric Rating Scale (INRS): A pain assessment tool for nonverbal children with intellectual disability. Pain 2010, 150(2):231-236.
131. Spagrud L.J., Piira T., Von Baeyer C.L. Children's self-report of pain intensity. The American Journal of Nursing 2003, 103(12):62-64.
132. Sparshott M. The development of a clinical distress scale for ventilated newborn infants: Identification of pain and distress based on validated scores. Journal of Neonatal Nursing 1996, 2(2):5-11.
133. Stanford E.A., Chambers C.T., Craig K.D. The role of developmental factors in predicting young children's use of a self-report scale for pain. Pain 2006, 120(1-2):16-23.
134. Stanik-Hutt J.A., Soeken K.L., Belcher A.E., Fontaine D.K., Gift A.G. Pain experiences of traumatically injured patients in a critical care setting. American Journal of Critical Care 2001, 10(4):252-259.
135. Stevens B., Johnston C., Petryshen P., Taddio A. Premature infant pain profile: Development and initial validation. The Clinical Journal of Pain 1996, 12(1):13-22.
136. Stevens B., Johnston C., Taddio A., Gibbins S., Yamada J. The premature infant pain profile: Evaluation 13 years after development. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2010, 26(9):813-830.
137. Stevens B., McGrath P., Gibbins S., Beyene J., Breau L., Camfield C., Finley A., Franck L., Howlett A., McKeever P., O'Brien K., Ohlsson A., Yamada J. Procedural pain in newborns at risk for neurologic impairment. Pain 2003, 105(1-2):27-35.
138. Suraseranivongse S., Santawat U., Kraiprasit K., Petcharatana S., Prakkamodom S., Muntraporn N. Cross-validation of a composite pain scale for preschool children within 24 hours of surgery. British Journal of Anaesthesia 2001, 87(3):400-405.
139. Symons F.J., Shinde S.K., Gilles E. Perspectives on pain and intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research: JIDR 2008, 52(Pt 4):275-286.
140. Tarbell S.E., Cohen I.T., Marsh J.L. The Toddler-Preschooler Postoperative Pain Scale: An observational scale for measuring postoperative pain in children aged 1-5. Preliminary report. Pain 1992, 50(3):273-280.
141. Topolovec-Vranic J., Canzian S., Innis J., Pollmann-Mudryj M.A., McFarlan A.W., Baker A.J. Patient satisfaction and documentation of pain assessments and management after implementing the adult nonverbal pain scale. American Journal of Critical Care 2010, 19(4):345-354.
142. van Dijk M., de Boer J.B., Koot H.M., Tibboel D., Passchier J., Duivenvoorden H.J. The reliability and validity of the COMFORT scale as a postoperative pain instrument in 0 to 3-year-old infants. Pain 2000, 84(2-3):367-377.
143. van Dijk M., Peters J.W., van Deventer P., Tibboel D. The COMFORT behavior scale: A tool for assessing pain and sedation in infants. The American Journal of Nursing 2005, 105(1):33-36.
144. van Iersel T., Timmerman D., Mullie A. Introduction of a pain scale for palliative care patients with cognitive impairment. International Journal of Palliative Nursing 2006, 12(2):54-59.
145. van Nispen tot Pannerden S.C., Candel M.J., Zwakhalen S.M., Hamers J.P., Curfs L.M., Berger M.P. An item response theory-based assessment of the pain assessment checklist for seniors with limited ability to communicate (PACSLAC). The Journal of Pain 2009, 10(8):844-853.
146. Voepel-Lewis T., Malviya S., Merkel S., Tait A.R. Behavioral pain assessment and the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry and Consolability instrument. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics & Outcomes Research 2003, 3(3):317-325.
147. Voepel-Lewis T., Malviya S., Tait A.R. Validity of parent ratings as proxy measures of pain in children with cognitive impairment. Pain Management Nursing 2005, 6(4):168-174.
148. Voepel-Lewis T., Marinkovic A., Kostrzewa A., Tait A.R., Malviya S. The prevalence of and risk factors for adverse events in children receiving patient-controlled analgesia by proxy or patient-controlled analgesia after surgery. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2008, 107(1):70-75.
149. Voepel-Lewis T., Merkel S., Tait A.R., Trzcinka A., Malviya S. The reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability observational tool as a measure of pain in children with cognitive impairment. Anesthesia and Analgesia 2002, 95(5):1224-1229.
150. Voepel-Lewis T., Zanotti J., Dammeyer J.A., Merkel S. Reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability behavioral tool in assessing acute pain in critically ill patients. American Journal of Critical Care 2010, 19(1):55-61.
151. von Baeyer C.L., Forsyth S.J., Stanford E.A., Watson M., Chambers C.T. Response biases in preschool children's ratings of pain in hypothetical situations. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 2009, 13(2):209-213.
152. von Baeyer C.L., Spagrud L.J. Systematic review of observational (behavioral) measures of pain for children and adolescents aged 3 to 18 years. Pain 2007, 127(1-2):140-150.
153. Walco G.A., Conte P.M., Labay L.E., Engel R., Zeltzer L.K. Procedural distress in children with cancer: Self-report, behavioral observations, and physiological parameters. The Clinical Journal of Pain 2005, 21(6):484-490.
154. Warden V., Hurley A.C., Volicer L. Development and psychometric evaluation of the Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia (PAINAD) scale. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association 2003, 4(1):9-15.
155. Wennstrom B., Bergh I. Bodily and verbal expressions of postoperative symptoms in 3- to 6-year-old boys. Journal of Pediatric Nursing 2008, 23(1):65-76.
156. Willis M.H., Merkel S.I., Voepel-Lewis T., Malviya S. FLACC behavioral pain assessment scale: A comparison with the child's self-report. Pediatric Nursing 2003, 29(3):195-198.
157. Young J., Siffleet J., Nikoletti S., Shaw T. Use of a behavioural pain scale to assess pain in ventilated, unconscious and/or sedated patients. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing 2006, 22(1):32-39.
158. Zwakhalen S.M., Hamers J.P., Abu-Saad H.H., Berger M.P. Pain in elderly people with severe dementia: A systematic review of behavioural pain assessment tools. BMC Geriatrics 2006, 6:3.
159. Zwakhalen S.M., Hamers J.P., Berger M.P. Improving the clinical usefulness of a behavioural pain scale for older people with dementia. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2007, 58(5):493-502.
160. Zwakhalen S.M., Koopmans R.T., Geels P.J., Berger M.P., Hamers J.P. The prevalence of pain in nursing home residents with dementia measured using an observational pain scale. European Journal of Pain (London, England) 2009, 13(1):89-93.