Ileus and Pseudo-obstruction

Sleisenger and Fordtran’s Gastrointestinal and Liver Disease- 2 Volume Set: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Management, Expert Consult Premium Edition - Enhanced Online Features and Print

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 2121-2144

  Foxx Orenstein, Amy E ^a,b  

^a Mayo Clinic College of Medicine   (United States)

^b MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 79955120116     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-6189-2.00120-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (240)

1. Antonucci A., Fronzoni L., Cogliandro L., et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction World J Gastroenterol 14 19 2008 2953-2961(Ref 113.)
2. Apfel CC., Korttila K., Abdalla M., et al. A factorial trial of six interventions for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting N Engl J Med 350 2004 2441-2451(Ref 77.)
3. Bauer AJ., Boeckxstaens GE Mechanisms of postoperative ileus Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 Suppl 2 2004 54-60(Ref 17.)
4. Bauer TM., Schwacha H., Steinbruckner B., et al. Diagnosis of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with cirrhosis of the liver: poor performance of the glucose breath hydrogen test J Hepatol 33 2000 382-386(Ref 212.)
5. De Giorgio R., Guerrini S., Barbara G., et al. Inflammatory neuropathies of the enteric nervous system Gastroenterology 126 2004 1872-1883(Ref 134.)
6. Ebert EC., Nagar M Gastrointestinal manifestations of amyloidosis Am J Gastroenterol 103 2008 776-787(Ref 182.)
7. 2-Adrenergic regulation of NO production alters postoperative intestinal smooth muscle dysfunction in rodents Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 287 2004 G658-G666(Ref 40.)
8. Luckey A., Livingston E., Tache Y Mechanisms and treatment of postoperative ileus Arch Surg 138 2003 206-214(Ref 19.)
9. Pironi L., Spinucci G., Paganelli F., et al. Italian guidelines for intestinal transplantation: potential candidates among the adult patients managed by a medical referral center for chronic intestinal failure Transplant Proc 36 2004 659-661(Ref 228.)
10. Vanek VW., Al-Salti M Acute pseudo-obstruction of the colon (Ogilvie’s syndrome). An analysis of 400 cases Dis Colon Rectum 29 1986 203-210(Ref 3.)
11. Prasad M., Matthews JB Deflating postoperative ileus Gastroenterology 117 2 1999 489-492.
12. Moons V., Coremans G., Tack J An update on acute colonic pseudo-obstruction (Ogilvie’s syndrome) Acta Gastroenterol Belg 66 2 2003 150-153.
13. Vanek VW., Al-Salti M Acute pseudo-obstruction of the colon (Ogilvie’s syndrome). An analysis of 400 cases Dis Colon Rectum 29 3 1986 203-210.
14. Kadesky K., Purdue GF., Hunt JL Acute pseudo-obstruction in critically ill patients with burns J Burn Care Rehab 16 2 Pt 1 1995 132-135.
15. Saunders MD Acute colonic pseudo-obstruction Gastrointest Endos Clin North Am 17 2 2007 341-360.
16. Lyford G., Foxx-Orenstein AE Chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction Curr Treat Gastroenterol 7 4 2004 317-325.
17. Kashyap P., Farrugia G Enteric autoantibodies and gut motility disorders Gastroenterol Clin North Am 37 2 2008 397-410.
18. Newton WT Radical enterectomy for hereditary megaduodenum Arch Surg 96 4 1968 549-553.
19. Byrne WJ., Cipel L., Euler AR., et al. Chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction syndrome in children-clinical characteristics and prognosis J Pediatr 90 4 1977 585-589.
20. Wood JD., Grundy D Little brain-big brain V Neurogastroenterol Motil 10 5 1998 377-385.
21. Thuneberg L Interstitial cells of Cajal: intestinal pacemaker cells? Adv Anat Embryol Cell Biol 71 1982 1-130.
22. Furness JB., Kunze WA., Clerc N Nutrient tasting and signaling mechanisms in the gut. II. The intestine as a sensory organ: neural, endocrine, and immune responses Am J Physiol 277 5 Pt 1 1999 G922-G928.
23. 4 receptor agonists initiate the peristaltic reflex in human, rat, and guinea pig intestine Gastroenterology 115 2 1998 370-380.
24. Pomeranz HD., Rothman TP., Gershon MD Colonization of the post-umbilical bowel by cells derived from the sacral neural crest: direct tracing of cell migration using an intercalating probe and a replication-deficient retrovirus Development 111 3 1991 647-655.
25. Fu CG., Muto T., Masaki T., Nagawa H Zonal adult Hirschsprung’s disease Gut 39 5 1996 765-767.
26. Miedema BW., Johnson JO Methods for decreasing postoperative gut dysmotility Lancet Oncol 4 6 2003 365-372.
27. Bauer AJ., Boeckxstaens GE Mechanisms of postoperative ileus Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 Suppl 2 2004 54-60.
28. Mattei P., Rombeau JL Review of the pathophysiology and management of postoperative ileus World J Surg 30 8 2006 1382-1391.
29. Luckey A., Livingston E., Tache Y Mechanisms and treatment of postoperative ileus Arch Surg 138 2 2003 206-214.
30. Livingston EH., Passaro EP Jr Postoperative ileus Dig Dis Sci 35 1 1990 121-132.
31. Holte K., Kehlet H Postoperative ileus: a preventable event Br J Surg 87 11 2000 1480-1493.
32. Holte K., Kehlet H Postoperative ileus: progress towards effective management Drugs 62 18 2002 2603-2615.
33. Artinyan A., Nunoo-Mensah JW., Balasubramaniam S., et al. Prolonged postoperative ileus-definition, risk factors, and predictors after surgery World J Surg 32 7 2008 1495-1500.
34. Holzer P., Lippe IT., Amann R Participation of capsaicin-sensitive afferent neurons in gastric motor inhibition caused by laparotomy and intraperitoneal acid Neuroscience 48 3 1992 715-722.
35. Espat NJ., Cheng G., Kelley MC., et al. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and substance P receptor antagonists improve postoperative ileus J Surg Res 58 6 1995 719-723.
36. De Winter BY., Robberecht P., Boeckxstaens GE., et al. Role of VIP1/PACAP receptors in postoperative ileus in rats Br J Pharmacol 124 6 1998 1181-1186.
37. Bonaz B., Tache Y Corticotropin-releasing factor and systemic capsaicin-sensitive afferents are involved in abdominal surgery-induced Fos expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus Brain Res 748 1-2 1997 12-20.
38. Aikawa S., Ishii M., Yanagisawa M., et al. Effect of neuropeptide B on feeding behavior is influenced by endogenous corticotropin-releasing factor activities Regul Pept 151 1-3 2008 147-152.
39. Tache Y., Martinez V., Million M., Wang L Stress and the gastrointestinal tract III. Stress-related alterations of gut motor function: role of brain corticotropin-releasing factor receptors Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 280 2 2001 G173-G177.
40. Tache Y., Monnikes H., Bonaz B., Rivier J Role of CRF in stress-related alterations of gastric and colonic motor function Ann N Y Acad Sci 697 1993 233-243.
41. Greenwood-Van Meerveld B Emerging drugs for postoperative ileus Expert Opin Emerg Drugs 12 4 2007 619-626.
42. Evangelista S Role of sensory neurons in restitution and healing of gastric ulcers Curr Pharma Des 12 23 2006 2977-2984.
43. Kalff JC., Turler A., Schwarz NT., et al. Intra-abdominal activation of a local inflammatory response within the human muscularis externa during laparotomy Ann Surg 237 3 2003 301-315.
44. Schwarz NT., Beer-Stolz D., Simmons RL., Bauer AJ Pathogenesis of paralytic ileus: intestinal manipulation opens a transient pathway between the intestinal lumen and the leukocytic infiltrate of the jejunal muscularis Ann Surg 235 1 2002 31-40.
45. De Jonge WJ., The FO., van der Zanden EP., et al. Inflammation and gut motility: neural control of intestinal immune cell activation J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutri 41 Suppl 1 2005 S10-S11.
46. The FO., de Jonge WJ., Bennink RJ., et al. The ICAM-1 antisense oligonucleotide ISIS-3082 prevents the development of postoperative ileus in mice Br J Pharmacol 146 2 2005 252-258.
47. Turler A., Moore BA., Pezzone MA., et al. Colonic postoperative inflammatory ileus in the rat Ann Surg 236 1 2002 56-66.
48. Blandizzi C., Fornai M., Colucci R., et al. Altered prejunctional modulation of intestinal cholinergic and noradrenergic pathways by alpha2-adrenoceptors in the presence of experimental colitis Br J Pharmacol 139 2 2003 309-320.
49. Blandizzi C Enteric alpha-2 adrenoceptors: pathophysiological implications in functional and inflammatory bowel disorders Neurochem Int 51 5 2007 282-288.
50. 2-Adrenergic regulation of NO production alters postoperative intestinal smooth muscle dysfunction in rodents Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 287 3 2004 G658-G666.
51. Lang K., Boldt J., Suttner S., Haisch G Colloids versus crystalloids and tissue oxygen tension in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery Anesth Analg 93 2 2001 405-409.
52. Lobo DN., Bostock KA., Neal KR., et al. Effect of salt and water balance on recovery of gastrointestinal function after elective colonic resection: a randomised controlled trial Lancet 359 9320 2002 1812-1818.
53. Bundgaard-Nielsen M., Holte K., Secher NH., Kehlet H Monitoring of peri-operative fluid administration by individualized goal-directed therapy Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 51 3 2007 331-340.
54. Ogilvy AJ., Smith G The gastrointestinal tract after anaesthesia Eur J Anaesthesiol Suppl 10 1995 35-42.
55. Holte K., Kehlet H Epidural anaesthesia and analgesia-effects on surgical stress responses and implications for postoperative nutrition Clin Nutr 21 3 2002 199-206.
56. Liu S., Carpenter RL., Neal JM Epidural anesthesia and analgesia. Their role in postoperative outcome Anesthesiology 82 6 1995 1474-1506.
57. Steinbrook RA Epidural anesthesia and gastrointestinal motility Anesth Analg 86 4 1998 837-844.
58. Neudecker J., Schwenk W., Junghans T., et al. Randomized controlled trial to examine the influence of thoracic epidural analgesia on postoperative ileus after laparoscopic sigmoid resection Br J Surg 86 10 1999 1292-1295.
59. Delaney CP Clinical perspective on postoperative ileus and the effect of opiates Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 Suppl 2 2004 61-66.
60. Yoshida S., Ohta J., Yamasaki K., et al. Effect of surgical stress on endogenous morphine and cytokine levels in the plasma after laparoscopic or open cholecystectomy Surg Endosc 14 2 2000 137-140.
61. Kurz A., Sessler DI Opioid-induced bowel dysfunction: pathophysiology and potential new therapies Drugs 63 7 2003 649-671.
62. Manara L., Bianchetti A The central and peripheral influences of opioids on gastrointestinal propulsion Ann Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 25 1985 249-273.
63. Foxx-Orenstein AE., Jin JG., Grider JR 5-HT4 receptor agonists and delta-opioid receptor antagonists act synergistically to stimulate colonic propulsion Am J Physiol 275 5 Pt 1 1998 G979-G983.
64. Frantzides CT., Condon RE., Schulte WJ., Cowles V Effects of morphine on colonic myoelectric and motor activity in subhuman primates Am J Physiol 258 2 Pt 1 1990 G247-G252.
65. Borody TJ., Quigley EM., Phillips SF., et al. Effects of morphine and atropine on motility and transit in the human ileum Gastroenterology 89 3 1985 562-570.
66. Mangesi L, Hofmeyr G. Early compared with delayed oral fluids and food after caesarean section. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002(3):CD003516.
67. Johnson Casto C., Krammer J., Drake J Postoperative feeding: a clinical review Obstet Gynecol Surv 55 9 2000 571-573.
68. Cheatham ML., Chapman WC., Key SP., Sawyers JL A meta-analysis of selective versus routine nasogastric decompression after elective laparotomy Ann Surg 221 5 1995 469-476.
69. Nelson R., Tse B., Edwards S Systematic review of prophylactic nasogastric decompression after abdominal operations Br J Surg 92 6 2005 673-680.
70. Waldhausen JH., Schirmer BD The effect of ambulation on recovery from postoperative ileus Ann Surg 212 6 1990 671-677.
71. Lacy AM., Garcia-Valdecasas JC., Delgado S., et al. Postoperative complications of laparoscopic-assisted colectomy Surg Endosc 11 2 1997 119-122.
72. Leung KL., Lai PB., Ho RL., et al. Systemic cytokine response after laparoscopic-assisted resection of rectosigmoid carcinoma: A prospective randomized trial Ann Surg 231 4 2000 506-511.
73. Bohm B., Milsom JW., Fazio VW Postoperative intestinal motility following conventional and laparoscopic intestinal surgery Arch Surg 130 4 1995 415-419.
74. Davies W., Kollmorgen CF., Tu QM., et al. Laparoscopic colectomy shortens postoperative ileus in a canine model Surgery 121 5 1997 550-555.
75. Brodner G., van Aken H., Kehlet H Influence of thoracic epidural anaesthesia on the metabolic stress response Best Pract Res Clin Anaesth 13 1 1999 23-29.
76. Bredtmann RD., Herden HN., Teichmann W., et al. Epidural analgesia in colonic surgery: results of a randomized prospective study Br J Surg 77 6 1990 638-642.
77. Asantila R., Eklund P., Rosenberg PH Continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine and morphine for postoperative analgesia after hysterectomy Acta Anaesth Scand 35 6 1991 513-517.
78. Jorgensen H., Fomsgaard JS., Dirks J., et al. Effect of peri-and postoperative epidural anaesthesia on pain and gastrointestinal function after abdominal hysterectomy Br J Anaesth 87 4 2001 577-583.
79. Kehlet H Fast-track colorectal surgery Lancet 371 9615 2008 791-793.
80. Werawatganon T, Charuluxanun S. Patient controlled intravenous opioid analgesia versus continuous epidural analgesia for pain after intra-abdominal surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005(1):CD004088.
81. Kehlet H., Dahl JB Anaesthesia, surgery, and challenges in postoperative recovery Lancet 362 9399 2003 1921-1928.
82. White PF., Kehlet H., Neal JM., et al. The role of the anesthesiologist in fast-track surgery: from multimodal analgesia to perioperative medical care Anesth Analg 104 6 2007 1380-1396.
83. Holte K., Kehlet H Fluid therapy and surgical outcomes in elective surgery: a need for reassessment in fast-track surgery J Am Coll Surg 202 6 2006 971-989.
84. Jans O., Tollund C., Bundgaard-Nielsen M., et al. Goal-directed fluid therapy: stroke volume optimisation and cardiac dimensions in supine healthy humans Acta Anaesth Scand 52 4 2008 536-540.
85. Gan TJ., Meyer TA., Apfel CC., et al. Society for Ambulatory Anesthesia guidelines for the management of postoperative nausea and vomiting Anesth Analg 105 6 2007 1615-1628.
86. Sinclair DR., Chung F., Mezei G Can postoperative nausea and vomiting be predicted? Anesthesiology 91 1 1999 109-118.
87. Apfel CC., Korttila K., Abdalla M., et al. A factorial trial of six interventions for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting N Engl J Med 350 24 2004 2441-2451.
88. Chan MK., Law WL Use of chewing gum in reducing postoperative ileus after elective colorectal resection: a systematic review Dis Colon Rectum 50 12 2007 2149-2157.
89. Vasquez W., Hernandez A., Garcia-Sabrido J Is gum chewing useful for ileus after elective colorectal surgery? A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials J Gastrointest Surg 13 4 2009 649-656.
90. Kehlet H Postoperative ileus-an update on preventive techniques Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol 5 10 2008 552-558.
91. Lewis S., Andersen H., Thomas S Early enteral nutrition within 24 h of intestinal surgery versus later commencement of feeding: a systematic review and meta-analysis J Gastrointest Surg J Gastrointest Surg 13 3 2009 569-575.
92. Carr CS., Ling KD., Boulos P., Singer M Randomised trial of safety and efficacy of immediate postoperative enteral feeding in patients undergoing gastrointestinal resection BMJ 312 7035 1996 869-871.
93. Andersen HK, Lewis SJ, Thomas S. Early enteral nutrition within 24h of colorectal surgery versus later commencement of feeding for postoperative complications. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006(4):CD004080.
94. Spindler JS., Mehlisch D., Brown CR Intramuscular ketorolac and morphine in the treatment of moderate to severe pain after major surgery Pharmacotherapy 10 6(Pt 2 1990 51S-58S.
95. Schlachta CM., Burpee SE., Fernandez C., et al. Optimizing recovery after laparoscopic colon surgery (ORAL-CS): effect of intravenous ketorolac on length of hospital stay Surg Endosc 21 12 2007 2212-2219.
96. Kaba A., Laurent SR., Detroz BJ., et al. Intravenous lidocaine infusion facilitates acute rehabilitation after laparoscopic colectomy Anesthesiology 106 1 2007 11-18.
97. Kehlet H Postoperative opioid sparing to hasten recovery: what are the issues? Anesthesiology 102 6 2005 1083-1085.
98. Zutshi M., Delaney CP., Senagore AJ., et al. Randomized controlled trial comparing the controlled rehabilitation with early ambulation and diet pathway versus the controlled rehabilitation with early ambulation and diet with preemptive epidural anesthesia/analgesia after laparotomy and intestinal resection Am J Surg 189 3 2005 268-272.
99. Delaney CP., Wolff BG., Viscusi ER., et al. Alvimopan, for postoperative ileus following bowel resection: a pooled analysis of phase III studies Ann Surg 245 3 2007 355-363.
100. Wolff BG., Viscusi ER., Delaney CP., et al. Patterns of gastrointestinal recovery after bowel resection and total abdominal hysterectomy: pooled results from the placebo arms of alvimopan phase III North American clinical trials J Am Coll Surg 205 1 2007 43-51.
101. Wolff BG., Weese JL., Ludwig KA., et al. Postoperative ileus-related morbidity profile in patients treated with alvimopan after bowel resection J Am Coll Surg 204 4 2007 609-616.
102. Traut U, Brugger L, Kunz R, et al. Systemic prokinetic pharmacologic treatment for postoperative adynamic ileus following abdominal surgery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008(1):CD004930.
103. Thomas J., Karver S., Cooney GA., et al. Methylnaltrexone for opioid-induced constipation in advanced illness N Engl J Med 358 22 2008 2332-2343.
104. Brown TA., McDonald J., Williard W A prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of cisapride after colorectal surgery Am J Surg 177 5 1999 399-401.
105. Wiriyakosol S., Kongdan Y., Euanorasetr C., et al. Randomized controlled trial of bisacodyl suppository versus placebo for postoperative ileus after elective colectomy for colon cancer Asian J Surg 30 3 2007 167-172.
106. Fanning J., Yu-Brekke S Prospective trial of aggressive postoperative bowel stimulation following radical hysterectomy Gynecol Oncol 73 3 1999 412-414.
107. Hansen CT., Sorensen M., Moller C., et al. Effect of laxatives on gastrointestinal functional recovery in fast-track hysterectomy: a double-blind, placebo-controlled randomized study Am J Obstet Gynecol 196 4 2007 311.e1-311.e7.
108. Zargar-Shoshtari K., Connolly AB., Israel LH., Hill AG Fast-track surgery may reduce complications following major colonic surgery Dis Colon Rectum 51 11 2008 1633-1640.
109. Wind J., Polle SW., Fung Kon Jin PHP., et al. Systematic review of enhanced recovery programmes in colonic surgery Br J Surg 93 7 2006 800-809.
110. Khoo CK., Vickery CJ., Forsyth N., et al. A prospective randomized controlled trial of multimodal perioperative management protocol in patients undergoing elective colorectal resection for cancer Ann Surg 245 6 2007 867-872.
111. Ogilvie W Large-intestine colic due to sympathetic deprivation Br Med J 2 1948 671-673.
112. De Giorgio R., Barbara G., Stanghellini V., et al. Review article: the pharmacological treatment of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction Aliment Pharmacol Ther 15 11 2001 1717-1727.
113. Saunders MD., Kimmey MB Systematic review: acute colonic pseudo-obstruction Aliment Pharmacol Ther 22 10 2005 917-925.
114. Geller A., Petersen BT., Gostout CJ Endoscopic decompression for acute colonic pseudo-obstruction Gastrointest Endosc 44 2 1996 144-150.
115. Lowman R., Davis L An evaluation of cecal size in impending perforation of the colon Surg Gynecol Obstet 16 1956 711-718.
116. Guenaga KF, Matos D, Castro AA, et al. Mechanical bowel preparation for elective colorectal surgery. [update in Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005; (1):CD001544; PMID: 15674882]. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003(2):CD001544.
117. Fukatsu K., Zarzaur BL., Johnson CD., et al. Enteral nutrition prevents remote organ injury and death after a gut ischemic insult Ann Surg 233 5 2001 660-668.
118. De Giorgio R., Stanghellini V., Barbara G., et al. Prokinetics in the treatment of acute intestinal pseudo-obstruction Idrugs 7 2 2004 160-165.
119. Ponec RJ., Saunders MD., Kimmey MB Neostigmine for the treatment of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction N Engl J Med 341 3 1999 137-141.
120. De Giorgio R., Knowles CH Acute colon pseudo-obstruction Br J Surg 96 2009 223-239.
121. Saunders MD Acute colonic pseudo-obstruction Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 21 4 2007 671-687.
122. Ramage JI Jr., Baron TH Percutaneous endoscopic cecostomy: a case series Gastrointest Endosc 57 6 2003 752-755.
123. Antonucci A., Fronzoni L., Cogliandro L., et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction World J Gastroenterol 14 19 2008 2953-2961.
124. Krishnamurthy S., Schuffler MD Pathology of neuromuscular disorders of the small intestine and colon Gastroenterology 93 3 1987 610-639.
125. De Giorgio R., Sarnelli G., Corinaldesi R., Stanghellini V Advances in our understanding of the pathology of chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction Gut 53 11 2004 1549-1552.
126. Deglincerti A., De Giorgio R., Cefle K., et al. A novel locus for syndromic chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction maps to chromosome 8q23-q24 Eur J Hum Genet 15 8 2007 889-897.
127. De Giorgio R., Guerrini S., Barbara G., et al. New insights into human enteric neuropathies Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 Suppl 1 2004 143-147.
128. Talamonti L., Li Q., Beyak M., et al. Sensory-motor abnormalities in severe gut dysmotility: role of anti-HuD neuron antibody (A-HuD) Neurogastroenterol Motil 18 8 2006 669.
129. De Giorgio R., Bovara M., Barbara G., et al. Anti-HuD-induced neuronal apoptosis underlying paraneoplastic gut dysmotility Gastroenterology 125 1 2003 70-79.
130. Debinski HS., Kamm MA., Talbot IC., et al. DNA viruses in the pathogenesis of sporadic chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction Gut 41 1 1997 100-106.
131. Schappi MG., Smith VV., Milla PJ., Lindley KJ Eosinophilic myenteric ganglionitis is associated with functional intestinal obstruction Gut 52 5 2003 752-755.
132. Accarino A., Colucci R., Barbara G., et al. Mast cell neuromuscular involvement in patients with severe gastrointestinal motility disorders Gut 39 2007 A18.
133. Hall KE., Wiley JW I. New insights into neuronal injury: a cautionary tale Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 274 6 1998 G978-G983.
134. De Giorgio R., Camilleri M Human enteric neuropathies: morphology and molecular pathology Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 5 2004 515-531.
135. Stanghellini V., Cogliandro RF., de Giorgio R., et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction: manifestations, natural history and management Neurogastroenterol Motil 19 6 2007 440-452.
136. Hockenbery D., Nunez G., Milliman C., et al. Bcl-2 is an inner mitochondrial membrane protein that blocks programmed cell death Nature 348 6299 1990 334-336.
137. De Giorgio R., Barbara G., Stanghellini V., et al. Reduced BCL-2 expression in the enteric nervous system as a marker for neural degeneration in patients with gastrointestinal motor disorders Gastroenterology 118 4 2000 A867.
138. Burns AJ Disorders of interstitial cells of Cajal J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 45 Suppl 2 2007 S103-S106.
139. Huizinga JD., Thuneberg L., Kluppel M., et al. W/kit gene required for interstitial cells of Cajal and for intestinal pacemaker activity Nature 373 6512 1995 347-349.
140. De Giorgio R., Seri M., Cogliandro R., et al. Analysis of candidate genes for intrinsic neuropathy in a family with chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction Clin Genet 59 2 2001 131-133.
141. Ward SM., Sanders KM., Hirst GDS Role of interstitial cells of Cajal in neural control of gastrointestinal smooth muscles Neurogastroenterol Motil 16 Suppl 1 2004 112-117.
142. He CL., Burgart L., Wang L., et al. Decreased interstitial cell of Cajal volume in patients with slow-transit constipation Gastroenterology 118 1 2000 14-21.
143. Boeckxstaens GE., Rumessen JJ., de Wit L., et al. Abnormal distribution of the interstitial cells of Cajal in an adult patient with pseudo-obstruction and megaduodenum Am J Gastroenterol 97 8 2002 2120-2126.
144. De Giorgio R., Guerrini S., Barbara G., et al. Inflammatory neuropathies of the enteric nervous system Gastroenterology 126 7 2004 1872-1883.
145. Knowles CH., Silk DBA., Darzi A., et al. Deranged smooth muscle alpha-actin as a biomarker of intestinal pseudo-obstruction: a controlled multinational case series Gut 53 11 2004 1583-1589.
146. Gargiulo A., Auricchio R., Barone MV., et al. Filamin A is mutated in X-linked chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction with central nervous system involvement Am J Hum Genet 80 4 2007 751-758.
147. Stanghellini V., Camilleri M., Malagelada JR Chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction: clinical and intestinal manometric findings Gut 28 1 1987 5-12.
148. Giordano C., Sebastiani M., De Giorgio R., et al. Gastrointestinal dysmotility in mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy is caused by mitochondrial DNA depletion Am J Pathol 173 4 2008 1120-1128.
149. Nishino I., Spinazzola A., Papadimitriou A., et al. Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy: an autosomal recessive disorder due to thymidine phosphorylase mutations Ann Neurol 47 6 2000 792-800.
150. Spinazzola A., Marti R., Nishino I., et al. Altered thymidine metabolism due to defects of thymidine phosphorylase J Biol Chem 277 6 2002 4128-4133.
151. Giordano C., Sebastiani M., Plazzi G., et al. Mitochondrial neurogastrointestinal encephalomyopathy: evidence of mitochondrial DNA depletion in the small intestine Gastroenterology 130 3 2006 893-901.
152. Nishino I., Spinazzola A., Hirano M Thymidine phosphorylase gene mutations in MNGIE, a human mitochondrial disorder Science 283 5402 1999 689-692.
153. Schuffler MD., Pope CE 2nd Studies of idiopathic intestinal pseudoobstruction. II. Hereditary hollow visceral myopathy: family studies Gastroenterology 73 2 1977 339-344.
154. Milla PJ Endothelins, pseudo-obstruction and Hirschsprung’s disease Gut 44 2 1999 148-149.
155. Hageman MJ., Delleman JW Heterogeneity in Waardenburg syndrome Am J Hum Genet 29 1977 468-485.
156. Jacobs JM., Wilson J An unusual demyelinating neuropathy in a patient with Waardenburg’s syndrome Acta Neuropathol 83 1992 670-674.
157. Touraine RL., Attié-Bitach T., Manceau E., et al. Neurological phenotype in Waardenburg syndrome type 4 correlates with novel SOX10 truncating mutations and expression in developing brain Am J Hum Genet 66 2000 1496-1503.
158. Tan F., Tan Y., Lim D The significance of cystic adrenal lesions in multiple endocrine neoplasia IIB syndrome Singapore Med J 45 10 2004 494-496.
159. Bonsib SM., Fallon B., Mitros FA., Anuras S Urological manifestations of patients with visceral myopathy J Urol 132 6 1984 1112-1116.
160. Di Ciaula A., Covelli M., Berardino M., et al. Gastrointestinal symptoms and motility disorders in patients with systemic scleroderma BMC Gastroenterol 8 2008 7.
161. Levine MS., Rubesin SE., Laufer I Pattern approach for diseases of mesenteric small bowel on barium studies Radiology 249 2 2008 445-460.
162. Soudah HC., Hasler WL., Owyang C Effect of octreotide on intestinal motility and bacterial overgrowth in scleroderma N Engl J Med 325 21 1991 1461-1467.
163. Greydanus MP., Camilleri M Abnormal postcibal antral and small bowel motility due to neuropathy or myopathy in systemic sclerosis Gastroenterology 96 1 1989 110-115.
164. Greydanus MP., Camilleri M., Colemont LJ., et al. Ileocolonic transfer of solid chyme in small intestinal neuropathies and myopathies Gastroenterology 99 1 1990 158-164.
165. Weston S., Thumshirn M., Wiste J., Camilleri M Clinical and upper gastrointestinal motility features in systemic sclerosis and related disorders Am J Gastroenterol 93 7 1998 1085-1089.
166. Narnaez J., Perez-Vega C., Castro-Bohorquez FJ., et al. Intestinal pseudo-obstruction in systemic lupus erythematosus Scand J Rheumatol 32 2003 191-195.
167. Camilleri M., Malagelada JR Abnormal intestinal motility in diabetics with the gastroparesis syndrome Eur J Clin Invest 14 6 1984 420-427.
168. Norman DA., Fleischmann RM Gastrointestinal systemic sclerosis in serologic mixed connective tissue disease Arthritis Rheum 21 7 1978 811-819.
169. He CL., Soffer EE., Ferris CD., et al. Loss of interstitial cells of Cajal and inhibitory innervation in insulin-dependent diabetes Gastroenterology 121 2 2001 427-434.
170. Edwards LL., Pfeiffer RF., Quigley EM., et al. Gastrointestinal symptoms in Parkinson’s disease Movement Disord 6 2 1991 151-156.
171. Lewitan A., Nathanson L., Slade WR Jr Megacolon and dilatation of the small bowel in parkinsonism Gastroenterology 17 3 1951 367-374.
172. Bozeman T., Anuras S., Hutton T., et al. Small intestinal manometry in Parkinson’s disease Gastroenterology 99 4 1990 1202.
173. Kupsky WJ., Grimes MM., Sweeting J., et al. Parkinson’s disease and megacolon: concentric hyaline inclusions (Lewy bodies) in enteric ganglion cells Neurology 37 7 1987 1253-1255.
174. Singaram C., Ashraf W., Gaumnitz EA., et al. Dopaminergic defect of enteric nervous system in Parkinson’s disease patients with chronic constipation Lancet 346 8979 1995 861-864.
175. Fealey RD., Szurszewski JH., Merritt JL., DiMagno EP Effect of traumatic spinal cord transection on human upper gastrointestinal motility and gastric emptying Gastroenterology 87 1 1984 69-75.
176. Bruninga K., Camilleri M Colonic motility and tone after spinal cord and cauda equina injury Am J Gastroenterol 92 5 1997 891-894.
177. Fajardo NR., Pasiliao RV., Modeste-Duncan R., et al. Decreased colonic motility in persons with chronic spinal cord injury Am J Gastroenterol 98 1 2003 128-134.
178. Stiens SA., Bergman SB., Goetz LL Neurogenic bowel dysfunction after spinal cord injury: clinical evaluation and rehabilitative management Arch Phys Med Rehabil 78 Suppl 3 1997 S86-102.
179. Pinsk I., Dukhno O., Ovnat A., Levy I Gastrointestinal complications of von Recklinghausen’s disease: two case reports and a review of the literature Scand J Gastroenterol 38 12 2003 1275-1278.
180. Fuller CE., Williams GT Gastrointestinal manifestations of type 1 neurofibromatosis (von Recklinghausen’s disease) Histopathology 19 1 1991 1-11.
181. Honnorat J., Antoine J-C Paraneoplastic neurological syndromes Orphanet J Rare Dis 2 2007 22.
182. Darnell RB., Posner JB Paraneoplastic syndromes involving the nervous system N Engl J Med 349 16 2003 1543-1544.
183. Sculier JP., Feld R., Evans WK., et al. Neurologic disorders in patients with small cell lung cancer Cancer 60 9 1987 2275-2283.
184. Simpson A., Khilnani M Gastrointestinal manifestations of the muscular dystrophies Am J Roentgenol 125 1975 948.
185. Nowak TV., Anuras S., Brown BP., et al. Small intestinal motility in myotonic dystrophy patients Gastroenterology 86 5 Pt 1 1984 808-813.
186. Yoshida MM., Krishnamurthy S., Wattchow DA., et al. Megacolon in myotonic dystrophy caused by a degenerative neuropathy of the myenteric plexus Gastroenterology 95 3 1988 820-827.
187. Pennisi E Genetics. Hopping to a better protein Science 322 5907 2008 1454-1455.
188. Wagner KR Approaching a new age in Duchenne muscular dystrophy treatment Neurotherapeutics 5 4 2008 583-591.
189. McDonald GB., Schuffler MD., Kadin ME., Tytgat GN Intestinal pseudoobstruction caused by diffuse lymphoid infiltration of the small intestine Gastroenterology 89 4 1985 882-889.
190. Borrelli O., Salvia G., Mancini G., et al. Evolution of gastric electrical features and gastric emptying in children with Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy Am J Gastroenterol 100 2005 695-702.
191. Westermark P Aspects on human amyloid forms and their fibril polypeptides FEBS J 272 23 2005 5942-5949.
192. Ebert EC., Nagar M Gastrointestinal manifestations of amyloidosis Am J Gastroenterol 103 3 2008 776-787.
193. Matsumoto T., Iida M., Hirakawa M., et al. Breath hydrogen test using water-diluted lactulose in patients with gastrointestinal amyloidosis Dig Dis Sci 36 12 1991 1756-1760.
194. Suhr O., Danielsson A., Steen L Bile acid malabsorption caused by gastrointestinal motility dysfunction? An investigation of gastrointestinal disturbances in familial amyloidosis with polyneuropathy Scand J Gastroenterol 27 3 1992 201-207.
195. Schein J Syndrome of nontropical sprue with hitherto undescribed lesions of the intestine Gastroenterology 8 1947 438-460.
196. Guirl MJ., Hogenauer C., Santa Ana CA., et al. Rapid intestinal transit as a primary cause of severe chronic diarrhea in patients with amyloidosis Am J Gastroenterol 98 10 2003 2219-2225.
197. Battle WM., Rubin MR., Cohen S., Snape WJ Jr Gastrointestinal-motility dysfunction in amyloidosis N Engl J Med 301 1 1979 24-25.
198. Camilleri M., Malagelada JR., Stanghellini V., et al. Gastrointestinal motility disturbances in patients with orthostatic hypotension Gastroenterology 88 6 1985 1852-1859.
199. Gilat T., Spiro H Amyloidosis and the gut Am J Dig Dis 13 1968 619-633.
200. Kyle RA., Gertz MA Primary systemic amyloidosis: clinical and laboratory features in 474 cases Semin Hematol 32 1 1995 45-59.
201. Briggs GW Amyloidosis Ann Intern Med 55 1961 943-957.
202. Gertz MA., Kyle RA Secondary systemic amyloidosis: response and survival in 64 patients Medicine (Baltimore) 70 4 1991 246-256.
203. Caballeria J., Bruguera M., Sole M., et al. Hepatic familial amyloidosis caused by a new mutation in the apolipoprotein AI gene: clinical and pathological features Am J Gastroenterol 96 6 2001 1872-1876.
204. Troncon LE., Aprile LR., Oliveira RB., Iazigi N Abnormally rapid gastric emptying of an isosmotic liquid meal in patients with megaduodenum Dig Dis Sci 45 11 2000 2145-2150.
205. Kahraman H., Kaya N., Demircali A., et al. Gastric emptying time in patients with primary hypothyroidism Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 9 9 1997 901-904.
206. Shafer RB., Prentiss RA., Bond JH Gastrointestinal transit in thyroid disease Gastroenterology 86 5 Pt 1 1984 852-855.
207. Duret RL., Bastenie PA Intestinal disorders in hypothyroidism. Clinical and manometric study Am J Dig Dis 16 8 1971 723-727.
208. Cappell MS Toxicity of administered drugs and chemicals Am J Gastroenterol 99 2004 1175-1190.
209. Schultz HS., Vernon B Intestinal pseudo-obstruction related to using verapamil West J Med 151 1989 556-558.
210. Dawson DJ., Sciberras CM., Whitwell H Coeliac disease presenting with intestinal pseudo-obstruction Gut 25 9 1984 1003-1008.
211. Behm B., Stollman N Postoperative ileus: etiologies and interventions Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 1 2 2003 71-80.
212. Otterson MF., Sarna SK., Lee MB Fractionated doses of ionizing radiation alter postprandial small intestinal motor activity Dig Dis Sci 37 5 1992 709-715.
213. Summers RW., Glenn CE., Flatt AJ., Elahmady A Does irradiation produce irreversible changes in canine jejunal myoelectric activity? Dig Dis Sci 37 5 1992 716-722.
214. Fernandez-Banares F., Villa S., Esteve M., et al. Acute effects of abdominopelvic irradiation on the orocecal transit time: its relation to clinical symptoms, and bile salt and lactose malabsorption Am J Gastroenterol 86 12 1991 1771-1777.
215. Perino LE., Schuffler MD., Mehta SJ., Everson GT Radiation-induced intestinal pseudoobstruction Gastroenterology 91 4 1986 994-998.
216. Arista-Nasr J., Gonzalez-Romo M., Keirns C., Larriva-Sahd J Diffuse lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the small intestine with damage to nerve plexus. A cause of intestinal pseudo-obstruction Arch Pathol Lab Med 117 8 1993 812-819.
217. Basilisco G., Gebbia C., Peracchi M., et al. Cerebellar degeneration and hearing loss in a patient with idiopathic myenteric ganglionitis Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 17 4 2005 449-452.
218. Kamal N., Chami T., Andersen A., et al. Delayed gastrointestinal transit times in anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa Gastroenterology 101 5 1991 1320-1324.
219. Cogliandro RF., De Giorgio R., Barbara G., et al. Chronic intestinal pseudo-obstruction Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 21 4 2007 657-669.
220. Iyer KR., Horslen S., Torres C., et al. Functional liver recovery parallels autologous gut salvage in short bowel syndrome J Pediatr Surg 39 3 2004 340-344.
221. Kerckhoffs APM., Visser MR., Samsom M., et al. Critical evaluation of diagnosing bacterial overgrowth in the proximal small intestine J Clin Gastroenterol 42 10 2008 1095-1102.
222. Bauer TM., Schwacha H., Steinbruckner B., et al. Diagnosis of small intestinal bacterial overgrowth in patients with cirrhosis of the liver: poor performance of the glucose breath hydrogen test J Hepatol 33 3 2000 382-386.
223. Tsujimoto T., Shioyama E., Moriya K., et al. Pneumatosis cystoides intestinalis following alpha-glucosidase inhibitor treatment: A case report and review of the literature World J Gastroenterol 14 39 2008 6087-6092.
224. Seket B., Kaczmarek D., Tiffet O Intestinal pseudo-obstruction and pneumotosis cystoides in a scleroderma patient J Am Coll Surg 205 2007 180-181.
225. Mousa H., Hyman PE., Cocjin J., et al. Long-term outcome of congenital intestinal pseudoobstruction Dig Dis Sci 47 10 2002 2298-2305.
226. Faure CM., Goulet OM., Ategbo SM., et al. Chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction syndrome: clinical analysis, outcome, and prognosis in 105 children Dig Dis Sci 44 5 1999 953-959.
227. Stanghellini V., Cogliandro RF., De Giorgio R., et al. Natural history of chronic idiopathic intestinal pseudo-obstruction in adults: a single center study Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 3 5 2005 449-458.
228. Metcalf AM., Phillips SF., Zinsmeister AR., et al. Simplified assessment of segmental colonic transit Gastroenterology 92 1 1987 40-47.
229. Freye E., Latasch L Effects of tramadol and tilidine/naloxone on oral-caecal transit and pupillary light reflex Arzneimittelforschung 50 1 2000 24-30.
230. Wilder-Smith CH., Hill L., Spargo K., Kalla A Treatment of severe pain from osteoarthritis with slow-release tramadol or dihydrocodeine in combination with NSAID’s: a randomised study comparing analgesia, antinociception and gastrointestinal effects Pain 91 1-2 2001 23-31.
231. Field MJ., Oles RJ., Lewis AS., et al. Gabapentin (neurontin) and S-(+)-3-isobutylgaba represent a novel class of selective antihyperalgesic agents Br J Pharmacol 121 8 1997 1513-1522.
232. Camilleri M., Malagelada JR., Abell TL., et al. Effect of six weeks of treatment with cisapride in gastroparesis and intestinal pseudoobstruction Gastroenterology 96 3 1989 704-712.
233. Di Lorenzo C., Reddy SN., Villanueva-Meyer J., et al. Cisapride in children with chronic intestinal pseudoobstruction. An acute, double-blind, crossover, placebo-controlled trial Gastroenterology 101 6 1991 1564-1570.
234. Camilleri M., Balm RK., Zinsmeister AR Determinants of response to a prokinetic agent in neuropathic chronic intestinal motility disorder Gastroenterology 106 4 1994 916-923.
235. Foxx-Orenstein A., Camilleri M., Stephens D., Burton D Effect of a somatostatin analogue on gastric motor and sensory functions in healthy humans Gut 52 11 2003 1555-1561.
236. Soudah HC., Hasler WL., Owyang C Effect of octreotide on intestinal motility and bacterial overgrowth in scleroderma N Engl J Med 325 1991 1508-1509.
237. Anuras S., Shirazi S., Faulk DL., et al. Surgical treatment in familial visceral myopathy Ann Surg 189 3 1979 306-310.
238. Pironi L., Spinucci G., Paganelli F., et al. Italian guidelines for intestinal transplantation: potential candidates among the adult patients managed by a medical referral center for chronic intestinal failure Transplant Proc 36 3 2004 659-661.
239. Lauro A., Zanfi C., Ercolani G., et al. Italian experience in adult clinical intestinal and multivisceral transplantation: 6 years later Transpl Proc 39 6 2007 1987-1991.
240. Barnes PR., Lennard-Jones JE., Hawley PR., Todd IP Hirschsprung’s disease and idiopathic megacolon in adults and adolescents Gut 27 5 1986 534-541.