Postoperative ileus: Etiologies and interventions

Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 71-80

  Behm, Brian ^a   Stollman, Neil ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b SAN FRANCISCO GENERAL HOSPITAL   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

17 METHYLNALTREXONE; ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; ALVIMOPAN; CHOLINERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; CISAPRIDE; DOMPERIDONE; ERYTHROMYCIN; FEDOTOZINE; LAXATIVE; METOCLOPRAMIDE; NALOXONE; NEOSTIGMINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OPIATE ANTAGONIST; SOMATOSTATIN;

CLINICAL TRIAL; HUMAN; ILEUS; LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; MOBILIZATION; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATION; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SYMPATHETIC NERVE; THORAX EPIDURAL ANESTHESIA;

EID: 0141961571     PISSN: 15423565     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1053/cgh.2003.50012     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Nachlas MM, Younis MT, Roda CP, Wityk JJ. Gastrointestinal motility studies as a guide to postoperative management. Ann Surg 1972;175:510-522.
2. Waldhausen JHT, Shaffrey ME, Skenderis BS II, Jones RS, Schirmer BD. Gastrointestinal myoelectric and clinical patterns of recovery after laparotomy. Ann Surg 1990;211:777-784.
3. Clevers GJ, Smout AJ, Van der Schee EJ, Akkermans LM. Myoelectrical and motor activity of the stomach in the first few days after abdominal surgery: evaluation by electrogastrography and impedance gastrography. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1991;6:253-259.
4. Tollesson PO, Cassuto J, Rimback G. Patterns of propulsive motility in the human colon after abdominal operations. Eur J Surg 1992;158:233-236.
5. Tinckler LF. Surgery and intestinal motility. Br J Surg 1965;52:140-150.
6. Rothnie NG, Harper RAK, Catchpole BN. Early postoperative gastrointestinal activity. Lancet 1963;2:64-67.
7. Wilson JP. Postoperative motility of the large intestine in man. Gut 1975;16:689-692.
8. Woods JH, Erickson LW, Condon RE, Schulte WJ, Sillin LF. Postoperative ileus: a colonic problem? Surgery 1978;84:527-532.
9. Prasad M, Matthews JB. Deflating postoperative ileus. Gastroenterology 1999;117:489-492.
10. Taguchi A, Sharma N, Saleem RM, Sessler DI, Carpenter RL, Seyedsadr M, Kurz A. Selective postoperative inhibition of gastrointestinal opioid receptors. N Engl J Med 2001;345:935-940.
11. Dauchel J, Schang JC, Kachelhoffer J, Elroy R, Grenier JF. Gastrointestinal myoelectrical activity during the postoperative period in man. Digestion 1976;14;293-303.
12. Miedema BW, Schillie S, Simmons JW, Burgess SV, Liem T, Silver D. Small bowel motility and transit after aortic surgery. J Vasc Surg 2002;36:19-24.
13. Condon RE, Frantzides CT, Cowles VE, Mahoney JL, Schulte WJ, Sarna SK. Resolution of postoperative ileus in humans. Ann Surg 1986;203:574-581.
14. Smith J, Kelly KA, Weinshilboum RM. Pathophysiology of postoperative ileus. Arch Surg 1977;112:203-209.
15. Bernstein A, Wright AC, Spencer D. Phaeochromocytoma as a cause of gastrointestinal distension. Postgrad Med J 1967;43:180-183.
16. Landman MD, Longmire WP Jr. Neuron and hormonal influences of peritonitis on paralytic ileus. Am Surg 1967;33:756-762.
17. Esser MJ, Mahoney JL, Robinson JC, Cowles VE, Condon RE. Effects of adrenergic agents on colonic motility. Surgery 1987; 102:416-422.
18. Hallerback B, Carlsen E, Carlsson K, Enkvist C, Glise H, Haffner J, Innes R, Kirno K. Beta-adrenoceptor blockade in the treatment of postoperative adynamic ileus. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22:149-155.
19. Heimbach DM, Crout JR. Treatment of paralytic ileus with adrenergic neuronal blocking drugs. Surgery 1971;69:582-587.
20. Dubois A, Henry DP, Kopin IJ. Plasma catecholamines and postoperative gastric emptying and small intestinal propulsion in the rat. Gastroenterology 1975;68:466-469.
21. Meltzer SJ, Auer J. Peristaltic movements of the rabbit's cecum and their inhibition, with demonstration. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1907;4:37-40.
22. Douglas DM, Mann FC. The effect of peritoneal irritation on the activity of the intestine. BMJ 1941;1:227-231.
23. Holzer P, Lippe IT, Holzer-Petsche U. Inhibition of gastrointestinal transit due to surgical trauma or peritoneal irritation is reduced in capsaicin-treated rats. Gastroenterology 1986;91:360-363.
24. Scheinin B, Asantila R, Orko R. The effect of bupivacaine and morphine on pain and bowel function after colonic surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1987;31:161-164.
25. Kalff JC, Schraut WH, Simmons RL, Bauer AJ. Surgical manipulation of the gut elicits an intestinal muscularis inflammatory response resulting in postsurgical ileus. Ann Surg 1998;228:652-663.
26. Turler A, Moore BA, Pezzone MA, Overhaus M, Kalff JC, Bauer AJ. Colonic postoperative inflammatory ileus in the rat. Ann Surg 2002;236:56-66.
27. Bellon JM, Manzano L, Larrad A, Honduvilla GN, Bujan J, Alvarez-Mon M. Endocrine and immune response to injury after open and laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Int Surg 1998;83:24-27.
28. Coimbra CR, Plourde V. Abdominal surgery-induced inhibition of gastric emptying is mediated in part by interleukin-1beta. Am J Physiol 1996;270:R556-560.
29. De Winter BY, Robberecht P, Boeckxstaens GE, De Man JG, Moreels TG, Herman AG, Pelckmans PA. Role of VIP1/PACAP receptors in postoperative ileus in rats. Br J Pharmacol 1998; 124:1181-1186.
30. Espat NJ, Cheng G, Kelley MC, Vogel SB, Sninsky CA, Hocking MP. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and substance P receptor antagonists improve postoperative ileus. J Surg Res 1995;58:719-723.
31. Kalff JC, Schraut WH, Billiar TR, Simmons RL, Bauer AJ. Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in postoperative intestinal smooth muscle dysfunction in rodents. Gastroenterology 2000; 118:316-327.
32. Rennie JA, Christofides ND, Mitchenere P, Fletcher D, Stockley-Leathard HL, Bloom SR, Johnson AG, Rains AJ. Neural and humoral factors in postoperative ileus. Br J Surg 1980;67:694-698.
33. Trudel L, Tomasetto C, Rio MC, Bouin M, Plourde V, Eberling P, Poitras P. Ghrelin/motilin-related peptide is a potent prokinetic to reverse gastric postoperative ileus in rat. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2002;282:G948-952.
34. Hardman JG, Limbird LE, eds. Goodman and Gilman's The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 10th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001:585.
35. Templeton RD, Adler HF. The influence of morphine on transportation in the colon of the dog. Am J Physiol 1940;131:428-431.
36. Murphy DB, Sutton JA, Prescott LF, Murphy MB. Opioid-induced delay in gastric emptying: a peripheral mechanism in humans. Anesthesiology 1997;87:765-770.
37. Ingram DM, Sheiner HJ. Postoperative gastric emptying. Br J Surg 1981;68:572-576.
38. Kaufman PN, Krevsky B, Malmud LS, Maurer AH, Somers MB, Siegel JA, Fisher RS. Role of opiate receptors in the regulation of colonic transit. Gastroenterology 1988;94:1351-1356.
39. Ferraz AA, Cowles VE, Condon RE, Carilli S, Ezberci F, Frantzides CT, Schulte WJ. Nonopioid analgesic shortens the duration of postoperative ileus. Am Surg 1995;61:1079-1083.
40. Lowman RM. The potassium depletion states and postoperative ileus. Radiology 1971;98:691-694.
41. Holte K, Kehlet H. Postoperative ileus: a preventable event. Br J Surg 2000;87:1480-1493.
42. Eger EI, Saidman LJ. Hazards of nitrous oxide anesthesia in bowel obstruction and pneumothorax. Anesthesiology 1965;26:61-66.
43. Guiffre M, Gross JB. The effects of nitrous oxide on postoperative bowel motility. Anesthesiology 1986;65:699-700.
44. Scheinin B, Lindgren L, Scheinin TM. Preoperative nitrous oxide delays function after colonic surgery. Br J Anaesth 1990;64:154-158.
45. Krogh B, Jensen PJ, Henneberg SW, Hole P, Kronborg O. Nitrous oxide does not influence operating conditions or postoperative course in colonic surgery. Br J Anaesth 1994;72:55-57.
46. Condon RE, Cowles V, Ekbom GA, Schulte WJ, Hess G. Effects of halothane, enflurane, and nitrous oxide on colon motility. Surgery 1987;101:81-85.
47. Thompson DG, Richelson E, Malagelada JR. Perturbation of gastric emptying and duodenal motility through the central nervous system. Gastroenterology 1982;83:1200-1206.
48. Stanghellini V, Malagelada JR, Zinsmeister AR, Go VL, Kao PC. Stress induced gastroduodenal motor disturbances in humans: possible humoral mechanisms. Gastroenterology 1983;85:83-91.
49. Stanghellini V, Malagelada JR, Zinsmeister AR, Go VL, Kao PC. Effect of opiate and adrenergic blockers on the gut motor response to centrally acting stimuli. Gastroenterology 1984;87:1104-1113.
50. Nimmo WS. Effect of anesthesia on gastric motility and emptying. Br J Anaesth 1984;56:29-36.
51. Livingston EH, Passaro EP. Postoperative ileus. Dig Dis Sci 1990;35;121-132.
52. Kewenter J, Kock NG. Studies on intestinal motility during the first few days after partial gastrectomy and after cholecystectomy. Acta Chir Scand 1963;125:248-252.
53. Wells C, Tinckler L, Rawlinson K, Jones H, Saunders J. Postoperative gastrointestinal motility. Lancet 1964;1:4-10.
54. Graber JN, Schulte WJ, Condon RE, Cowles VE. Relationship of duration of postoperative ileus to extent and site of operative dissection. Surgery 1982;92:87-92.
55. Condon RE, Frantzides CT, Cowles VE, Schulte WJ, Frantzides CT, Mahoney JL, Sarna SK. Resolution of postoperative ileus in humans. Ann Surg 1986;203:574-581.
56. Bohm B, Milsom JW, Fazio VW. Postoperative intestinal motility following conventional and laparoscopic intestinal surgery. Arch Surg 1995;130:415-419.
57. Davies W, Kollmorgen CF, Tu QM, Donohue JH, Thompson GB, Nelson H, Sarr MG. Laparoscopic colectomy shortens postoperative ileus in a canine model. Surgery 1997;121:550-555.
58. Chen HH, Wexner SD, Iroatulam AJ, Pikarsky AJ, Alabaz O, Nogueras JJ, Nessim A, Weiss EG. Laparoscopic colectomy compares favorably with colectomy by laparotomy for reduction of postoperative ileus. Dis Colon Rectum 2000;43:61-65.
59. Schuster TG, Montie JE. Postoperative ileus after abdominal surgery. Urology 2002;59:465-471.
60. Cannon WB, Murphy FT. The movements of the stomach and intestines in some surgical procedures. Ann Surg 1906;43:512-536.
61. Schwarz NT, Beer-Stolz D, Simmons RL, Bauer AJ. Pathogenesis of paralytic ileus: intestinal manipulation opens a transient pathway between the intestinal lumen and the leukocytic infiltrate of the jejunal muscularis. Ann Surg 2002;235:31-40.
62. Liu SS, Carpenter RL, Mackey DC, Thirlby RC, Rupp SM, Shine TS, Feinglass NG, Metzger PP, Fulmer JT, Smith SL. Effects of perioperative analgesic technique on rate of recovery after colon surgery. Anesthesiology 1995;83:757-765.
63. Hjortso NC, Neumann P, Frosig F, Andersen T, Lindhard A, Rogon E, Kehlet H. A controlled study on the effect of epidural analgesia with local anaesthetics and morphine on morbidity after abdominal surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1985;29:790-796.
64. Wallin G, Cassuto J, Hogstrom S, Rimback G, Faxen A, Tollesson PO. Failure of epidural anesthesia to prevent postoperative paralytic ileus. Anesthesiology 1986;65:292-297.
65. Ahn H, Bronge A, Johansson K, Ygge H, Lindhagen J. Effect of continuous postoperative epidural analgesia on intestinal motility. Br J Surg 1988;75:1176-1178.
66. Wattwil M, Thoren T, Hennerdal S, Garvill JE. Epidural analgesia with bupivacaine reduces postoperative paralytic ileus after hysterectomy. Anesth Analg 1989;65:353-358.
67. Bredtmann RD, Herden HN, Teichmann W, Moecke HP, Kniesel B, Baetgen R. Tecklenburg A. Epidural analgesia in colonic surgery: results of a randomized prospective study. Br J Surg 1990;77:638-642.
68. Kanazi GE, Thompson JS, Boskovski NA. Effect of epidural analgesia on postoperative ileus after ileal pouch-anal anastomosis. Am Surg 1996;62:499-502.
69. Scott AM, Starling JR, Ruscher AE, DeLessio ST, Harms BA. Thoracic versus lumbar epidural anesthesia's effect on pain control and ileus resolution after restorative proctocolectomy. Surgery 1996;120:688-697.
70. Mann C, Pouzeratte Y, Boccara G, Peccoux C, Vergne C, Bichet DG, Guillon G, Fabre JM, Colson P. Comparison of intravenous or epidural patient-controlled analgesia in the elderly after major abdominal surgery. Anesthesiology 2000;92:433-441.
71. Neudecker J, Schwenk W, Junghans T, Pietsch S, Bohm B, Muller JM. Randomized controlled trial to examine the influence of thoracic epidural analgesia on postoperative ileus after laparoscopic sigmoid resection. Br J Surg 1999;86:1292-1295.
72. Bisgaard C, Mouridsen P, Dahl JB. Continuous lumbar epidural bupivacaine plus morphine versus epidural morphine after major abdominal surgery. Eur J Anaesthesiol 1990;7:219-225.
73. Mochiki E, Nakabayashi T, Kamimura H, Haga N, Suzuki T, Asao T, Kuwano H. Gastrointestinal recovery and outcome after laparoscopy-assisted versus conventional open distal gastrectomy for early gastric cancer. World J Surg 2002;26:1145-1149.
74. Kelley MC, Hocking MP, Marchand SD, Sninsky CA. Ketorolac prevents postoperative small intestinal ileus in rats. Am J Surg 1993;165:107-111.
75. Cheng G, Cassissi C, Drexler PG, Vogel SB, Sninsky CA, Hocking MP. Salsalate, morphine, and postoperative ileus. Am J Surg 1996;171:85-88.
76. Schwarz NT, Kalff JC, Turler A, Engel BM, Watkins SC, Billiar TR, Bauer AJ. Prostanoid production via COX-2 as a causative mechanism of rodent postoperative ileus. Gastroenterology 2001; 121:1354-1371.
77. Josephs MD, Cheng G, Ksontini R, Moldawer LL, Hocking MP. Products of cyclooxygenase-2 catalysis regulate postoperative bowel motility. J Surg Res 1999;86:50-54.
78. Shafiq N, Malhotra S, Pandhi P. Effect of cyclooxygenase inhibitors in postoperative ileus: an experimental study. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 2002;24:275-278.
79. Zimmerman DM, Gidda JS, Cantrell BE, Schoepp DD, Johnson BG, Leander JD. Discovery of a potent, peripherally selective trans-3,4,dimethyl-4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-piperidine opioid antagonist for the treatment of gastrointestinal motility disorders. J Med Chem 1994;37:2262-2265.
80. Liu SS, Hodgson PS, Carpenter RL, Fricke JR Jr. ADL 8-2698 prevents gastrointestinal effects of intravenous morphine without affecting analgesia. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2000;68:66-71.
81. Kotake AN, Kuwahara SK, Burton E, McCoy CE, Goldberg LI. Variations in demethylation of N-methylnaltrexone in mice, rats, dogs, and humans. Xenobiotica 1989;19:1247-1254.
82. Yuan C, Foss JF, O'Connor M, Toledano A, Roizen MF, Moss J. Methylnaltrexone prevents morphine-induced delay in oral-cecal transit time without affecting analgesia: a double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1996;59:469-475.
83. Narcan package insert. Endo Pharmaceuticals Inc, 1998.
84. Fishman J, Rossward H, Hellman L. Disposition of naloxone in normal and narcotic-dependent men. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1973;187:575-580.
85. Culpepper-Morgan JA, Inturrisi CE, Portenoy RK, Foley K, Houde RW, Marsh F, Kreek MJ. Treatment of opioid-induced constipation with oral naloxone, a pilot study. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992;52:90-95.
86. Sykes NP. Oral naloxone in opioid-associated constipation. Lancet 1991;337:1475.
87. Meissner W, Schmidt U, Hartmann M, Kath R, Reinhart K. Oral naloxone reverses opioid-associated constipation. Pain 2000; 84:105-109.
88. Basse L, Raskov HH, Jakobsen DH, Sonne E, Billesbolle P, Hendel HW, Rosenberg J, Kehlet H. Accelerated postoperative recovery programme after colonic resection improves physical performance, pulmonary function and body composition. Br J Surg 2002;89:446-453.
89. Basse L, Jakobsen DH, Billesbolle P, Lund C, Werner M, Kehlet H. A clinical pathway to accelerate recovery after colonic resection. Ann Surg 2000;232:51-57.
90. Kehlet H, Mogensen T. Hospital stay of 2 days after open sigmoidectomy with a multimodal rehabilitation programme. Br J Surg 1999;86:227-230.
91. Bardram L, Funch-Jensen P, Kehlet H. Rapid rehabilitation in elderly patients after laparoscopic colonic resection. Br J Surg 2000;87:1540-1545.
92. Thor K, Rosell S, Rokaeus A, Kager L. Neurotensin changes the motility pattern of the duodenum and proximal jejunum from a fasting-type to a fed-type. Gastroenterology 1982;83:569-574.
93. Sarr MG, Kelly KA. Myoelectric activity of the autotransplanted canine jejunoileum. Gastroenterology 1981;81:303-310.
94. Moore FA, Feliciano DV, Andrassy RJ, McArdle AH, Booth FV, Morgenstein-Wagner TB, Kellum JM Jr., Welling RE, Moore EE. Early enteral feeding, compared with parenteral, reduces postoperative septic complications: the results of a meta-analysis. Ann Surg 1992;216:172-183.
95. Schilder JM, Hurteau JA, Look KY, Moore DH, Raff G, Stehman FB, Sutton GP. A prospective controlled trial of early postoperative oral intake following major abdominal gynecologic surgery. Gynecol Oncol 1997;67:235-240.
96. Carr CS, Ling KDE, Boulos P, Singer M. Randomised trial of safety and efficacy of immediate postoperative enteral feeding in patients undergoing gastrointestinal resection. BMJ 1996; 312:869-871.
97. Hartsell PA, Frazee RC, Harrison JB, Smith RW. Early postoperative feeding after elective colorectal surgery. Arch Surg 1997; 132:518-521.
98. Pearl ML, Valea FA, Fischer M, Mahler L, Chalas E. A randomized controlled trial of early postoperative feeding in gynecologic oncology patients undergoing intra-abdominal surgery. Obstet Gynecol 1998;92:94-97.
99. Watters JM, Kirkpatrick SM, Norris SB, Shamji FM, Wells GA. Immediate postoperative enteral feeding results in impaired respiratory mechanics and decreased mobility. Ann Surg 1997; 226:369-380.
100. Patolia DS, Hillard RLM, Toy EC, Baker B. Early feeding after cesarean: randomized trial. Obstet Gynecol 2001;98:113-116.
101. Stern RM, Crawford HE, Stewart WR, Vasey MW, Koch KL. Sham feeding: cephalic-vagal influences on gastric myoelectric activity. Dig Dis Sci 1989;34:521-527.
102. Soffer EE, Adrian TE. Effect of meal composition and sham feeding on duodenojejunal motility in humans. Dig Dis Sci 1992;37:1009-1014.
103. Asao T, Kuwano H, Nakamura J, Morinaga N, Hirayama I, Ide M. Gum chewing enhances early recovery from postoperative ileus after laparoscopic colectomy. J Am Coll Surg 2002;195:30-32.
104. Waldhausen JH, Schirmer BD. The effect of ambulation on recovery from postoperative ileus. Ann Surg 1990;212:671-677.
105. Harper CM, Lyles YM. Physiology and complications of bed rest. J Am Geriatr Soc 1988;36:1047-1054.
106. Kehlet H. Multimodal approach to control postoperative pathophysiology and rehabilitation. Br J Anaesth 1997;78:606-617.
107. Disbrow EA, Bennett HL, Owings JT. Effect of preoperative suggestion on postoperative gastrointestinal motility. West J Med 1993;158:488-492.
108. Fanning J, Yu-Brekke S. Prospective trial of aggressive postoperative bowel stimulation following radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol 1999;73:412-414.
109. Kleinfeld D. Edrophonium used for vagotonic action. JAMA 1973;223:922-923.
110. Garvey RF, Wilson BJ. Clinical appraisal of d-pantothenyl alcohol in postoperative ileus: a double-blind study. Arch Surg 1961; 83:916-920.
111. Wayne AL, Mendoza C, Rosen R, Nadler S, Case R. The role of dexanthenol in postoperative ileus. JAMA 1962;181:827-830.
112. Aitkenhead AR. Anaesthesia and bowel surgery. Br J Anaesth 1984;56:95-101.
113. Hallerback B, Ander S, Glise H. Effect of combined blockade of beta-adrenoceptors and acetylcholinesterase in the treatment of postoperative ileus after cholecystectomy. Scand J Gastroenterol 1987;22:420-424.
114. Catchpole BN. Ileus: use of sympathetic blocking agents in its treatment. Surgery 1969;66:811-820.
115. Ponec RJ, Saunders MD, Kimmey MB. Neostigmine for the treatment of acute colonic pseudo-obstruction. N Engl J Med 1999;341:137-141.
116. Althausen PL, Gupta MC, Benson DR, Jones DA. The use of neostigmine to treat postoperative ileus in orthopedic spinal patients. J Spinal Disorders 2001;14:541-545.
117. Wangensteen OH. The early diagnosis of acute intestinal obstruction with comments on pathology and treatment: with a report on successful decompression of three cases of mechanical small bowel obstruction by nasal catheter siphonage. West J Surg Obstet Gynecol 1932;40:1-17.
118. Sagar PM, Kruegener G, Macfie J. Nasogastric intubation and elective abdominal surgery. Br J Surg 1992;79:1127-1131.
119. Cheadle WG, Vitale GC, Mackie CR, Cuschieri A. Prophylactic postoperative nasogastric decompression: a prospective study of its requirement and the influence of cimetidine in 200 patients. Ann Surg 1985;202:361-365.
120. Cheatham ML, Chapman WC, Key SP, Sawyers JL. A meta-analysis of selective versus routine nasogastric decompression after elective laparotomy. Ann Surg 1995;61:1079-1083.
121. USP DI. Drug information for the health care provider. Englewood, CO: Micromedex, 2001.
122. Kivalo I, Miettinen K. The effects of metoclopramide on postoperative nausea and bowel function. Ann Chir Gynaecol Fenn 1970;59:155-158.
123. Breivik H, Lind B. Anti-emetic and propulsive peristaltic properties of metodopramide. Br J Anaesth 1971;43:400-403.
124. Davidson ED, Hersh T, Brinner RA, Barnett SM, Boyle LP. The effects of metoclopramide on postoperative ileus: a randomized double-blind study. Ann Surg 1979;190:27-30.
125. Jepsen S, Klaerke A, Nielsen PH, Simonsen O. Negative effect of metoclopramide in postoperative adynamic ileus: a prospective, randomized, double blind study. Br J Surg 1986;73:290-291.
126. Cheape JD, Wexner SD, James K, Jagelman DG. Does metoclopramide reduce the length of ileus after colorectal surgery? A prospective randomized trial. Dis Colon Rectum 1991;34:437-441.
127. Tollesson PO, Cassuto J, Faxen A, Rimback G, Mattsson E, Rosen S. Lack of effect of metoclopramide on colonic motility after cholecystectomy. Eur J Surg 1991;157:355-358.
128. Von Ritter C, Hunter S, Hinder RA. Cisapride does not reduce postoperative paralytic ileus. S Afr J Surg 1987;25:19-21.
129. Boghaert A, Haesaert G, Mourisse P, Verlinden M. Placebo-controlled trial of cisapride in postoperative ileus. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg 1987;38:195-199.
130. Verlinden M, Michiels G, Boghaert A, de Coster M, Dehertog P. Treatment of postoperative gastrointestinal atony. Br J Surg 1987;74:614-617.
131. Tollesson PO, Cassuto J, Rimback G, Faxen A, Bergman L, Mattsson E. Treatment of postoperative paralytic ileus with cisapride. Scand J Gastroenterol 1991;26:477-482.
132. Hallerback H, Bergman B, Bong H, Ekstrom P, Glise H, Lundgren K, Risberg O. Cisapride in the treatment of post-operative ileus. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 1991;5:503-511.
133. Benson MJ, Roberts JP, Wingate DL, Rogers J, Deeks JJ, Castillo FD, Williams NS. Small bowel motility following major intraabdominal surgery: the effects of opiates and rectal cisapride. Gastroenterology 1994;106:924-936.
134. Roberts JP, Benson MJ, Rogers J, Deeks JJ, Wingate DL, Williams NS. Effect of cisapride on distal colonic motility in the early postoperative period following left colonic anastomosis. Dis Colon Rectum 1995;38:139-145.
135. Lander A, Redkar R, Nicholls G, Lawson A, Choudhury SR, Corkery JJ, Gornall P, Buick RG, Booth IW. Cisapride reduces neonatal postoperative ileus: randomized placebo controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1997;77:F119-F122.
136. Brown TA, McDonald J, Williard W. A prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of cisapride after colorectal surgery. Am J Surg 1999;117:399-401.
137. Peeters T, Matthijs G, Depoortere I, Cachet T, Hoogmartens J, Vantrappen G. Erythromycin as a motilin receptor agonist. Am J Physiol 1989;257:G470-G474.
138. Bonacini M, Quiason S, Reynolds M, Gaddis M, Pemberton B, Smith O. Effect of intravenous erythromycin on postoperative ileus. Am J Gastroenterol 1993;88:208-211.
139. Smith AJ, Nissan A, Lanouette NM, Shi W, Guillem JG, Wong WD, Thaler H, Cohen AM. Prokinetic effect of erythromycin after colorectal surgery: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Dis Colon Rectum 2000;43:333-337.
140. Riviere PJM, Pascaud X, Chevalier E, Le Gallou B, Junien JL. Fedotozine reverses ileus induced by surgery or peritonitis: action at peripheral kappa-opioid receptors. Gastroenterology 1993;104:724-731.
141. De Winter BY, Boeckxstaens GE, De Man JG, Moreels TG, Herman AG, Pelckmans PA. Effects of mu- and kappa-opioid receptors on postoperative ileus in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1997; 339:63-67.
142. Friese N, Chevalier E, Angel F, Pascaud X, Junien JL, Dahl SG, Riviere PJ. Reversal by kappa-agonists of peritoneal irritation-induced ileus and visceral pain in rats. Life Sci 1997;60:625-634.
143. Cullen JJ, Eagon JC, Dozois EJ, Kelly KA. Treatment of acute postoperative ileus with octreotide. Am J Surg 1993;165:113-119.