Intracellular defenses against HIV, viral evasion and novel therapeutic approaches

Journal of the Formosan Medical Association

Volumn 110, Issue 6, 2011, Pages 350-362

  Lever, Robert A ^a   Lever, Andrew M L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

AIDS; HIV; Restriction factor; Retrovirus

Indexed keywords

APOLIPOPROTEIN B MESSENGER RNA EDITING ENZYME CATALYTIC POLYPEPTIDE 3G; CELL PROTEIN; CYCLOPHILIN A; HYBRID PROTEIN; LENTIVIRUS VECTOR; PROTEIN; RESTRICTION FACTOR; TETHERIN; TRIPARTITE MOTIF PROTEIN 5; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VPU PROTEIN;

ARTICLE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE EVASION; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN FUNCTION; PROTEIN INTERACTION; VIRUS CELL INTERACTION;

EID: 79960373730     PISSN: None     EISSN: 09296646     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0929-6646(11)60053-3     Document Type: Article

References (164)

1. Goncalves DU, Proietti FA, Ribas JG, et al. Epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of human T-cell leukemia virus type 1-associated diseases. Clinical Microbiol Rev 2010; 23:577-89.
2. Alter HJ, Eichberg JW, Masur H, et al. Transmission of HTLV-III infection from human plasma to chimpanzees: an animal model for AIDS. Science 1984;226:549-52.
3. Gardner MB, Luciw PA. Animal models of AIDS. FASEB J 1989;3:2593-606.
4. Himathongkham S, Luciw PA. Restriction of HIV-1 (subtype B) replication at the entry step in rhesus macaque cells. Virology 1996;219:485-8.
5. Hofmann W, Schubert D, LaBonte J, et al. Species-specific, postentry barriers to primate immunodeficiency virus infection. J Virol 1999;73:10020-8.
6. Shibata R, Sakai H, Kawamura M, et al. Early replication block of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in monkey cells. J Gen Virol 1995;76:2723-30.
7. Besnier C, Takeuchi Y, Towers G. Restriction of lentivirus in monkeys. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:11920-5.
8. Cowan S, Hatziioannou T, Cunningham T, et al. Cellular inhibitors with Fv1-like activity restrict human and simian immunodeficiency virus tropism. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:11914-9.
9. Munk C, Brandt SM, Lucero G, et al. A dominant block to HIV-1 replication at reverse transcription in simian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2002;99:13843-8.
10. Hatziioannou T, Cowan S, Goff SP, et al. Restriction of multiple divergent retroviruses by Lv1 and Ref1. EMBO J 2003;22:385-94.
11. Stremlau M, Owens CM, Perron MJ, et al. The cytoplasmic body component TRIM5alpha restricts HIV-1 infection in Old World monkeys. Nature 2004;427:848-53.
12. Towers GJ, Hatziioannou T, Cowan S, et al. Cyclophilin A modulates the sensitivity of HIV-1 to host restriction factors. Nat Med 2003;9:1138-43.
13. Sayah DM, Sokolskaja E, Berthoux L, et al. Cyclophilin A retrotransposition into TRIM5 explains owl monkey resistance to HIV-1. Nature 2004;430:569-73.
14. Kootstra NA, Munk C, Tonnu N, et al. Abrogation of postentry restriction of HIV-1-based lentiviral vector transduction in simian cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2003;100: 1298-303.
15. Yoshigai E, Kawamura S, Kuhara S, et al. Trim36/Haprin plays a critical role in the arrangement of somites during Xenopus embryogenesis. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2009;378:428-32.
16. Nisole S, Stoye JP, Saib A. TRIM family proteins: retroviral restriction and antiviral defence. Nat Rev Microbiol 2005; 3:799-808.
17. Wang Y, Li Y, Qi X, et al. TRIM45, a novel human RBCC/ TRIM protein, inhibits transcriptional activities of ElK-1 and AP-1. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004;323:9-16.
18. Reymond A, Meroni G, Fantozzi A, et al. The tripartite motif family identifies cell compartments. EMBO J 2001; 20:2140-51.
19. Asaoka K, Ikeda K, Hishinuma T, et al. A retrovirus restriction factor TRIM5alpha is transcriptionally regulated by interferons. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005;338:1950-6.
20. Carthagena L, Parise MC, Ringeard M, et al. Implication of TRIM alpha and TRIMCyp in interferon-induced antiretroviral restriction activities. Retrovirology 2008;5:59.
21. Sakuma R, Mael AA, Ikeda Y. Alpha interferon enhances TRIM5alphamediated antiviral activities in human and rhesus monkey cells. J Virol 2007;81:10201-6.
22. Meroni G, Diez-Roux G. TRIM/RBCC, a novel class of 'single protein RING finger' E3 ubiquitin ligases. BioEssays 2005; 27:1147-57.
23. Xu L, Yang L, Moitra PK, et al. BTBD1 and BTBD2 colocalize to cytoplasmic bodies with the RBCC/tripartite motif protein, TRIM5delta. Exp Cell Res 2003;288:84-93.
24. Diaz-Griffero F, Li X, Javanbakht H, et al. Rapid turnover and polyubiquitylation of the retroviral restriction factor TRIM5. Virology 2006;349:300-15.
25. Javanbakht H, Diaz-Griffero F, Stremlau M, et al. The contribution of RING and B-box 2 domains to retroviral restriction mediated by monkey TRIM5alpha. J Biol Chem 2005;280:26933-40.
26. Li X, Li Y, Stremlau M, et al. Functional replacement of the RING, B-box 2, and coiled-coil domains of tripartite motif 5alpha (TRIM5alpha) by heterologous TRIM domains. J Virol 2006;80:6198-206.
27. Perez-Caballero D, Hatziioannou T, Yang A, et al. Human tripartite motif 5alpha domains responsible for retrovirus restriction activity and specificity. J Virol 2005;79: 8969-78.
28. Diaz-Griffero F, Qin XR, Hayashi F, et al. A B-box 2 surface patch important for TRIM5alpha self-association, capsid binding avidity, and retrovirus restriction. J Virol 2009;83: 10737-51.
29. Javanbakht H, Yuan W, Yeung DF, et al. Characterization of TRIM5alpha trimerization and its contribution to human immunodeficiency virus capsid binding. Virology 2006; 353:234-46.
30. Li X, Gold B, O'Huigin C, et al. Unique features of TRIM5alpha among closely related human TRIM family members. Virology 2007;360:419-33.
31. Langelier CR, Sandrin V, Eckert DM, et al. Biochemical characterization of a recombinant TRIM5alpha protein that restricts human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication. J Virol 2008;82:11682-94.
32. Maillard PV, Reynard S, Serhan F, et al. Interfering residues narrow the spectrum of MLV restriction by human TRIM5alpha. PLoS Pathog 2007;3:e200.
33. Nakayama EE, Miyoshi H, Nagai Y, et al. A specific region of 37 amino acid residues in the SPRY (B30.2) domain of African green monkey TRIM5alpha determines speciesspecific restriction of simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac infection. J Virol 2005;79:8870-7.
34. Stremlau M, Perron M, Welikala S, et al. Species-specific variation in the B30.2(SPRY) domain of TRIM5alpha determines the potency of human immunodeficiency virus restriction. J Virol 2005;79:3139-45.
35. Sawyer SL, Wu LI, Emerman M, et al. Positive selection of primate TRIM5alpha identifies a critical species-specific retroviral restriction domain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:2832-7.
36. Yap MW, Nisole S, Stoye JP. A single amino acid change in the SPRY domain of human Trim5alpha leads to HIV-1 restriction. Curr Biol 2005;15:73-8.
37. Ohkura S, Yap MW, Sheldon T, et al. All three variable regions of the TRIM5alpha B30.2 domain can contribute to the specificity of retrovirus restriction. J Virol 2006;80: 8554-65.
38. Perron MJ, Stremlau M, Sodroski J. Two surface-exposed elements of the B30.2/SPRY domain as potency determinants of N-tropic murine leukemia virus restriction by human TRIM5alpha. J Virol 2006;80:5631-6.
39. Woo JS, Imm JH, Min CK, et al. Structural and functional insights into the B30.2/SPRY domain. EMBO J 2006;25: 1353-63.
40. Rold CJ, Aiken C. Proteasomal degradation of TRIM5alpha during retrovirus restriction. PLoS Pathog 2008;4:e1000074.
41. Towers GJ. The control of viral infection by tripartite motif proteins and cyclophilin A. Retrovirology 2007;4:40.
42. Maegawa H, Miyamoto T, Sakuragi J, et al. Contribution of RING domain to retrovirus restriction by TRIM5alpha depends on combination of host and virus. Virology 2010; 399:212-20.
43. Wu X, Anderson JL, Campbell EM, et al. Proteasome inhibitors uncouple rhesus TRIM5alpha restriction of HIV-1 reverse transcription and infection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:7465-70.
44. Anderson JL, Campbell EM, Wu X, et al. Proteasome inhibition reveals that a functional preintegration complex intermediate can be generated during restriction by diverse TRIM5 proteins. J Virol 2006;80:9754-60.
45. Chatterji U, Bobardt MD, Gaskill P, et al. Trim5alpha accelerates degradation of cytosolic capsid associated with productive HIV-1 entry. J Biol Chem 2006;281:37025-33.
46. Stremlau M, Perron M, Lee M, et al. Specific recognition and accelerated uncoating of retroviral capsids by the TRIM5alpha restriction factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2006;103:5514-9.
47. Sawyer SL, Wu LI, Akey JM, et al. High-frequency persistence of an impaired allele of the retroviral defense gene TRIM5alpha in humans. Curr Biol 2006;16:95-100.
48. Newman RM, Johnson WE. A brief history of TRIM5alpha. AIDS Rev 2007;9:114-25.
49. Liu FL, Qiu YQ, Li H, et al. An HIV-1 resistance polymorphism in TRIM5alpha gene among Chinese intravenous drug users. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010:56;306-11.
50. Speelmon EC, Livingston-Rosanoff D, Li SS, et al. Genetic association of the antiviral restriction factor TRIM5alpha with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Virol 2006;80:2463-71.
51. van Manen D, Rits MA, Beugeling C, et al. The effect of Trim5 polymorphisms on the clinical course of HIV-1 infection. PLoS Pathog 2008;4:e18.
52. Anderson J, Akkina R. CXCR4 and CCR5 shRNA transgenic CD34+ cell derived macrophages are functionally normal and resist HIV-1 infection. Retrovirology 2005;2:53.
53. Anderson JS, Walker J, Nolta JA, et al. Specific transduction of HIV-susceptible cells for CCR5 knockdown and resistance to HIV infection: a novel method for targeted gene therapy and intracellular immunization. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2009;52:152-61.
54. Neagu MR, Ziegler P, Pertel T, et al. Potent inhibition of HIV-1 by TRIM5-cyclophilin fusion proteins engineered from human components. J Clin Invest 2009;119:3035-47.
55. Dietrich I, Macintyre A, McMonagle E, et al. Potent lentiviral restriction by a synthetic feline TRIM5 cyclophilin A fusion. J Virol 2010;84:8980-5.
56. Malim MH, Emerman M. HIV-1 accessory proteins- ensuring viral survival in a hostile environment. Cell Host Microbe 2008;3:388-98.
57. Subbramanian RA, Cohen EA. Molecular biology of the human immunodeficiency virus accessory proteins. J Virol 1994;68:6831-5.
58. Volsky DJ, Potash MJ, Simm M, et al. The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 vif gene: the road from an accessory to an essential role in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1995;193:157-68.
59. Gabuzda DH, Lawrence K, Langhoff E, et al. Role of vif in replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in CD4+ T lymphocytes. J Virol 1992;66:6489-95.
60. Gabuzda DH, Li H, Lawrence K, et al. Essential role of vif in establishing productive HIV-1 infection in peripheral blood T lymphocytes and monocyte/macrophages. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1994;7:908-15.
61. Strebel K, Khan MA. APOBEC3G encapsidation into HIV-1 virions: which RNA is it? Retrovirology 2008;5:55.
62. Zou JX, Luciw PA. The requirement for Vif of SIVmac is cell-type dependent. J General Virol 1996;77:427-34.
63. Rosler C, Kock J, Kann M, et al. APOBEC-mediated interference with hepadnavirus production. Hepatology 2005; 42:301-9.
64. Vartanian JP, Henry M, Marchio A, et al. Massive APOBEC3 editing of hepatitis B viral DNA in cirrhosis. PLoS Pathog 2010;6:e1000928.
65. Jarmuz A, Chester A, Bayliss J, et al. An anthropoidspecific locus of orphan C to U RNA-editing enzymes on chromosome 22. Genomics 2002;79:285-96.
66. LaRue RS, Andresdottir V, Blanchard Y, et al. Guidelines for naming nonprimate APOBEC3 genes and proteins. J Virol 2009;83:494-7.
67. Strebel K, Daugherty D, Clouse K, et al. The HIV 'A' (sor) gene product is essential for virus infectivity. Nature 1987; 328:728-30.
68. Madani N, Kabat D. An endogenous inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes is overcome by the viral Vif protein. J Virol 1998;72:10251-5.
69. Simon JH, Gaddis NC, Fouchier RA, et al. Evidence for a newly discovered cellular anti-HIV-1 phenotype. Nat Med 1998;4:1397-400.
70. Soros VB, Yonemoto W, Greene WC. Newly synthesized APOBEC3G is incorporated into HIV virions, inhibited by HIV RNA, and subsequently activated by RNase H. PLoS Pathog 2007;3:e15.
71. Lecossier D, Bouchonnet F, Clavel F, et al. Hypermutation of HIV-1 DNA in the absence of the Vif protein. Science 2003;300:1112.
72. Mangeat B, Turelli P, Caron G, et al. Broad antiretroviral defence by human APOBEC3G through lethal editing of nascent reverse transcripts. Nature 2003;424:99-103.
73. Zhang H, Yang B, Pomerantz RJ, et al. The cytidine deaminase CEM15 induces hypermutation in newly synthesized HIV-1 DNA. Nature 2003;424:94-8.
74. Harris RS, Bishop KN, Sheehy AM, et al. DNA deamination mediates innate immunity to retroviral infection. Cell 2003;113:803-9.
75. Bishop KN, Holmes RK, Sheehy AM, et al. Cytidine deamination of retroviral DNA by diverse APOBEC proteins. Curr Biol 2004;14:1392-6.
76. Yu Q, Konig R, Pillai S, et al. Single-strand specificity of APOBEC3G accounts for minus-strand deamination of the HIV genome. Nat Struct Mol Biol 2004;11:435-42.
77. Suspene R, Sommer P, Henry M, et al. APOBEC3G is a single-stranded DNA cytidine deaminase and functions independently of HIV reverse transcriptase. Nucleic Acids Res 2004;32:2421-9.
78. Mariani R, Chen D, Schrofelbauer B, et al. Species-specific exclusion of APOBEC3G from HIV-1 virions by Vif. Cell 2003;114:21-31.
79. Schrofelbauer B, Yu Q, Zeitlin SG, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr induces the degradation of the UNG and SMUG uracil-DNA glycosylases. J Virol 2005; 79:10978-87.
80. Schumacher AJ, Hache G, Macduff DA, et al. The DNA deaminase activity of human APOBEC3G is required for Ty1, MusD, and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 restriction. J Virol 2008;82:2652-60.
81. Turelli P, Mangeat B, Jost S, et al. Inhibition of hepatitis B virus replication by APOBEC3G. Science 2004;303:1829.
82. Bogerd HP, Wiegand HL, Doehle BP, et al. APOBEC3A and APOBEC3B are potent inhibitors of LTR-retrotransposon function in human cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2006;34:89-95.
83. Muckenfuss H, Hamdorf M, Held U, et al. APOBEC3 proteins inhibit human LINE-1 retrotransposition. J Biol Chem 2006;281:22161-72.
84. Stenglein MD, Harris RS. APOBEC3B and APOBEC3F inhibit L1 retrotransposition by a DNA deamination-independent mechanism. J Biol Chem 2006;281:16837-41.
85. Holmes RK, Malim MH, Bishop KN. APOBEC-mediated viral restriction: not simply editing? Trends Biochem Sci 2007;32:118-28.
86. Bonvin M, Greeve J. Hepatitis B: modern concepts in pathogenesis-APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases as effectors in innate immunity against the hepatitis B virus. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2008;21:298-303.
87. Stopak K, de Noronha C, Yonemoto W, et al. HIV-1 Vif blocks the antiviral activity of APOBEC3G by impairing both its translation and intracellular stability. Mol Cell 2003; 12:591-601.
88. Iwatani Y, Takeuchi H, Strebel K, et al. Biochemical activities of highly purified, catalytically active human APOBEC3G: correlation with antiviral effect. J Virol 2006;80:5992-6002.
89. Mbisa JL, Barr R, Thomas JA, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 cDNAs produced in the presence of APOBEC3G exhibit defects in plus-strand DNA transfer and integration. J Virol 2007;81:7099-110.
90. Newman EN, Holmes RK, Craig HM, et al. Antiviral function of APOBEC3G can be dissociated from cytidine deaminase activity. Curr Biol 2005;15:166-70.
91. Miyagi E, Opi S, Takeuchi H, et al. Enzymatically active APOBEC3G is required for efficient inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Virol 2007;81:13346-53.
92. Bishop KN, Verma M, Kim EY, et al. APOBEC3G inhibits elongation of HIV-1 reverse transcripts. PLoS Pathog 2008;4:e1000231.
93. Chen K, Huang J, Zhang C, et al. Alpha interferon potently enhances the anti-human immunodeficiency virus type 1 activity of APOBEC3G in resting primary CD4 T cells. J Virol 2006;80:7645-57.
94. Albin JS, Hache G, Hultquist JF, et al. Long-term restriction by APOBEC3F selects human immunodeficiency virus type 1 variants with restored Vif function. J Virol 2010;84:10209-19.
95. Zheng YH, Irwin D, Kurosu T, et al. Human APOBEC3F is another host factor that blocks human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication. J Virol 2004;78:6073-6.
96. Burnett A, Spearman P. APOBEC3G multimers are recruited to the plasma membrane for packaging into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 virus-like particles in an RNA-dependent process requiring the NC basic linker. J Virol 2007;81:5000-13.
97. Navarro F, Bollman B, Chen H, et al. Complementary function of the two catalytic domains of APOBEC3G. Virology 2005;333:374-86.
98. Bennett RP, Salter JD, Liu X, et al. APOBEC3G subunits self-associate via the C-terminal deaminase domain. J Biol Chem 2008;283:33329-36.
99. Chiu YL, Soros VB, Kreisberg JF, et al. Cellular APOBEC3G restricts HIV-1 infection in resting CD4+ T cells. Nature 2005;435:108-14.
100. Sheehy AM, Gaddis NC, Malim MH. The antiretroviral enzyme APOBEC3G is degraded by the proteasome in response to HIV-1 Vif. Nat Med 2003;9:1404-7.
101. Conticello SG, Harris RS, Neuberger MS. The Vif protein of HIV triggers degradation of the human antiretroviral DNA deaminase APOBEC3G. Curr Biol 2003;13:2009-13.
102. Marin M, Rose KM, Kozak SL,et al. HIV-1 Vif protein binds the editing enzyme APOBEC3G and induces its degradation. Nat Med 2003;9:1398-403.
103. Yu X, Yu Y, Liu B, et al. Induction of APOBEC3G ubiquitination and degradation by an HIV-1 Vif-Cul5-SCF complex. Science 2003;302:1056-60.
104. Mehle A, Goncalves J, Santa-Marta M, et al. Phosphorylation of a novel SOCS-box regulates assembly of the HIV-1 Vif-Cul5 complex that promotes APOBEC3G degradation. Genes Dev 2004;18:2861-6.
105. Yu Y, Xiao Z, Ehrlich ES, et al. Selective assembly of HIV-1 VifCul5-ElonginB-ElonginC E3 ubiquitin ligase complex through a novel SOCS box and upstream cysteines. Genes Dev 2004;18:2867-72.
106. Kao S, Khan MA, Miyagi E, et al. The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif protein reduces intracellular expression and inhibits packaging of APOBEC3G (CEM15), a cellular inhibitor of virus infectivity. J Virol 2003;77: 11398-407.
107. Berkhout B, de Ronde A. APOBEC3G versus reverse transcriptase in the generation of HIV-1 drug-resistance mutations. AIDS 2004;18:1861-3.
108. Hache G, Mansky LM, Harris RS. Human APOBEC3 proteins, retrovirus restriction, and HIV drug resistance. AIDS Rev 2006;8:148-57.
109. Pillai SK, Wong JK, Barbour JD. Turning up the volume on mutational pressure: is more of a good thing always better? (A case study of HIV-1 Vif and APOBEC3). Retrovirology 2008;5:26.
110. Jern P, Russell RA, Pathak VK, et al. Likely role of APOBEC3G mediated G-to-A mutations in HIV-1 evolution and drug resistance. PLoS Pathog 2009;5:e1000367.
111. Wood N, Bhattacharya T, Keele BF, et al. HIV evolution in early infection: selection pressures, patterns of insertion and deletion, and the impact of APOBEC. PLoS Pathog 2009;5:e1000414.
112. Hultquist JF, Harris RS. Leveraging APOBEC3 proteins to alter the HIV mutation rate and combat AIDS. Future Virol 2009;4:605.
113. Mehle A, Wilson H, Zhang C, et al. Identification of an APOBEC3G binding site in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif and inhibitors of Vif-APOBEC3G binding. J Virol 2007;81:13235-41.
114. He Z, Zhang W, Chen G, et al. Characterization of conserved motifs in HIV-1 Vif required for APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F interaction. J Mol Biol 2008;381:1000-11.
115. Russell RA, Pathak VK. Identification of two distinct human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif determinants critical for interactions with human APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F. J Virol 2007;81:8201-10.
116. Pery E, Rajendran KS, Brazier AJ, et al. Regulation of APOBEC3 proteins by a novel YXXL motif in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif and simian immunodeficiency virus SIVagm Vif. J Virol 2009;83:2374-81.
117. Dang Y, Wang X, Zhou T, et al. Identification of a novel WxSLVK motif in the N terminus of human immunodeficiency virus and simian immunodeficiency virus Vif that is critical for APOBEC3G and APOBEC3F neutralization. J Virol 2009;83:8544-52.
118. Chen G, He Z, Wang T, et al. A patch of positively charged amino acids surrounding the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vif SLVx4Yx9Y motif influences its interaction with APOBEC3G. J Virol 2009;83:8674-82.
119. Harris RS, Petersen-Mahrt SK, Neuberger MS. RNA editing enzyme APOBEC1 and some of its homologs can act as DNA mutators. Molecular Cell 2002;10:1247-53.
120. Kidd JM, Newman TL, Tuzun E, et al. Population stratification of a common APOBEC gene deletion polymorphism. PLoS genetics 2007;3:e63.
121. An P, Johnson R, Phair J, et al. APOBEC3B deletion and risk of HIV-1 acquisition. J Infectious Diseases 2009;200: 1054-8.
122. Nathans R, Cao H, Sharova N, et al. Small-molecule inhibition of HIV-1 Vif. Nature Biotechnol 2008;26:1187-92.
123. Cen S, Peng ZG, Li XY, et al. Small molecular compounds inhibit HIV-1 replication through specifically stabilizing APOBEC3G. J Biol Chem 2010;285:16546-52.
124. Land AM, Ball TB, Luo M, et al. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 proviral hypermutation correlates with CD4 count in HIV-infected women from Kenya. J Virol 2008;82:8172-82.
125. Vazquez-Perez JA, Ormsby CE, Hernandez-Juan R, et al. APOBEC3G mRNA expression in exposed seronegative and early stage HIV infected individuals decreases with removal of exposure and with disease progression. Retrovirology 2009;6:23.
126. Jin X, Brooks A, Chen H, et al. APOBEC3G/CEM15 (hA3G) mRNA levels associate inversely with human immunodeficiency virus viremia. J Virol 2005;79:11513-6.
127. Cho SJ, Drechsler H, Burke RC, et al. APOBEC3F and APOBEC3G mRNA levels do not correlate with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 plasma viremia or CD4+ T-cell count. J Virol 2006;80:2069-72.
128. Ulenga NK, Sarr AD, Hamel D, et al. The level of APOBEC3G (hA3G)-related G-to-A mutations does not correlate with viral load in HIV type 1-infected individuals. AIDS Rese Hum Retroviruses 2008;24:1285-90.
129. Reddy K, Winkler CA, Werner L, et al. APOBEC3G expression is dysregulated in primary HIV-1 infection and polymorphic variants influence CD4+ T-cell counts and plasma viral load. AIDS 2010;24:195-204.
130. Klimkait T, Strebel K, Hoggan MD, et al. The human immunodeficiency virus type 1-specific protein vpu is required for efficient virus maturation and release. J Virol 1990;64:621-9.
131. Yasuda Y, Miyake S, Kato S, et al. Interferon-alpha treatment leads to accumulation of virus particles on the surface of cells persistently infected with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 1990; 3:1046-51.
132. Dianzani F, Castilletti C, Gentile M, et al. Effects of IFN alpha on late stages of HIV-1 replication cycle. Biochimie 1998;80:745-54.
133. Sakai H, Tokunaga K, Kawamura M, et al. Function of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein in various cell types. J Gen Virol 1995;76:2717-22.
134. Neil SJ, Eastman SW, Jouvenet N, et al. HIV-1 Vpu promotes release and prevents endocytosis of nascent retrovirus particles from the plasma membrane. PLoS Pathog 2006;2:e39.
135. Gottlinger HG, Dorfman T, Cohen EA, et al. Vpu protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhances the release of capsids produced by gag gene constructs of widely divergent retroviruses. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1993;90:7381-5.
136. Neil SJ, Zang T, Bieniasz PD. Tetherin inhibits retrovirus release and is antagonized by HIV-1 Vpu. Nature 2008; 451:425-30.
137. Van Damme N, Goff D, Katsura C, et al. The interferoninduced protein BST-2 restricts HIV-1 release and is downregulated from the cell surface by the viral Vpu protein. Cell Host Microbe 2008;3:245-52.
138. Bartee E, McCormack A, Fruh K. Quantitative membrane proteomics reveals new cellular targets of viral immune modulators. PLoS Pathog 2006;2:e107.
139. Kupzig S, Korolchuk V, Rollason R, et al. Bst-2/HM1.24 is a raft-associated apical membrane protein with an unusual topology. Traffic 2003;4:694-709.
140. Rollason R, Korolchuk V, Hamilton C, et al. Clathrinmediated endocytosis of a lipid-raft-associated protein is mediated through a dual tyrosine motif. J Cell Science 2007;120:3850-8.
141. Mansouri M, Viswanathan K, Douglas JL, et al. Molecular mechanism of BST2/tetherin downregulation by K5/MIR2 of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus. J Virol 2009;83:9672-81.
142. Jia B, Serra-Moreno R, Neidermyer W, et al. Speciesspecific activity of SIV Nef and HIV-1 Vpu in overcoming restriction by tetherin/BST2. PLoS Pathog 2009;5: e1000429.
143. Perez-Caballero D, Zang T, Ebrahimi A, et al. Tetherin inhibits HIV-1 release by directly tethering virions to cells. Cell 2009;139:499-511.
144. Andrew AJ, Miyagi E, Kao S, et al. The formation of cysteine-linked dimers of BST-2/tetherin is important for inhibition of HIV-1 virus release but not for sensitivity to Vpu. Retrovirology 2009;6:80.
145. Hinz A, Miguet N, Natrajan G, et al. Structural basis of HIV-1 tethering to membranes by the BST-2/tetherin ectodomain. Cell Host Microbe 2010;7:314-23.
146. Nguyen DH, Hildreth JE. Evidence for budding of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 selectively from glycolipidenriched membrane lipid rafts. J Virol 2000; 74: 3264-72.
147. Panchal RG, Ruthel G, Kenny TA, et al. In vivo oligomerization and raft localization of Ebola virus protein VP40 during vesicular budding. Proc Natl Acad ScI USA 2003; 100:15936-41.
148. Neil SJ, Sandrin V, Sundquist WI. An interferon-alphainduced tethering mechanism inhibits HIV-1 and Ebola virus particle release but is counteracted by the HIV-1 Vpu protein. Cell Host Microbe 2007;2: 193-203.
149. Beignon AS, McKenna K, Skoberne M, et al. Endocytosis of HIV-1 activates plasmacytoid dendritic cells via Tolllike receptor-viral RNA interactions. J Clin Investigation 2005;115:3265-75.
150. Haupt S, Donhauser N, Chaipan C, et al. CD4 binding affinity determines human immunodeficiency virus type 1 induced alpha interferon production in plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Virol 2008;82:8900-5.
151. Mandl JN, Barry AP, Vanderford TH, et al. Divergent TLR7 and TLR9 signaling and type I interferon production distinguish pathogenic and nonpathogenic AIDS virus infections. Nat Med 2008;14:1077-87.
152. Blasius AL, Giurisato E, Cella M, et al. Bone marrow stromal cell antigen 2 is a specific marker of type I IFNproducing cells in the naive mouse, but a promiscuous cell surface antigen following IFN stimulation. J Immunol 2006;177:3260-5.
153. Kaletsky RL, Simmons G, Bates P. Proteolysis of the Ebola virus glycoproteins enhances virus binding and infectivity. J Virol 2007;81:13378-84.
154. Casartelli N, Sourisseau M, Feldmann J, et al. Tetherin restricts productive HIV-1 cell-to-cell transmission. PLoS Pathog 2010;6:e1000955.
155. Sauter D, Schindler M, Specht A, et al. Tetherin-driven adaptation of Vpu and Nef function and the evolution of pandemic and nonpandemic HIV-1 strains. Cell Host Microbe 2009;6:409-21.
156. Zhang F, Wilson SJ, Landford WC, et al. Nef proteins from simian immunodeficiency viruses are tetherin antagonists. Cell Host Microbe 2009;6:54-67.
157. Rong L, Zhang J, Lu J, et al. The transmembrane domain of BST-2 determines its sensitivity to down-modulation by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu. J Virol 2009;83:7536-46.
158. McNatt MW, Zang T, Hatziioannou T, et al. Speciesspecific activity of HIV-1 Vpu and positive selection of tetherin transmembrane domain variants. PLoS Pathog 2009;5:e1000300.
159. Schubert U, Bour S, Ferrer-Montiel AV,et al. The two biological activities of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpu protein involve two separable structural domains. J Virol 1996;70:809-19.
160. Miyagi E, Andrew AJ, Kao S, et al. Vpu enhances HIV-1 virus release in the absence of Bst-2 cell surface downmodulation and intracellular depletion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2009;106:2868-73.
161. Douglas JL, Viswanathan K, McCarroll MN, et al. Vpu directs the degradation of the human immunodeficiency virus restriction factor BST-2/Tetherin via a{beta}TrCPdependent mechanism. J Virol 2009;83:7931-47.
162. Goffinet C, Allespach I, Homann S, et al. HIV-1 antagonism of CD317 is species specific and involves Vpu-mediated proteasomal degradation of the restriction factor. Cell Host Microbe 2009;5:285-97.
163. Iwabu Y, Fujita H, Kinomoto M, et al. HIV-1 accessory protein Vpu internalizes cell-surface BST-2/tetherin through transmembrane interactions leading to lysosomes. J Biol Chem 2009;284:35060-72.
164. Mangeat B, Gers-Huber G, Lehmann M, et al. HIV-1 Vpu neutralizes the antiviral factor Tetherin/BST-2 by binding it and directing its beta-TrCP2-dependent degradation. PLoS Pathog 2009;5:e1000574.