Kindergarten stressors and cumulative adrenocortical activation: The 'first straws' of allostatic load?

Development and Psychopathology

Volumn 23, Issue 4, 2011, Pages 1089-1106

  Bush, Nicole R ^a   Obradović, Jelena ^b   Adler, Nancy ^a   Boyce, W Thomas ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HYDROCORTISONE;

ALLOSTASIS; ARTICLE; CHEMISTRY; CHILD; FAMILY; FEMALE; HUMAN; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MALE; MENTAL STRESS; MINORITY GROUP; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RACE; SALIVA; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICAL MODEL; STATISTICS;

ALLOSTASIS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; FAMILY; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; LINEAR MODELS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; MINORITY GROUPS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; SALIVA; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; STRESS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 80054955005     PISSN: 09545794     EISSN: 14692198     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954579411000514     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. Adam, E. K., & Kumari, M. (2009). Assessing salivary Cortisol in large- scale, epidemiological research. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 14231436.
2. Adler, N. E., Boyce, W. T., Chesney, M. A., Cohen, S., Folkman, S., Kahn, R. L., et al. (1994). Socioeconomic status and health: The challenge of the gradient. American Psycholgist, 49, 15-24. (Pubitemid 24976661)
3. Adler, N. E., & Stewart, J. (2010). Health disparities across the lifespan: Meaning, methods, and mechanisms. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 1186, 5-23.
4. American Psychological Association, Task Force of the Socioeconomic Status Office. (2007). Report of the APA Task Force on Socioeconomic Status. Washington, DC: Author.
5. Belsky, J. (1997). Variation in susceptibility to environmental influence: An evolutionary argument. Psychological Inquiry, 8, 182-186.
6. Belsky, J., & Pluess, M. (2009). Beyond diathesis stress: Differential susceptibility to environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 885908.
7. Bird, C. E., Seeman, T. E., Escarce, J. J., Basurto-Davila, R., Finch, B. K., Dubowitz, T., et al. (2010). Neighborhood socioeconomic status and biological "wear & tear" in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 64, 860865.
8. Blair, C., Granger, D., & Razza, R. P. (2005). Cortisol reactivity is positively related to executive function in preschool children attending Head Start. Child Development, 76, 554-567. (Pubitemid 40747166)
9. Block, J. H. (1965). The child-rearing practices report. Unpublished manuscript, University of California, Berkeley.
10. Boyce, W. T. (1996). Biobehavioral reactivity and injuries in children and adolescents. In M. H. Bornstein & J. Genevro (Eds.), Child development and behavioral pediatrics: Toward understanding children and health. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
11. Boyce, W. T. (2007). A biology of misfortune: Stress reactivity, social context, and the ontogeny of psychopathology in early life. In A. Masten (Ed.), Multilevel dynamics in developmental psychopathology: Pathways to the future (34th ed., pp. 45-82). Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota.
12. Boyce, W. T., Chesney, M., Alkon, A., Tschann, J. M., Adams, S., Chester- man, B., et al. (1995). Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratory illnesses: Results of two prospective studies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 411-422.
13. Boyce, W. T., Chesney, M., Alkon-Leonard, A., Tschann, J., Adams, S., Chesterman, B. et al. (1995). Psychobiologic reactivity to stress and childhood respiratory illnesses: Results of two prospective studies. Psychosomatic Medicine, 57, 411-422.
14. Boyce, W. T., & Ellis, B. J. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: I. An evolutionary-developmental theory of the origins and functions of stress reactivity. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 271-301. (Pubitemid 41388314)
15. Boyce, W. T., Quas, J., Alkon, A., Smider, N., Essex, M., & Kupfer, D. J. (2001). Autonomic reactivity and psychopathology in middle childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 144-150. (Pubitemid 32756496)
16. Brooks-Gunn, J., Duncan, G. J. & Britto, P. R. (1999). Are socioeconomic gradients for children similar to those for adults? Achievement and health of children in the United States. In D. P. Keating & C. Hertzman (Eds.), Developmental health and the wealth of nations: Social, biological, and educational dynamics (pp. 94-124). New York: Guilford Press.
17. Burchinal, M., Roberts, J. E., Hooper, S., & Zeisel, S. A. (2000). Cumulative risk and early cognitive development: A comparison of statistical risk models. Developmental Psychology, 36, 793-807.
18. Bush, N., Adler, N., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Mechanisms for socioeconomic health disparities: SESpredicts longitudinal change in children's ANS reactivity. Unpublished manuscript.
19. Bush, N. R., Alkon, A., Stamperdahl, J., Obradovic, J., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Differentiating challenge reactivity from psychomotor activity in studies of children's psychophysiology: Considerations for theory and measurement. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 110, 62-79.
20. Carlson, M., & Earls, F. (1997). Psychological and neuroendocrinological sequelae of early social deprivation in institutionalized children in Romania. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 807, 419-428. (Pubitemid 27135509)
21. Caspi, A., Harrington, H., Moffitt, T. E., Milne, B. J., & Poulton, R. (2006). Socially isolated children 20 years later: Risk of cardiovascular disease. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 160, 805-811. (Pubitemid 44199239)
22. Chen, E., Cohen, S., & Miller, G. E. (2010). How low socioeconomic status affects 2-year hormonal trajectories in children. Psychological Science, 21, 31-37.
23. Chen, E., Martin, A. D., & Matthews, K. A. (2006). Socioeconomic status and health: Do gradients differ within childhood and adolescence? Social Science & Medicine, 62, 2161-2170.
24. Cicchetti, D., & Dawson, G. (2002). Multiple levels of analysis [Editorial]. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 417-420.
25. Cicchetti, D., & Gunnar, M. (2008). Integrating biological measures into the design and evaluation of preventative interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 737-743. (Pubitemid 352003596)
26. Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783-804. (Pubitemid 33580419)
27. Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. (2009). The past achievements and future promises of developmental psychopathology: The coming of age of a discipline. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50, 16-25.
28. Cohen, S., Kesler, R., & Underwood, L. (1995). Strategies for measuring stress in studies of psychiatric and physical disorders. In R. Choen, R. C. Kessler, & L. G. Underwood (Eds.), Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists (pp. 3-28). New York: Oxford University Press.
29. Cummings, E. M., & Davies, P. T. (2002). Effects of marital conflict on children: Recent advances and emerging themes in process-oriented research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 43, 31-63. (Pubitemid 36939200)
30. Crimmins, E. M., Johnston, M., Hayward, M., & Seeman, T. (2003). Age differences in allostatic load: an index of physiological dysregulation. Experimental Gerontology, 38, 731-734. (Pubitemid 36802397)
31. Davis, E. P., Bruce, J., & Gunnar, M. R. (2002). The anteriorattention network: Associations with temperament neuroendocrine activity in 6-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 40, 43-56. (Pubitemid 34024364)
32. Dekovic, M., Janssens, J.M.A.M., &Gerris, J. R. M. (1991).Factorstructure and construct validity of the Block Child Rearing Practice Report (CRPR). Psychological Assessment: Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 3, 182-187.
33. DeSantis, A. S., Adam, E. K., Doane, L. D., Mineka, S., Zinbarg, R. E., & Craske, M. G. (2007). Racial/ethnic differences in cortisol diurnal rhythms in a community sample of adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41, 3-13. (Pubitemid 46915504)
34. Dettling, A. C., Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (1999). Cortisol levels of young children in full-day childcare centers: Relations with age and temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24, 519-536. (Pubitemid 29268433)
35. Dettling, A. C., Parker, S. W., Lane, S., Sebanc, A., & Gunnar, M. R. (2000). Quality of care and temperament determine changes in cortisol concentrations over the day for young children in childcare. Psychoneuroendocrin- ology, 25, 819-836. (Pubitemid 30670326)
36. Dickerson, S. S., & Kemeny, M. E. (2004). Acute stressors and cortisol responses: A theoretical integration and synthesis of laboratory research. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 355-391. (Pubitemid 38614661)
37. Dienstbier, R. A. (1989). Arousal and physiological toughness- Implications for mental and physical health. Psychological Review, 96, 84100.
38. Dozier, M., Manni, M., Gordon, M. K., Peloso, E., Gunnar, M. R., Stovall- McClough, K. C., et al. (2006). Foster children's diurnal production of cortisol: An exploratory study. Child Maltreatment, 11, 189-197. (Pubitemid 43529072)
39. Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Consequences of growing up poor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
40. Duncan, G. J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). Family poverty, welfare reform, and child development. Child Development, 71 , 188-196.
41. Ellis, B. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: Toward an understanding of sensitivity to developmental experiences and context. Development and Psychopathology, 23, 1-5.
42. Ellis, B. J., Boyce, W. T., Belsky, J., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., & van IJzendoorn, M. H. (2011). Differential susceptibility to the environment: An evolutionary-neurodevelopmental theory. Development and Psycho- pathology, 23, 7-28.
43. Ellis, B. J., Essex, M. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2005). Biological sensitivity to context: II. Empirical explorations of an evolutionary- developmental theory. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 303-328. (Pubitemid 41388315)
44. Engert, V., Efanov, S. I., Dedovic, K., Duchesne, A., Dagher, A., & Pruess- ner, J. C. (2010). Perceived early-life maternal care and the cortisol response to repeated psychosocial stress. Journal of Psychiatry & Neu- roscience, 35, 370-377.
45. Essex, M. J., Klein, M. H., Cho, E., & Kalin, N. H. (2002). Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: Effects on cortisol and behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 52, 776-784.
46. Evans, G. W., & English, K. (2002). The environment of poverty: Multiple stressor exposure, psychophysiological stress, and socioemotional adjustment. Child Development, 73, 1238-1248. (Pubitemid 41692425)
47. Evans, G. W., & Kim, P. (2007). Childhood poverty and health: Cumulative risk exposure and stress dysregulation. Psychological Science, 18, 953957.
48. Evans, G. W., Kim, P., Ting, A. H., Tesher, H. B., & Shannis, D. (2007). Cumulative risk, maternal responsiveness, and allostatic load among young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 43, 341-351.
49. Felitti, V. J., Anda, R. F., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D. F., Spitz, A. M., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACE) Study. American Journal of Pre- ventive Medicine, 14, 245-258.
50. Fernald, L. C., Burke, H. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2008). Salivary cortisol levels in children of low-income women with high depressive symptomatology. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 423-436. (Pubitemid 351584017)
51. Ganzel, B. L., Morris, P. A., & Wethington, E. (2010). Allostasis and the human brain: Integrating models of stress from the social and life sciences. Psychological Review, 117, 134-174.
52. Garcia-Coll, C., Akerman, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2000). Cultural influences on developmental processes and outcomes: Implications for the study of development and psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 333-356.
53. Geronimus, A. T., Hicken, M., Keene, D., & Bound, J. (2006). "Weathering" and age patterns of allostatic load scores among blacks and whites in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 96, 826-833.
54. Goodyer, I. M., Herbert, J., & Altham, P. M. E. (1998). Adrenal steroid secretion and major depression in 8- to 16-year-olds, III. Influence of cor- tisol/DHEA ratio at presentation on subsequent rates ofdisappointing life events and persistent major depression. Psychological Medicine, 28, 265-273. (Pubitemid 28197542)
55. Gunnar, M., & Quevedo, K. (2007). The neurobiology of stress and development. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 145-173.
56. Gunnar, M. R., Frenn, K., Wewerka, S. S., & Van Ryzin, M. J. (2009). Moderate versus severe early life stress: Associations with stress reactivity and regulation in 10-12-year-old children. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 62-75.
57. Gunnar, M. R., Sebanc, A. M., Tout, K., Donzella, B., & van Dulmen, M. H. (2003). Peer rejection, temperament, and cortisol activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 43, 346-358. (Pubitemid 37509814)
58. Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., de Haan, M., Pierce, S., & Stansbury, K. (1997). Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 31, 65-85. (Pubitemid 127465473)
59. Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. (2006). Stress neurobiology and developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology (Vol. 2, pp. 533-577). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
60. Gunnar, M. R., & Vazquez, D. M. (2001). Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 515-538. (Pubitemid 33406341)
61. Halberstadt, A. G. (1986). Family socialization of emotional expression and nonverbal communication styles and skills. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51 , 827-836.
62. Hardie, T., Moss, H., Vanyukov, M., Yao, J., & Kirillovac, G. (2002). Does adverse family environment or sex matter in the salivary cortisol responses to anticipatory stress? Psychiatry Research, 111, 121-131. (Pubitemid 35345155)
63. Helms, J. E., Jernigan, M., & Mascher, J. (2005). The meaning of race in psychology and how to change it-A methodological perspective. American Psychologist, 60, 27-36. (Pubitemid 40131548)
64. Hertzman, C. (1999). The biological embedding of early experience and its effects on health in adulthood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 85-95. (Pubitemid 30040240)
65. Hertzman, C., & Boyce, T. (2010). How experience gets underthe skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annual Review of Public Health, 31, 329-347.
66. Johnson, P. L., & O'Leary, K. D. (1987). Parental behavior patterns and conduct problems in girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15, 573-581. (Pubitemid 18038796)
67. King, J. A., Barkley, R. A., & Barrett, S. (1998). Attention-deficit hyperac- tivity disorder and the stress response. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 72-74. (Pubitemid 28305545)
68. Kirschbaum, C., & Hellhammer, D. H. (1994). Salivary cortisol in psycho- neuroendocrine research: Recent developments and applications. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 19, 313-333. (Pubitemid 24150545)
69. Klimes-Dougan, B., Hastings, P. D., Granger, D. A., Usher, B. A., & Zahn- Waxler, C. (2001). Adrenocortical activity in at-risk and normally developing adolescents: Individual differences in salivary cortisol basal levels, diurnal variation, and responses to social challenges. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 695-719. (Pubitemid 33406350)
70. Krieger, N., Chen, J. T., Ware, J. H., & Kaddour, A. (2008). Race/ethnicity and breast cancer estrogen receptor status: Impact of class, missing data, and modeling assumptions. Cancer Causes & Control, 19, 1305-1318.
71. Kudielka, B. M., Broderick, J. E., & Kirschbaum, C. (2003). Compliance with saliva sampling protocols: Electronic monitoring reveals invalid cortisol daytime profiles in noncompliant subjects. Psychosomatic Medicine, 65, 313-319. (Pubitemid 36359344)
72. Lengua, L. J., Bush, N. R., Long, A. C., Kovacs, E. A., & Trancik, A. M. (2008). Effortful control as a moderator of the relation between contextual risk factors and growth in adjustment problems. Development and Psychopathology, 20, 509-528. (Pubitemid 351584022)
73. Levine, S. (1957). Infantile experience and resistance to physiological stress. Science, 126, 405.
74. Levine, S. (2005). Developmental determinants of sensitivity and resistance to stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 30, 939-946. (Pubitemid 40982476)
75. Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2000). Child's stress hormone levels correlate with mother's socioeconomic status and depressive state. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 976-980.
76. Lupien, S. J., King, S., Meaney, M. J., & McEwen, B. S. (2001). Can poverty get under your skin? Basal cortisol levels and cognitive function in children from low and high socioeconomic status. Development and Psycho- pathology, 13, 653-676. (Pubitemid 33406348)
77. Lupien, S. J., Maheu, F., Tu, M., Fiocco, A., & Schramek, T. E. (2007). The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition. Brain and Cognition, 65, 209-237. (Pubitemid 350051538)
78. Lupien, S. J., Ouellet-Morin, I., Hupbach, A., Tu, M. T., Buss, C., Walker, D., et al. (2006). Beyond the stress concept: Allostatic load-A developmental biological and cognitive perspective. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience (pp. 578-628). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
79. Lyons, D. M., & Parker, K. J. (2007). Stress inoculation-induced indications of resilience in monkeys. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 423-433. (Pubitemid 47475493)
80. Lyons, D. M., Parker, K. J., & Schatzberg, A. F. (2010). Animal models of early life stress: Implications for understanding resilience. Developmental Psychobiology, 52, 402-410.
81. Marmot, M. G., Bosma, H., Hemingway, H., Brunner, E., & Stansfeld, S. (1997). Contribution of job control and other risk factors to social variations in coronary heart disease incidence. Lancet, 350, 235-239. (Pubitemid 27312292)
82. Masharani, U., Shiboski, S., Eisner, M. D., Katz, P. P., Janson, S. L., Granger, D. A., et al. (2005). Impact of exogenous glucocorticoid use on salivary cortisol measurements among adults with asthma and rhinitis. Psycho- neuroendocrinology, 30, 744-752. (Pubitemid 40775741)
83. Masten, A. S., & Shaffer, A. (2006). How families matter in child development: Reflections from research on risk and resilience. In A. Clarke-Stewart & J. Dunn (Eds.), Families count: Effects on child and adolescent development ( pp. 5-25). New York: Cambridge University Press.
84. McBurnett, K. M., Lahey, B. B., Frick, P. J., Risch, C., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., et al. (1991). Anxiety, inhibition, and conduct disorder in children: II. Relation to salivary cortisol. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 192-196.
85. McEwen, B. S. (1998). Protective and damaging effects of stress mediators. New England Journal of Medicine, 338, 171-179.
86. McEwen, B. S. (2000). Effects of adverse experiences for brain structure and function. Biological Psychiatry, 48, 721-731.
87. McEwen, B. S. (2007). Physiology and neurobiology of stress and adaptation: Central role of the brain. Physiological Reviews, 87, 873-904. (Pubitemid 47086281)
88. McEwen, B. S., & Seeman, T. (1999). Protective and damaging effects of mediators of stress-Elaborating and testing the concepts of allostasis and allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 896, 30-47. (Pubitemid 30040236)
89. McEwen, B. S., & Stellar, E. (1993). Stress and the individual. Mechanisms leading to disease. Archives of Internal Medicine, 153, 2093-2101. (Pubitemid 23286462)
90. McLeod, J. D., & Shanahan, M. J. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and childrens mental health. American Sociological Review, 58, 351-366.
91. Meany, M. (2011). Curvinlinear associations among genetic variation, birth weight, and internalizing problems. Unpublished manuscript.
92. Miller, G., & Chen, E. (2007). Unfavorable socioeconomic conditions in early life presage expression of proinflammatory phenotype in adolescence. Psychosomatic Medicine, 69, 402-409. (Pubitemid 46987882)
93. Miller, G. E., Chen, E., & Zhou, E. S. (2007). If it goes up, must it come down? Chronic stress and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis in humans. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 25-45.
94. Moss, H. B., Vanyukov, M. M., & Martin, C. S. (1995). Salivary cortisol responses and the risk for substance abuse in prepubertal boys. Biological Psychiatry, 38, 547-555.
95. Nielsen, L., Seeman, T., & Hahn, M. S. (2007). Background materials and statements from November 2007 workshop participants. Paper presented at the NIA Exploratory Workshop on Allostatic Load, Washington, DC.
96. Obradovic, J. (in press). Stress reactivity in child development research: Indices, correlates, and future directions. In L. C. Mayes & M. Lewis (Eds.), A developmental environment measurement handbook. New York: Cambridge University Press.
97. Obradovic, J., Bush, N. R., Stamperdahl, J., Adler, N. E., & Boyce, W. T. (2010). Biological sensitivity to context: The interactive effects of stress reactivity and family adversity on socioemotional behavior and school readiness. Child Development, 81, 270-289.
98. Obradovic, J., Shaffer, A., & Masten, A. S. (in press). Adversity and risk in developmental psychopathology: Progress and future directions. In L. C. Mayes & M. Lewis (Eds.), A developmental environment measurement handbook. New York: Cambridge University Press.
99. Oosterlaan, J., Geurts, H. M., Knol, D. L., & Sergeant, J. A. (2005). Low basal salivary cortisol is associated with teacher-reported symptoms of conduct disorder. Psychiatry Research, 134, 1-10. (Pubitemid 40460968)
100. Porter, B., & O'Leary, K. D. (1980). Marital discord and childhood behavior problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 8, 287-295. (Pubitemid 11250162)
101. Pruessner, J. C., Kirschbaum, C., Meinlschmid, G., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2003). Two formulas for computation of the area under the curve represent measures of total hormone concentration versus time-dependent change. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 28, 916-931. (Pubitemid 36936799)
102. Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A self report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385-401.
103. Repetti, R. L., Taylor, S. E., & Seeman, T. E. (2002). Risky families: Family social environments and the mental and physical health ofoffspring. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 330-366.
104. Richters, P., & Martinez, J. E. (1993). The NIMH Community Violence Project: I. Children as victims and witnesses to violence. Psychiatry, 56, 7-21.
105. Rickel, A. U., & Biasatti, L. L. (1982). Modification of the Block child rearing practice report. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 129-133.
106. Rutter, M. (2006). Genes and behavior: Nature-nurture interplay explained. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
107. Sapolsky, R. M. (1994). The physiological relevance of glucocorticoid en- dangerment of the hippocampus. Brain Corticosteroid Receptors, 746, 294-307. (Pubitemid 26005905)
108. Sapolsky, R. M., Romero, L. M., & Munck, A. U. (2000). How do glucocor- ticoids influence stress responses? Integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions. Endocrine Reviews, 21, 55-89. (Pubitemid 32266068)
109. Schafer, J. L., & Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data: Our view of the state of the art. Psychological Methods, 7, 147-177.
110. Seeman, T., Epel, E., Gruenewald, T., Karlamangla, A., & McEwen, B. S. (2010). Socio-economic differentials in peripheral biology: Cumulative allostatic load. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1186, 223-239.
111. Seeman, T., Gruenewald, T., Karlamangla, A., Sidney, S., Liu, K. A., Mc- Ewen, B., et al. (2010). Modeling multisystem biological risk in young adults: The coronary artery risk development in young adults study. American Journal of Human Biology, 22, 463-472.
112. Seeman, T., Merkin, S. S., Crimmins, E., Koretz, B., Charette, S., & Karla- mangla, A. (2008). Education, income and ethnic differences in cumulative biological risk profiles in a national sample of US adults: NHANES III (1988-1994). Social Science & Medicine, 66, 72-87. (Pubitemid 350151573)
113. Seeman, T. E., Crimmins, E., Huang, M. H., Singer, B., Bucur, A., Gruene- wald, T., et al. (2004). Cumulative biological risk and socio-economic differences in mortality: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Social Science & Medicine, 58, 1985-1997. (Pubitemid 38326977)
114. Seeman, T. E., & McEwen, B. S. (1996). Impact of social environment characteristics on neuroendocrine regulation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 58, 459-471. (Pubitemid 26349892)
115. Seeman, T. E., McEwen, B. S., Rowe, J. W., & Singer, B. H. (2001). Allo- static load as a marker of cumulative biological risk: MacArthur studies of successful aging. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98, 4770-4775. (Pubitemid 32295051)
116. Seery, M. D., Holman, E. A., & Silver, R. C. (2010). Whatever does not kill us: Cumulative lifetime adversity, vulnerability, and resilience. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 1025-1041.
117. Selye, H. (1950). Stress: The physiology and pathology of exposure to stress.
118. Montreal: Acta Medical Publishers. Selye, H. (1956). Stress and psychiatry. American Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 423-427.
119. Shirtcliff, E. A., Granger, D. A., Booth, A., & Johnson, D. (2005). Low salivary cortisol levels and externalizing behavior problems in youth. Development and Psychopathology, 17, 167-184. (Pubitemid 41388334)
120. Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early child development. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
121. Smider, N. A., Essex, M. J., Kalin, N. H., Buss, K. A., Klein, M. H., Davidson, R. J., et al. (2002). Salivary cortisol as a predictor of socioemotional adjustment during kindergarten: A prospective study. Child Development, 73, 75-92. (Pubitemid 41692474)
122. Spielberger, C. D. (1988). Manual for the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory (STAXI). Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.
123. Sterling, P., & Eyer, J. (1989). Allostasis a new paradigm to explain arousal pathology. In S. Fisher & J. Reason (eds.), Handbook of life stress cognition and health ( pp. 629-650). Chichester: Wiley.
124. Tarullo, A., Mliner, S., & Gunnar, M. (2011). Inhibition and exuberance in preschool classrooms: Associations with peer social experiences and changes in cortisol across the preschool year. Developmental Psychology. doi:10.1037/a0024093
125. Tarullo, A. R., & Gunnar, M. R. (2006). Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis. Hormones and Behavior, 50, 632-639. (Pubitemid 44307108)
126. Yehuda, R. (2000). Biology ofposttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clin- ical Psychiatry, 61 , 14-21.