A lifetime of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Diagnostic challenges, treatment and neurobiological mechanisms

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 11, Issue 10, 2011, Pages 1467-1484

  Geissler, Julia ^a   Lesch, Klaus Peter ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WÜRZBURG   (Germany)

^b MAASTRICHT UNIVERSITY   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

ADHD; adult; amphetamines; atomoxetine; brain imaging; childhood; cognitivebehavioral therapy; genetics; methylphenidate; pharmacotherapy; structural and functional neuroanatomy

Indexed keywords

AMFEBUTAMONE; AMPHETAMINE; ATOMOXETINE; GUANFACINE; LISDEXAMFETAMINE; METHYLPHENIDATE; MODAFINIL; PLACEBO;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ANXIETY DISORDER; APPETITE DISORDER; ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER; BEHAVIOR THEORY; COGNITIVE THERAPY; COMORBIDITY; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; FATIGUE; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENE DUPLICATION; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC HETEROGENEITY; GENETIC RISK; HEADACHE; HUMAN; INSOMNIA; LEARNING DISORDER; LIFE CYCLE; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); MOLECULAR GENETICS; MOOD DISORDER; NARCOLEPSY; NAUSEA; NEUROANATOMY; NEUROBIOLOGY; NONHUMAN; PERSONALITY DISORDER; PSYCHOSOCIAL CARE; REMISSION; RESTLESSNESS; REVIEW; SOMNOLENCE; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UNSPECIFIED SIDE EFFECT; XEROSTOMIA;

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER WITH HYPERACTIVITY; BRAIN; COMORBIDITY; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; MENTAL DISORDERS; MODELS, PSYCHOLOGICAL;

EID: 80053501816     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/ern.11.136     Document Type: Review

References (187)

1. Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement. J. Atten. Disord. 12(3), 200-204 (2008).
2. Strachey L. Elizabeth and Essex. Cox & Wyman Ltd, London, UK (1971)
3. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. Young adult follow-up of hyperactive children: antisocial activities and drug use. J. Child. Psychol. Psychiatry 45(2), 195-211 (2004) (Pubitemid 38240269)
4. Flory K, Molina BS, Pelham WE, Gnagy E, Smith B. Childhood ADHD predicts risky sexual behavior in young adulthood. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 35(4), 571-577 (2006) (Pubitemid 44759736)
5. Jerome L, Habinski L, Segal A. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and driving risk: a review of the literature and a methodological critique. Curr. Psychiatry Rep. 8(5), 416-426 (2006) (Pubitemid 44515395)
6. Manor I, Gutnik I, Ben-Dor DH et al. Possible association between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and attempted suicide in adolescents: a pilot study. Eur. Psychiatry 25(3), 146-150 (2010)
7. Mendelson W, Johnson N, Stewart MA. Hyperactive children as teenagers: a follow-up study. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 153(4), 273-279 (1971)
8. Menkes MM, Rowe JS, Menkes JH. A twenty-five year follow-up study on the hyperkinetic child with minimal brain dysfunction. Pediatrics 39(3), 393-399 (1967)
9. Fayyad J, Graaf R, Kessler R et al. Cross-national prevalence and correlates of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 190, 402-409 (2007) (Pubitemid 46706952)
10. Faraone SV, Sergeant J, Gillberg C, Biederman J. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World Psychiatry 2(2), 104-113 (2003)
11. Ford T, Goodman R, Meltzer H. The British child and adolescent mental health survey 1999: the prevalence of DSM-IV disorders. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 42(10), 1203-1211 (2003) (Pubitemid 39592073)
12. Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. Am. J. Psychiatry 164(6), 942-948 (2007) (Pubitemid 46972911)
13. Polanczyk G, Rohde LA. Epidemiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across the lifespan. Curr. Opin. Psychiatry 20(4), 386-392 (2007) (Pubitemid 46889666)
14. Conners C, Erhardt D, Sparrow E. The Conners Adult ADHD rating scale (CAARS). New York: Multihealth Systems, Inc., New York, NY, USA (1998)
15. Wender PH. Adult Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. University Press, Oxford, UK (1995)
16. Chen W, Zhou K, Sham P et al. DSM-IV combined type ADHD shows familial association with sibling trait scores: a sampling strategy for QTL linkage. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 147B(8), 1450-1460 (2008)
17. Shaw P, Gilliam M, Liverpool M et al. Cortical development in typically developing children with symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity: support for a dimensional view of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 168(2), 143-151 (2011)
18. Biederman J, Petty CR, Evans M, Small J, Faraone SV. How persistent is ADHD? A controlled 10-year follow-up study of boys with ADHD. Psychiatry Res. 177(3), 299-304 (2010)
19. Faraone SV, Biederman J, Mick E. The age-dependent decline of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analysis of follow-up studies. Psychol. Med. 36(2), 159-165 (2006) (Pubitemid 43126140)
20. Kessler RC, Adler L, Barkley R et al. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the national comorbidity survey replication. Am. J. Psychiatry 163(4), 716-723 (2006) (Pubitemid 44464584)
21. Monuteaux MC, Mick E, Faraone SV, Biederman J. The influence of sex on the course and psychiatric correlates of ADHD from childhood to adolescence: a longitudinal study. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51(3), 233-241 (2010)
22. Biederman J, Mick E, Faraone SV et al. Influence of gender on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children referred to a psychiatric clinic. Am. J. Psychiatry 159(1), 36-42 (2002) (Pubitemid 41070724)
23. Biederman J, Faraone SV, Mick E et al. Clinical correlates of ADHD in females: Findings from a large group of girls ascertained from pediatric and psychiatric referral sources. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 38(8), 966-975 (1999) (Pubitemid 29353031)
24. Nigg JT, Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Sonuga-Barke EJS. Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes? Biol. Psychiatry 57(11), 1224-1230 (2005) (Pubitemid 40798539)
25. Sonuga-Barke EJ. The dual pathway model of AD/HD: an elaboration of neuro-developmental characteristics. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 27(7), 593-604 (2003) (Pubitemid 37414908)
26. Sonuga-Barke EJS. Causal models of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: from common simple deficits to multiple developmental pathways. Biol. Psychiatry 57(11), 1231-1238 (2005)
27. Halmoy A, Fasmer OB, Gillberg C, Haavik J. Occupational outcome in adult ADHD: impact of symptom profile, comorbid psychiatric problems, and treatment: a cross-sectional study of 414 clinically diagnosed adult ADHD patients. J. Atten. Disord. 13(2), 175-187 (2009)
28. Jacob C, Romanos J, Dempfle A et al. Co-morbidity of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with focus on personality traits and related disorders in a tertiary referral center. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 257(6), 309-317 (2007) (Pubitemid 47476717)
29. Wilens TE, Biederman J, Faraone SV, Martelon M, Westerberg D, Spencer TJ. Presenting ADHD symptoms, subtypes, and comorbid disorders in clinically referred adults with ADHD. J. Clin. Psychiatry 70(11), 1557-1562 (2009)
30. Barkley RA, Fischer M, Smallish L, Fletcher K. Young adult outcome of hyperactive children: adaptive functioning in major life activities. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 45(2), 192-202 (2006) (Pubitemid 43151524)
31. Barbaresi WJ, Katusic SK, Colligan RC, Weaver AL, Jacobsen SJ. Long-term school outcomes for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a population-based perspective. J. Dev. Behav. Pediatr. 28(4), 265-273 (2007) (Pubitemid 47256029)
32. Biederman J, Petty CR, Monuteaux MC et al. Adult psychiatric outcomes of girls with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: 11-year follow-up in a longitudinal case- control study. Am. J. Psychiatry 167(4), 409-417 (2010)
33. Barkley R, Murphy KR, Fischer M. ADHD in Adults: What The Science Says. Guilford, New York, NY, USA (2007)
34. Sobanski E, Banaschewski T, Asherson P et al. Emotional lability in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): clinical correlates and familial prevalence. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51(8), 915-923 (2010)
35. Uekermann J, Kraemer M, Abdel-Hamid M et al. Social cognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 34(5), 734-743 (2010)
36. Da Fonseca D, Seguier V, Santos AC, Poinso F, Deruelle C. Emotion understanding in children with ADHD. Child Psychiatry Hum. Dev. 40(1), 111-121 (2009)
37. Hoza B, Gerdes AC, Mrug S et al. Peer-assessed outcomes in the multimodal treatment study of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 34(1), 74-86 (2005) (Pubitemid 40272936)
38. Adler LA, Sutton VK, Moore RJ et al. Quality of life assessment in adult patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treated with atomoxetine. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 26(6), 648-652 (2006) (Pubitemid 44772744)
39. Klassen AF, Miller A, Fine S. Health-related quality of life in children and adolescents who have a diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 114(5), e541-e547 (2004) (Pubitemid 41655750)
40. Burt SA. Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychol. Bull. 135(4), 608-637 (2009)
41. Faraone SV, Perlis RH, Doyle AE et al. Molecular genetics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57(11), 1313-1323 (2005) (Pubitemid 40798551)
42. Epstein JN, Conners CK, Erhardt D et al. Familial aggregation of ADHD characteristics. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 28(6), 585-594 (2000)
43. Sprich S, Biederman J, Crawford MH, Mundy E, Faraone SV. Adoptive and biological families of children and adolescents with ADHD. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 39(11), 1432-1437 (2000)
44. Boomsma DI, Saviouk V, Hottenga JJ et al. Genetic epidemiology of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD index) in adults. PLoS ONE 5(5), e10621 (2010)
45. Schultz MR, Rabi K, Faraone SV, Kremen W, Lyons MJ. Efficacy of retrospective recall of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms: a twin study. Twin Res. Hum. Genet. 9(2), 220-232 (2006)
46. van den Berg SM, Willemsen G, de Geus EJ, Boomsma DI. Genetic etiology of stability of attention problems in young adulthood. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 141B(1), 55-60 (2006) (Pubitemid 43062543)
47. McKinney J, Johansson S, Halmoy A et al. A loss-of-function mutation in tryptophan hydroxylase 2 segregating with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 13(4), 365-367 (2008) (Pubitemid 351399825)
48. Walitza S, Renner TJ, Dempfle A et al. Transmission disequilibrium of polymorphic variants in the tryptophan hydroxylase-2 gene in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Mol. Psychiatry 10(12), 1126-1132 (2005) (Pubitemid 43251103)
49. Cote F, Fligny C, Bayard E et al. Maternal serotonin is crucial for murine embryonic development. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 104(1), 329-334 (2007) (Pubitemid 46068031)
50. Halmoy A, Johansson S, Winge I, McKinney JA, Knappskog PM, Haavik J. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in offspring of mothers with impaired serotonin production. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 67(10), 1033-1043 (2010)
51. Reif A, Jacob CP, Rujescu D et al. Influence of functional variant of neuronal nitric oxide synthase on impulsive behaviors in humans. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 66(1), 41-50 (2009)
52. Franke B, Neale BM, Faraone SV. Genome-wide association studies in ADHD. Hum. Genet. 126(1), 13-50 (2009)
53. Arcos-Burgos M, Jain M, Acosta MT et al. A common variant of the latrophilin 3 gene, LPHN3, confers susceptibility to ADHD and predicts effectiveness of stimulant medication. Mol. Psychiatry 15(11), 1053-1066 (2010)
54. Ribases M, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Sanchez-Mora C et al. Contribution of LPHN3 to the genetic susceptibility to ADHD in adulthood: a replication study. Genes Brain Behav. 10(2), 149-157 (2011)
55. Liu QR, Drgon T, Johnson C, Walther D, Hess J, Uhl GR. Addiction molecular genetics: 639,401 SNP whole genome association identifies many cell adhesion genes. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 141B(8), 918-925 (2006) (Pubitemid 44905448)
56. Davies G, Tenesa A, Payton A et al. Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Mol. Psychiatry DOI: 10.1038/mp.2011.85 (2011) (Epub ahead of print)
57. Langenhan T, Promel S, Mestek L et al. Latrophilin signaling links anterior-posterior tissue polarity and oriented cell divisions in the C. elegans embryo. Dev. Cell 17(4), 494-504 (2009)
58. Jain M, Velez JI, Acosta MT et al. A cooperative interaction between LPHN3 and 11q doubles the risk for ADHD. Mol. Psychiatry DOI: 10.1038/mp.2011.59 (2011) (Epub ahead of print)
59. Arcos-Burgos M, Castellanos FX, Pineda D et al. Attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder in a population isolate: linkage to loci at 4q13.2, 5q33.3, 11q22, and 17p11. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75(6), 998-1014 (2004) (Pubitemid 39532070)
60. Faraone SV, Doyle AE, Lasky-Su J et al. Linkage analysis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 147B(8), 1387-1391 (2008)
61. Ogdie MN, Fisher SE, Yang M et al. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: fine mapping supports linkage to 5p13, 6q12, 16p13, and 17p11. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 75(4), 661-668 (2004) (Pubitemid 39244780)
62. Romanos M, Freitag C, Jacob C et al. Genome-wide linkage analysis of ADHD using high-density SNP arrays: novel loci at 5q13.1 and 14q12. Mol. Psychiatry 13(5), 522-530 (2008) (Pubitemid 351556035)
63. Zhou K, Dempfle A, Arcos-Burgos M et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide linkage scans of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Med. Genet. B Neuropsychiatr. Genet. 147B(8), 1392-1398 (2008)
64. Lesch KP, Timmesfeld N, Renner TJ et al. Molecular genetics of adult ADHD: converging evidence from genome-wide association and extended pedigree linkage studies. J. Neural Trans. 115(11), 1573-1585 (2008)
65. Reif A, Nguyen TT, Weisflog L et al. DIRAS2 is associated with adult ADHD, related traits, and co-morbid disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology DOI:10.1038/npp.2011.120 (2011) (Epub ahead of print)
66. Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 49(9), 884-897 (2010)
67. Faraone SV, Doyle AE. The nature and heritability of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Child Adolesc. Psychiatr. Clin. N. Am. 10(2), 299-316 (2001) (Pubitemid 32416828)
68. Manolio TA, Collins FS, Cox NJ et al. Finding the missing heritability of complex diseases. Nature 461(7265), 747-753 (2009)
69. Bassett AS, Scherer SW, Brzustowicz LM. Copy number variations in schizophrenia: critical review and new perspectives on concepts of genetics and disease. Am. J. Psychiatry 167(8), 899-914 (2010)
70. Sebat J, Lakshmi B, Malhotra D et al. Strong association of de novo copy number mutations with autism. Science 316(5823), 445-449 (2007) (Pubitemid 46651493)
71. Elia J, Gai X, Xie HM et al. Rare structural variants found in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder are preferentially associated with neurodevelopmental genes. Mol. Psychiatry 15(6), 637-646 (2010)
72. Lesch KP, Selch S, Renner TJ et al. Genome-wide copy number variation analysis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: association with neuropeptide Y gene dosage in an extended pedigree. Mol. Psychiatry 16(5), 491-503 (2011)
73. Banerjee TD, Middleton F, Faraone SV. Environmental risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Acta Paediatr. 96(9), 1269-1274 (2007) (Pubitemid 47300704)
74. van den Hove DLA, Jakob SB, Schraut KG et al. Sex-specific effects of prenatal stress in 5-HTT deficient mice: towards molecular mechanisms of gene x environment interactions. PLoS ONE 6, e22715 (2011)
75. Bradley WE, Raelson JV, Dubois DY et al. Hotspots of large rare deletions in the human genome. PLoS ONE 5, e9401 (2010)
76. Lesch KP. When the serotonin transporter gene meets adversity: the contribution of animal models to understanding epigenetic mechanisms in affective disorders and resilience. Curr. Top. Behav. Neurosci. 7, 251-280 (2011)
77. Williams NM, Zaharieva I, Martin A et al. Rare chromosomal deletions and duplications in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a genome-wide analysis. Lancet 376(9750), 1401-1408 (2010)
78. Valera EM, Faraone SV, Murray KE, Seidman LJ. Meta-analysis of structural imaging findings in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 61(12), 1361-1369 (2007) (Pubitemid 46855763)
79. Cao Q, Sun L, Gong G et al. The macrostructural and microstructural abnormalities of corpus callosum in children with attention deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a combined morphometric and diffusion tensor MRI study. Brain Res. 1310, 172-180 (2010)
80. Hutchinson AD, Mathias JL, Banich MT. Corpus callosum morphology in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neuropsychology 22(3), 341-349 (2008) (Pubitemid 351645174)
81. Frodl T, Stauber J, Schaaff N et al. Amygdala reduction in patients with ADHD compared with major depression and healthy volunteers. Acta Psychiatr. Scand. 121(2), 111-118 (2010)
82. Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N et al. Dorsolateral prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortex volumetric abnormalities in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder identified by magnetic resonance imaging. Biol. Psychiatry 60(10), 1071-1080 (2006) (Pubitemid 44754859)
83. Hesslinger B, Tebartz van Elst L, Thiel T, Haegele K, Hennig J, Ebert D. Frontoorbital volume reductions in adult patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci. Lett. 328(3), 319-321 (2002) (Pubitemid 34876674)
84. Schneider M, Retz W, Coogan A, Thome J, Rösler M. Anatomical and functional brain imaging in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - a neurological view. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 256(Suppl. 1), I32-I41 (2006)
85. Castellanos FX, Lee PP, Sharp W et al. Developmental trajectories of brain volume abnormalities in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. JAMA 288(14), 1740-1748 (2002)
86. Biederman J, Fried R, Petty CR et al. Cognitive development in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a controlled study in medication-naive adults across the adult life cycle. J. Clin. Psychiatry 72(1), 11-16 (2011)
87. Martinussen R, Hayden J, Hogg-Johnson S, Tannock R. A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 44(4), 377-384 (2005) (Pubitemid 40393276)
88. Wåhlstedt C, Thorell L, Bohlin G. Heterogeneity in ADHD: neuropsychological pathways, comorbidity and symptom domains. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 37(4), 551-564 (2009)
89. Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Nigg JT, Faraone SV, Pennington BF. Validity of the executive function theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Biol. Psychiatry 57(11), 1336-1346 (2005) (Pubitemid 40798553)
90. Bidwell LC, Willcutt EG, DeFries JC, Pennington BF. Testing for neuropsychological endophenotypes in siblings discordant for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 62(9), 991-998 (2007) (Pubitemid 47562370)
91. Wolf RC, Plichta MM, Sambataro F et al. Regional brain activation changes and abnormal functional connectivity of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex during working memory processing in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30(7), 2252-2266 (2009)
92. Valera EM, Faraone SV, Biederman J, Poldrack RA, Seidman LJ. Functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 57(5), 439-447 (2005) (Pubitemid 40311977)
93. Valera EM, Brown A, Biederman J et al. Sex differences in the functional neuroanatomy of working memory in adults with ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry 167(1), 86-94 (2010)
94. Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL. A default mode of brain function. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 98(2), 676-682 (2001) (Pubitemid 32105102)
95. Singh KD, Fawcett IP. Transient and linearly graded deactivation of the human default-mode network by a visual detection task. NeuroImage 41(1), 100-112 (2008)
96. Li CS, Yan P, Bergquist KL, Sinha R. Greater activation of the default brain regions predicts stop signal errors. NeuroImage 38(3), 640-648 (2007) (Pubitemid 47554624)
97. Weissman DH, Roberts KC, Visscher KM, Woldorff MG. The neural bases of momentary lapses in attention. Nat. Neurosci. 9(7), 971-978 (2006) (Pubitemid 43980513)
98. Castellanos FX, Margulies DS, Kelly C et al. Cingulate-precuneus interactions: a new locus of dysfunction in adult attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 63(3), 332-337 (2008)
99. Tian L, Jiang T, Liang M et al. Enhanced resting-state brain activities in ADHD patients: a fMRI study. Brain Dev. 30(5), 342-348 (2008) (Pubitemid 351491557)
100. Peterson BS, Potenza MN, Wang Z et al. An fMRI study of the effects of psychostimulants on default-mode processing during Stroop task performance in youths with ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry 166(11), 1286-1294 (2009)
101. Sonuga-Barke EJ, Castellanos FX. Spontaneous attentional fluctuations in impaired states and pathological conditions: a neurobiological hypothesis. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 31(7), 977-986 (2007) (Pubitemid 47332617)
102. Konrad K, Eickhoff SB. Is the ADHD brain wired differently? A review on structural and functional connectivity in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Hum. Brain Mapp. 31(6), 904-916 (2010)
103. Faraone SV. Using meta-analysis to compare the efficacy of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in youths. PT 34(12), 678-694 (2009)
104. Faraone SV, Buitelaar J. Comparing the efficacy of stimulants for ADHD in children and adolescents using meta-analysis. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 19(4), 353-364 (2010)
105. Newcorn JH, Sutton VK, Weiss MD, Sumner CR. Clinical responses to atomoxetine in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the integrated data exploratory analysis (IDEA) study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 48(5), 511-518 (2009)
106. Spencer TJ, Wilens TE, Biederman J, Weisler RH, Read SC, Pratt R. Efficacy and safety of mixed amphetamine salts extended release (Adderall XR) in the management of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adolescent patients: a 4-week, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study. Clin. Ther. 28(2), 266-279 (2006)
107. McGough JJ, Biederman J, Wigal SB et al. Long-term tolerability and effectiveness of once-daily mixed amphetamine salts (Adderall XR) in children with ADHD. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 44(6), 530-538 (2005) (Pubitemid 40720952)
108. Biederman J, Lopez FA, Boellner SW, Chandler MC. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group study of SLI381 (Adderall XR) in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 110(I2), 258-266 (2002) (Pubitemid 34833008)
109. McCracken JT, Biederman J, Greenhill LL et al. Analog classroom assessment of a once-daily mixed amphetamine formulation, SLI381 (Adderall XR), in children with ADHD. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 42(6), 673-683 (2003) (Pubitemid 39625053)
110. Wigal SB. Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults. CNS Drugs 23(Suppl. 1), 21-31 (2009)
111. Gustafsson P, Hansson K, Eidevall L, Thernlund G, Svedin CG. Treatment of ADHD with amphetamine: short-term effects on family interaction. J. Atten. Disord. 12(1), 83-91 (2008)
112. Faraone SV, Glatt SJ. A comparison of the efficacy of medications for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder using meta-analysis of effect sizes. J. Clin. Psychiatry 71(6), 754-763 (2010)
113. Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rigau D et al. Efficacy of methylphenidate for adults with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: a meta-regression analysis. CNS Drugs 25(2), 157-169 (2011)
114. Biederman J, Mick E, Surman C et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of OROS methylphenidate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Biol. Psychiatry 59(9), 829-835 (2006)
115. Koesters M, Becker T, Kilian R, Fegert JM, Weinmann S. Limits of meta-analysis: methylphenidate in the treatment of adult attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J. Psychopharmacol. 23(7), 733-744 (2009)
116. Rösler M, Fischer R, Ammer R, Ose C, Retz W. A randomised, placebo-controlled, 24-week, study of low-dose extended-release methylphenidate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 259(2), 120-129 (2009)
117. Wender PH, Reimherr FW, Marchant BK, Sanford ME, Czajkowski LA, Tomb DA. A one year trial of methylphenidate in the treatment of ADHD. J. Atten. Disord. 15(1), 36-45 (2011)
118. Edel MA, Pfutze EM, Lieder A et al. Self concept, action control and ADHD symptoms under methylphenidate treatment in adults with ADHD. Pharmacopsychiatry 42(3), 109-113 (2009)
119. Adler LA, Goodman DW, Kollins SH et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Psychiatry 69(9), 1364-1373 (2008)
120. Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M. Amphetamines for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 6, CD007813 (2011)
121. Weisler R, Young J, Mattingly G et al. Long-term safety and effectiveness of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. CNS Spectr. 14(10), 573-585 (2009)
122. Wigal T, Brams M, Gasior M, Gao J, Squires L, Giblin J. Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study of the efficacy and safety of lisdexamfetamine dimesylate in adults with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: novel findings using a simulated adult workplace environment design. Behav. Brain Funct. 6, 34 (2010)
123. Pliszka SR, Matthews TL, Braslow KJ, Watson MA. Comparative effects of methylphenidate and mixed salts amphetamine on height and weight in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 45(5), 520-526 (2006)
124. Mészáros A Czobor P, Bálint S, Komlósi S, Simon V, Bitter I. Pharmacotherapy of adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a meta-analysis. Intl J. Neuropsychopharmacol. 12(8), 1137-1147 (2009)
125. Biederman J, Pliszka SR. Modafinil improves symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder across subtypes in children and adolescents. J. Pediatr. 152(3), 394-399 (2008)
126. Taylor FB, Russo J. Efficacy of modafinil compared to dextroamphetamine for the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adults. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 10(4), 311-320 (2000) (Pubitemid 32103907)
127. Biederman J, Melmed RD, Patel A, McBurnett K, Donahue J, Lyne A. Long-term, open-label extension study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with ADHD. CNS Spectr. 13(12), 1047-1055 (2008)
128. Biederman J, Melmed RD, Patel A et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics 121(1), e73-e84 (2008)
129. Connor DF, Findling RL, Kollins SH et al. Effects of guanfacine extended release on oppositional symptoms in children aged 6-12 years with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and oppositional symptoms: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. CNS Drugs 24(9), 755-768 (2010)
130. Sallee FR, Lyne A, Wigal T, McGough JJ. Long-term safety and efficacy of guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Child Adolesc. Psychopharmacol. 19(3), 215-226 (2009)
131. Sallee FR, McGough J, Wigal T, Donahue J, Lyne A, Biederman J. Guanfacine extended release in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder: a placebo-controlled trial. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 48(2), 155-165 (2009)
132. Conners CK, Casat CD, Gualtieri CT et al. Bupropion hydrochloride in attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 35(10), 1314-1321 (1996) (Pubitemid 26327705)
133. Reimherr FW, Hedges DW, Strong RE, Marchant BK, Williams ED. Bupropion SR in adults with ADHD: a shortterm, placebo-controlled trial. Neuropsychiatr. Dis. Treat. 1(3), 245-251 (2005)
134. Adler LA, Spencer T, Brown TE et al. Once-daily atomoxetine for adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a 6-month, double-blind trial. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 29(1), 44-50 (2009)
135. Brown TE, Holdnack J, Saylor K et al. Effect of atomoxetine on executive function impairments in adults with ADHD. J. Atten. Disord. 15(2), 130-138 (2011)
136. Adler LA, Spencer TJ, Williams DW, Moore RJ, Michelson D. Long-term, open-label safety and efficacy of atomoxetine in adults with ADHD: final report of a 4-year study. J. Atten. Disord. 12(3), 248-253 (2008)
137. Martenyi F, Zavadenko NN, Jarkova NB et al. Atomoxetine in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a 6-week, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial in Russia. Eur. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 19(1), 57-66 (2010)
138. Surman C, Hammerness P, Petty C et al. Atomoxetine in the treatment of adults with subthreshold and/or late onset attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-not otherwise specified (ADHD-NOS): a prospective open-label 6-week study. CNS Neurosci. Ther. 16(1), 6-12 (2010)
139. Young S, Amarasinghe JM. Practitioner review: non-pharmacological treatments for ADHD: a lifespan approach. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 51(2), 116-133 (2010)
140. NICE. The NICE Guideline on Diagnosis and Managment of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. The British Psychological Society and The Royal College of Psychiatrists, London, UK (2008)
141. Pelham WE, Fabiano GA. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. J. Clin. Child Adolesc. Psychol. 37(1), 184-214 (2008)
142. Chronis AM, Chacko A, Fabiano GA, Wymbs BT, Pelham WE Jr. Enhancements to the behavioral parent training paradigm for families of children with ADHD: review and future directions. Clin. Child Fam. Psychol. Rev. 7(1), 1-27 (2004) (Pubitemid 38987223)
143. Pelham WE, Gnagy EM, Greiner AR et al. Behavioral versus behavioral and pharmacological treatment in ADHD children attending a summer treatment program. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 28(6), 507-525 (2000)
144. The MTA Cooperative Group. A 14-month randomized clinical trial of treatment strategies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56(12), 1073-1086 (1999)
145. Conners CK, Epstein JN, March JS et al. Multimodal treatment of ADHD in the MTA: an alternative outcome analysis. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 40(2), 159-167 (2001) (Pubitemid 32111019)
146. Hinshaw SP, Owens EB, Wells KC et al. Family processes and treatment outcome in the MTA: negative/ineffective parenting practices in relation to multimodal treatment. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 28(6), 555-568 (2000)
147. Jensen PS, Arnold LE, Swanson JM et al. 3-year follow-up of the NIMH MTA study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 46(8), 989-1002 (2007) (Pubitemid 47220683)
148. Molina BSG, Hinshaw SP, Swanson JM et al. The MTA at 8 years: prospective follow-up of children treated for combined-type ADHD in a multisite study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 48(5), 484-500 (2009)
149. Owens EB, Hinshaw SP, Kraemer HC et al. Which treatment for whom for ADHD? Moderators of treatment response in the MTA. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 71(3), 540-552 (2003) (Pubitemid 36605344)
150. Swanson JM, Kraemer HC, Hinshaw SP et al. Clinical relevance of the primary findings of the MTA: success rates based on severity of ADHD and ODD symptoms at the end of treatment. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 40(2), 168-179 (2001) (Pubitemid 32111020)
151. Wells KC, Pelham WE, Kotkin RA et al. Psychosocial treatment strategies in the MTA study: rationale, methods, and critical issues in design and implementation. J. Abnorm. Child Psychol. 28(6), 483-505 (2000)
152. The MTA Cooperative Group. Moderators and mediators of treatment response for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: the multimodal treatment study of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 56(12), 1088-1096 (1999)
153. Safren SA, Sprich S, Mimiaga MJ et al. Cognitive behavioral therapy vs relaxation with educational support for medication-treated adults with ADHD and persistent symptoms: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 304(8), 875-880 (2010)
154. Safren SA, Otto MW, Sprich S, Winett CL, Wilens TE, Biederman J. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for ADHD in medication-treated adults with continued symptoms. Behav. Res. Ther. 43(7), 831-842 (2005) (Pubitemid 40719607)
155. Bramham J, Young S, Bickerdike A, Spain D, McCartan D, Xenitidis K. Evaluation of group cognitive behavioral therapy for adults with ADHD. J. Atten. Disord. 12(5), 434-441 (2009)
156. Solanto MV, Marks DJ, Wasserstein J et al. Efficacy of meta-cognitive therapy for adult ADHD. Am. J. Psychiatry 167(8), 958-968 (2010)
157. Kuntsi J, Rijsdijk F, Ronald A, Asherson P, Plomin R. Genetic influences on the stability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms from early to middle childhood. Biol. Psychiatry 57(6), 647-654 (2005) (Pubitemid 40409703)
158. Larsson JO, Larsson H, Lichtenstein P. Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change of ADHD symptoms between 8 and 13 years of age: a longitudinal twin study. J. Am. Acad. Child Adolesc. Psychiatry 43(10), 1267-1275 (2004) (Pubitemid 39281667)
159. Baker KL, Rees MI, Thompson PW et al. Chromosome 2 interstitial deletion (del(2) (q14.1q21)) associated with connective tissue laxity and an attention deficit disorder. J. Med. Genet. 38(7), 493-496 (2001) (Pubitemid 32661219)
160. Cappellacci S, Martinelli S, Rinaldi R et al. De novo pure 12q22q24.33 duplication: first report of a case with mental retardation, ADHD, and Dandy-Walker malformation. Am. J. Med. Genet. A 140(11), 1203-1207 (2006) (Pubitemid 43828081)
161. Mazei-Robison MS, Couch RS, Shelton RC, Stein MA, Blakely RD. Sequence variation in the human dopamine transporter gene in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuropharmacology 49(6), 724-736 (2005) (Pubitemid 41483879)
162. Lo-Castro A, DAgati E, Curatolo P. ADHD and genetic syndromes. Brain Dev. 33(6), 456-461 (2011)
163. Hawi Z, Segurado R, Conroy J et al. Preferential transmission of paternal alleles at risk genes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77(6), 958-965 (2005) (Pubitemid 41698517)
164. Doyle AE, Willcutt EG, Seidman LJ et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder endophenotypes. Biol. Psychiatry 57(11), 1324-1335 (2005) (Pubitemid 40798552)
165. Nigg JT, Blaskey LG, Stawicki JA, Sachek J. Evaluating the endophenotype model of ADHD neuropsychological deficit: results for parents and siblings of children with ADHD combined and inattentive subtypes. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 113(4), 614-625 (2004) (Pubitemid 39431115)
166. Shaw P, Lerch J, Greenstein D et al. Longitudinal mapping of cortical thickness and clinical outcome in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 63(5), 540-549 (2006)
167. Shaw P, Eckstrand K, Sharp W et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder is characterized by a delay in cortical maturation. PNAS 104(49), 19649-19654 (2007)
168. Shaw P, Sharp WS, Morrison M et al. Psychostimulant treatment and the developing cortex in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Am. J. Psychiatry 166(1), 58-63 (2009)
169. Makris N, Biederman J, Valera EM et al. Cortical thinning of the attention and executive function networks in adults with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Cerebral Cortex 17(6), 1364-1375 (2007) (Pubitemid 47343622)
170. Wolosin SM, Richardson ME, Hennessey JG, Denckla MB, Mostofsky SH. Abnormal cerebral cortex structure in children with ADHD. Hum. Brain Mapp. 30(1), 175-184 (2009)
171. Shaw P, Lalonde F, Lepage C et al. Development of cortical asymmetry in typically developing children and its disruption in attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 66(8), 888-896 (2009)
172. Hamilton LS, Levitt JG, ONeill J et al. Reduced white matter integrity in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neuroreport 19(17), 1705-1708 (2008)
173. Ashtari M, Kumra S, Bhaskar SL et al. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a preliminary diffusion tensor imaging study. Biol. Psychiatry 57(5), 448-455 (2005) (Pubitemid 40311978)
174. Green C. Methylphenidate vs dexamphetamine: a clinical audit. J. Paediatr. Child Health 32(5), 470 (1996)
175. Arnold LE. Methyiphenidate vs. amphetamine: comparative review. J. Atten. Disord. 3(4), 200-211 (2000)
176. Montoya A, Colom F, Ferrin M. Is psychoeducation for parents and teachers of children and adolescents with ADHD efficacious? A systematic literature review. Eur. Psychiatry 26(3), 166-175 (2011)
177. Kooij SJJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A et al. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: the European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry 10, 67 (2010)
178. Halperin JM, Schulz KP. Revisiting the role of the prefrontal cortex in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychol. Bull. 132(4), 560-581 (2006) (Pubitemid 44212071)
179. Halperin JM, Trampush JW, Miller CJ, Marks DJ, Newcorn JH. Neuropsychological outcome in adolescents/young adults with childhood ADHD: profiles of persisters, remitters and controls. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 49(9), 958-966 (2008)
180. Sagvolden T. The attention deficit disorder might be a reinforcement deficit disorder. In: Contemporary Psychology in Europe: Theory, Research and Application. Georgas J, Manthouli M, Besevegis E, Kokkevi A (Eds). Hogrefe and Huber, Gottengin, Germany, 131-143 (1991)
181. Barkley RA. Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychol. Bull. 121(1), 65-94 (1997) (Pubitemid 127705285)
182. Nigg JT. Is ADHD a disinhibitory disorder? Psychol. Bull. 127(5), 571-598 (2001)
183. Sergeant J. The cognitive-energetic model: an empirical approach to attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 24(1), 7-12 (2000) (Pubitemid 30026140)
184. Sagvolden T, Johansen EB, Aase H, Russell VA. A dynamic developmental theory of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behav. Brain Sci. 28(3), 397-419 (2005) (Pubitemid 41440193)
185. Lesch KP. Alcohol dependence and gene x environment interaction in emotion regulation: is serotonin the link? Eur. J. Pharmacol. 526, 113-124 (2005)
186. Sullivan Laboratory Evidence Project https://slep.unc.edu/evidence
187. PubMed www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov