Mechanisms and treatment of postoperative ileus

Archives of Surgery

Volumn 138, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 206-214

  Luckey, Andrew ^a,e   Livingston, Edward ^b,c   Tache, Yvetté ^b,d  

^a Univ of CA at S Francisco East Bay   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d VA GREATER LOS ANGELES HEALTHCARE SYSTEM   (United States)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; ANESTHETIC AGENT; ERYTHROMYCIN; HORMONE; LAXATIVE; MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE; METOCLOPRAMIDE; NARCOTIC ANALGESIC AGENT; NEUROTRANSMITTER; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT;

ABDOMINAL CRAMP; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; DECOMPRESSION SURGERY; DIARRHEA; ELECTROSTIMULATION THERAPY; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; HORMONE RELEASE; HUMAN; ILEUS; INFLAMMATION; INFORMATION PROCESSING; LAPAROSCOPIC SURGERY; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NAUSEA; NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE; PATHOGENESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; STOMACH INTUBATION; SYMPATHETIC INNERVATION; THORAX EPIDURAL ANESTHESIA; VOMITING;

ANALGESICS, OPIOID; ANESTHESIA; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; GASTROINTESTINAL MOTILITY; HORMONES; HUMANS; INFLAMMATION; INTESTINAL OBSTRUCTION; NEUROTRANSMITTER AGENTS; POSTOPERATIVE COMPLICATIONS;

EID: 0037321544     PISSN: 00040010     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1001/archsurg.138.2.206     Document Type: Review

References (137)

1. Dorland's Illustrated Medical Dictionary. 28th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 1994:819.
2. Livingston EH, Passaro EP. Postoperative ileus. Dig Dis Sci. 1990;35:121-131.
3. Holte K, Kehlet H. Postoperative ileus: a preventable event. Br J Surg. 2000; 87:1480-1493.
4. Waldhausen JH, Shaffrey ME, Skenderis BS II, Jones RS, Schirmer BD. Gastrointestinal myoelectric and clinical patterns of recovery after laparotomy. Ann Surg. 1990;211:777-784.
5. Moss G, Regal ME, Lichtig LK. Reducing postoperative pain, narcotics and length of hospitalization. Surgery. 1986;90:206-210.
6. Neely J, Catchpole B. Ileus: the restoration of alimentary tract motility by pharmacological means. Br J Surg. 1971;58:21-28.
7. Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The movements and innervations of the small intestine. J Physiol (Lond). 1899;24:99-143.
8. Dubois A, Henry D, Kopin I. Plasma catecholamines and postoperative gastric emptying and small intestinal propulsion in the rat. Gastroenterology. 1975; 68:466-469.
9. Sargrada A, Fargeas MJ, Bueno L. involvement of alpha-1 and alpha-2 adrenoreceptors in the postlaparotomy intestinal motor disturbances in the rat. Gut. 1987;28:955-959.
10. Barquist E, Zinner M, Rivier J, Taché Y. Abdominal surgery-induced delayed gastric emptying in rats: role of CRF and sensory neurons. Am J Physiol. 1992; 262:G616-G620.
11. Zittel TT, Reddy NS, Plourde V, Raybould HE. Role of spinal afferents and calcitonin gene-related peptide in the postoperative gastric ileus in anesthetized rats. Ann Surg. 1994;219:79-87.
12. Riviere JM, Pascaud X, Chevalier E, Le Gallou B, Junien JL. Fedotozine reverses ileus induced by surgery or peritonitis: action at peripheral κ-opioid receptors. Gastroenterology. 1993;104:724-731.
13. Espat NJ, Cheng G, Kelley MC, Vogel SB, Sninsky CA, Hocking MP. Vasoactive intestinal peptide and substance P receptor antagonists improve postoperative ileus. J Surg Res. 1995;58:719-723.
14. Zittel TT, Lloyd KCK, Tothenhofer I, Wong H, Walsh JH, Raybould HE. Calcitonin gene-related peptide and spinal afferents partly mediate postoperative colonic ileus in the rat. Surgery. 1998;123:518-527.
15. Huge A, Kreis ME, Jehle EC, et al. A model to investigate postoperative ileus with strain gauge transducers in awake rats. J Surg Res. 1998;74:112-118.
16. Szurszewski JH. A migrating electric complex of the canine small intestine. Am J Physiol. 1969;217:1757-1763.
17. Code CF, Schlegel J. The gastrointestinal interdigestive housekeeper: motor correlate of the interdigestive myoelectric complex of the dog. In: Daniel EE, ed. Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on GI Motility. Vancouver, British Columbia: Mitchell Press; 1973.
18. Sarna SK. Cyclic motor activity: migrating motor complex: 1985. Gastroenterology. 1985;89:894-913.
19. Hocking MP, Vogel SB. Physiology of gastric secretion and motility in normal and postgastrectomy (post vagotomy) states. In: Hocking MP, Vogel SB, eds. Woodward's Postgastrectomy Syndromes. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, Pa: WB Saunders Co; 1991:29-46.
20. Fujimiya M, Inui A. Peptidergic regulation of gastrointestinal motility in rodents. Peptides. 2000;21:1565-1582.
21. Sarna SK, Bardakjian BE, Waterfall WE, Lind JF. Human electrical control activity (ECA). Gastroenterology. 1980;78:1526-1536.
22. Bueno L, Ferre JP, Ruckebusch Y. Effects of anesthesia and surgical procedures on intestinal myoelectric activity in rats. Am J Dig Dis. 1978;23:690-695.
23. Marshall FN, Pittenger CB, Long JP. Effects of halothane on gastrointestinal motility. Anesthesiology. 1961;22:363-366.
24. Condon RE, Cowles VE, Schulte WJ, Frantzides CT, Mahoney JL, Sarna SK. Resolution of postoperative ileus in humans. Ann Surg. 1986;203:574-581.
25. Woods JH, Erickson LW, Condon RE, Schulte WJ, Sillin LF. Postoperative ileus: a colonic problem? Surgery. 1978;84:527-533.
26. Kenwenter J. The vagal control of duodenal and ileal motility and blood flow. Acta Physiol Scand. 1965;63:1-68.
27. Nilsson F, Jung B. Gastric evacuation and small propulsion after laparotomy. Acta Chir Scand. 1973;139:724-730.
28. Dubois A, Weise VK, Kopin IJ. Postoperative ileus in the rat: physiology, etiology and treatment. Ann Surg. 1973;178:781-786.
29. Dubois A, Kopin IJ, Pettigrew KD, Jacobowitz MD. Chemical and histochemical studies of postoperative sympathetic activity in the digestive tract of the rat. Gastroenterology. 1974;66:403-407.
30. De Winter BY, Boeckxstaens GE, De Man JG, Moreels TG, Herman AG, Pelckmans PA. Effect of adrenergic and nitrergic blockade on experimental ileus in rats. Br J Pharmacol. 1997;120:464-468.
31. Deloof S, Croix D, Tramu G. The role of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in the inhibition of antral and pyloric electrical activity in rabbits. J Auton Nerv Syst. 1988;22:167-173.
32. Holzer P, Lippe IT. Inhibition of gastrointestinal transit due to surgical trauma or peritoneal irritation is reduced in capsaicin-treated rats. Gastroenterology. 1986;91:360-363.
33. Bult H, Boeckxstaens GE, Pelckmans PA, Jordaens FH, Van Maercke YM, Herman AG. Nitric oxide as an inhibitory non-adrenergic non-cholinergic neurotransmitter. Nature. 1990;345:346-347.
34. Kalff JC, Schraut WH, Billiar TR, Simmons RL, Bauer AJ. Role of inducible nitric oxide synthase in postoperative intestinal smooth muscle dysfunction in rodents. Gastroenterology. 2000;118:316-327.
35. DeWinter BY, Robberecht P, Boeckxstaens GE, et al. Role of VIP1/PACAP receptors in postoperative ileus in rats. Br J Pharmacol. 1998;124:1181-1186.
36. Freeman ME, Guozhang C, Hocking MP. Role of alpha- and beta-calcitonin gene-related peptide in postoperative small bowel ileus. J Gastrointest Surg. 1999; 3:39-43.
37. De Winter BY, Boeckxstaens GE, De Man JG, Moreels TG, Herman AG, Pelckmans PA. Effects of μ- and κ-opioid receptors on postoperative ileus in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1997;339:63-67.
38. Kehlet H, Holte K. Review of postoperative ileus. Am J Surg. 2001;182(suppl 5A):3S-10S.
39. Konturek SJ, Thor P, Krol R, Dembinski A, Schally AV. Influence of methionine-enkephalin and morphine on myoelectric activity of small bowel. Am J Physiol. 1980;238:G384-G389.
40. Terawaki Y, Takayanagi I, Takagi K. Effects of 5-hydroxytryptamine and morphine on the stomach motility in situ. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1976;26:7-12.
41. Turnbull AV, Rivier C. Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and endocrine responses to stress: CRF receptors, binding protein, and related peptides. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1997;215:1-10.
42. Taché Y, Martinez V, Million M, Rivier J. Corticotropin-releasing factor and the brain-gut motor response to stress. Can J Gastroenterol. 1999;13(suppl A): 18A-25A.
43. Taché Y, Monnikes H, Bonaz B, Rivier J. Role of CRF in stress-related alterations of gastric and colonic motor function. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1993;697:233-243.
44. Raybould HE, Koelbel CB, Mayer EA, Taché Y. Inhibition of gastric motor function by circulating corticotropin-releasing factor in anesthetized rats. J Gastrointest Motil. 1990;2:265-272.
45. Williams CL, Peterson JM, Villar RG, Burks TF. Corticotropin-releasing factor directly mediates colonic response to stress. Am J Physiol. 1987;253:G582-G586.
46. Taché Y, Maeda-Hagiwara M, Turkelson CM. Central nervous system action of corticotropin-releasing factor to inhibit gastric emptying in rats. Am J Physiol. 1987;253:G241-G245.
47. Sheldon RJ, Qi JA, Porreca F, Fisher LA. Gastrointestinal motor effects of corticotropin-releasing factor in mice. Regul Pept. 1990;28:137-151.
48. Pappas TN, Welton M, Taché Y, Rivier J. Corticotropin-releasing factor inhibits gastric emptying in dogs: studies on mechanism of action. Peptides. 1988;8: 1011-1014.
49. Lenz HJ, Burlage M, Raedler A, Greten H. Central nervous system effects of corticotropin-releasing factor on gastrointestinal transit in the rat. Gastroenterology. 1988;94:598-602.
50. Broccardo M, Improta G. Pituitary-adrenal and vagus modulation of sauvagine-and CRF-induced inhibition of gastric emptying in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1990; 182:357-362.
51. Nozu T, Martinez V, Rivier J, Taché Y. Peripheral urocortin delays gastric emptying: role of CRF receptor 2. Am J Physiol. 1999;276:867-875.
52. Naito Y, Fukata J, Tamai S, et al. Biphasic changes in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal function during the early recovery period of major abdominal surgery. J Clin Invest. 1991;73:111-117.
53. Donal RA, Perry EG, Wittert GA, et al. The plasma ACTH, AVP, CRH, and catecholamines responses to conventional and laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1993;38:609-615.
54. Calogero AE, Norton JA, Sheppard BC, et al. Pulsatile activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during major surgery. Metabolism. 1992;41: 839-845.
55. Edwards AV, Jones CT. Secretion of corticotropin-releasing factor from the adrenal during spianchnic nerve stimulation in conscious calves. J Physiol. 1988; 400:89-100.
56. Mazzocchi G, Malendowicz LK, Rebuffat P, Tortorella C, Nussdorfer GG. Arginine-vasopressin stimulates CRH and ACTH release by rat adrenal medulla, acting via the V1 receptor subtype and a protein kinase C-dependent pathway. Peptides. 1997;18:191-195.
57. Kalff JC, Wolfgang HS, Simmons RL, Bauer AJ. Surgical manipulation of the gut elicits an intestinal muscularis inflammatory response resulting in post-surgical ileus. Ann Surg. 1998;228:652-663.
58. Schwarz NT, Kalff JC, Turler A, et al. Prostanoid production via COX-2 as a causative mechanism of rodent postoperative ileus. Gastroenterology. 2001;121: 1354-1371.
59. Ogilvy AJ, Smith G. The gastrointestinal tract after anesthesia. Eur Jm Anaesthesiol Suppl. 1995;10:35-42.
60. Rashid MU, Bateman DN. Effects of intravenous atropine on gastric emptying, paracetamol absorption, salivary flow and heart rate in young and elderly volunteers. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1990;30:25-34.
61. Schurizek BA, Willacy LHO, Kraglund K, Andreasen F, Juhl B. Effects of general anaesthesia with halothane on antroduodenal motility. pH and gastric emptying in man. Br J Anaesth. 1989;62:129-137.
62. Schurizek BA, Willacy LHO, Kraglund K, Andreasen F, Juhl B. Effects of general anaesthesia with enflurane on antroduodenal motility, pH and gastric emptying in man. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1989;6:265-279.
63. Liu S, Carpenter RL, Neal JM. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia: their role in postoperative outcome. Anesthesiology. 1995;82:1474-1506.
64. Steinbrook RA. Epidural anesthesia and gastrointestinal motility. Anesth Analg. 1998;86:837-844.
65. Holte K, Kehlet H. Epidural anesthesia and analgesia-effects on surgical stress responses and implications for postoperative nutrition. Clin Nutr. 2002;21:199-206.
66. Wallin G, Cassuto J, Hogstrom S, Rimback G, Faxen B, Tollesson PO. Failure of epidural anesthesia to prevent postoperative paralytic ileus. Anesthesiology. 1986; 65:292-297.
67. Scheinin B, Asantila R, Orko R. The effect of bupivacaine and morphine on pain and bowel function after colonic surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1987;31: 161-164.
68. Ahn H, Bronge A, Johansson K, Ygge H, Lindhagen J. Effect of continuous postoperative epidural analgesia on intestinal motility. Br J Surg. 1988;75:1176-1178.
69. Wattwil M, Thoren T, Hennerdal S, Garvil JE. Epidural analgesia with bupivacaine reduces postoperative paralytic ileus after hysterectomy. Anesth Analg. 1989;68:353-358.
70. Bredtmann RD, Herden HN, Teichmann W, et al. Epidural analgesia in colonic surgery: results of a randomized prospective study. Br J Surg. 1990;77:638-642.
71. Riwar A, Schar B, Grotzinger U. Effect of continuous postoperative analgesia with peridural bupivacaine on intestinal motility following colorectal resection [in German]. Helv Chir Acta. 1991;58:729-733.
72. Liu SS, Carpenter RL, Mackey DC, et al. Effects of perioperative analgesic technique on rate of recovery after colon surgery. Anesthesiology. 1995;83:757-765.
73. Neudecker J, Schwenk W, Junghans T, Pietsch S, Bohm B, Muller JM. Randomized controlled trial to examine the influence of thoracic epidural analgesia on postoperative ileus after laparoscopic sigmoid resection. Br J Surg. 1999; 98:1292-1295.
74. Asantila R, Eklund P, Rosenberg PH. Continuous epidural infusion of bupivacaine and morphine for postoperative analgesia after hysterectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1991;35:513-517.
75. Thoren T, Sundberg A, Wattwil M, Garvill JE, Jurgensen U. Effects of epidural bupivacaine and epidural morphine on bowel function and pain after hysterectomy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1989;33:181-185.
76. Jorgensen H, Fomsgaard JS, Dirks J, Wetterslev J, Andreasson B, Dahl JB. Effect of epidural bupivacaine vs combined epidural bupivacaine and morphine on gastrointestinal function and pain after major gynaecological surgery. Br J Anaesth. 2001;87:727-732.
77. Bisgaard C, Mouridsen P, Dahl JB. Continuous lumbar epidural bupivacaine plus morphine versus epidural morphine after major abdominal surgery. Eur J Anaesthesiol. 1990;7:219-225.
78. Hjortso NC, Neumann P, Frosig F, et al. A controlled study on the effect of epidural analgesia with local anaesthetics and morphine on morbidity after abdominal surgery. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 1985;29:790-796.
79. Reisine T, Pasternak G. Opioid analgesics and antagonists. In: Hardman JG, Limbird LE, eds. Goodman & Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics. 9th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Co; 1996.
80. Borody TJ, Quigley EM, Phillips SF, et al. Effects of morphine and atropine on motility and transit in the human ileum. Gastroenterology. 1985;89:562-570.
81. Foss JF. A review of the potential role of methylnaltrexone in opioid bowel dysfunction. Am J Surg. 2001;182(suppl 5A):19S-26S.
82. Taguchi A, Sharma N, Saleem RM, et al. Selective inhibition of gastrointestinal opioid receptors. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:935-940.
83. Cheatham ML, Chapman WC, Key SP, Sawyers JL. A meta-analysis of selective versus routine nasogastric decompression after elective laparotomy. Ann Surg. 1995;221:469-476.
84. Sagar PM, Kruegener G, MacFie J. Nasogastric intubation and elective abdominal surgery. Br J Surg. 1992;79:1127-1137.
85. Richter HM, Kelly KA. Effect of transection and pacing on human jejunal pacesetter potentials. Gastroenterology. 1986;91:1380-1385.
86. Johnson LR. Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1994.
87. Stewart BT, Woods RJ, Collopy BT, Fink RJ, Mackay JR, Keck JO. Early feeding after elective open colorectal resections: a prospective randomized trial. Aust N Z J Surg. 1998;68:125-128.
88. Di Fronzo LA, Cymerman J, O'Connell TX. Factors affecting early postoperative feeding following elective open colon resection. Arch Surg. 1999;134:941-945.
89. Macmillan SLM, Kammerer-Doak D, Rogers RG, Parker KM. Early feeding and the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms after major gynecologic surgery. Obstet Gynecol. 2000;96:604-608.
90. Heslin MJ, Latkany L, Leung D, et al. A prospective, randomized trial of early enteral feeding after resection of upper gastrointestinal malignancy. Ann Surg. 1997:226:567-577.
91. Watter JM, Kirkpatrick SM, Norris SB, Shamji FM, Wells GA. Immediate postoperative feeding results in impaired respiratory mechanics and decreased mobility. Ann Surg. 1997;226:369-377.
92. Leung KL, Lai PB, Ho RL, et al. Systemic cytokine response after laparoscopic-assisted resection of rectosigmoid carcinoma: a prospective randomized trial. Ann Surg. 2000;231:506-511.
93. Lacy AM, Garcia-Valdecasas JC, Pique JM, et al. Short-term outcome analysis of a randomized study comparing laparoscopic vs open colectomy for colon cancer. Surg Endosc. 1995;9:1101-1105.
94. Bohm B, Milsom JW, Fazio VW. Postoperative intestinal motility following conventional and laparoscopic intestinal surgery. Arch Surg. 1995;130:415-419.
95. Senagore AJ, Luchtefeld MA, Mackeigan JM, Mazier WP, Open colectomy versus laparoscopic colectomy: are there differences? Am Surg. 1993;59: 549-553.
96. Schwenk W, Bohm B, Haase O, Junghans T, Muller JM. Laparoscopic versus conventional colorectal resection: a prospective randomised study of postoperative ileus and early feeding. Langenbecks Arch Surg. 1998;383:49-55.
97. Merry B, Power W. Perioperative NSAIDs: towards greater safety. Pain Rev. 1995; 2:268-291.
98. Yee MK, Evans WD, Facey PE, Hayward MW, Rosen M. Gastric emptying and small bowel transit in male volunteers after i.m. ketorolac and morphine. Br J Anaesth. 1991;67:426-431.
99. Kelley MC, Hocking MP, Marchand SD, Sninsky CA. Ketorolac prevents postoperative small intestinal ileus in rats. Am J Surg. 1993;165:107-111.
100. De Winter BY, Boeckxstaens GE, De Man JG, Moreels TG, Herman AG, Pelckmans PA. Differential effect of indomethacin and ketorolac on postoperative ileus in rats. Eur J Pharmacol. 1998;344:71-76.
101. Cheng G, Cassissi C, Drexler PF, Vogel SB, Sninsky CA, Hocking MP. Salsalate, morphine, and postoperative ileus. Am J Surg. 1996;171:85-88.
102. Ferraz AA, Cowles VE, Condon RE, et al. Nonopioid analgesics shorten the duration of postoperative ileus. Am Surg. 1995;61:1079-1083.
103. Fanning J, Yu-Brekke S. Prospective trial of aggressive postoperative bowel stimulation following radical hysterectomy. Gynecol Oncol. 1999;73:412-414.
104. 2. Adv Prostaglandin Thromboxane Res. 1980;8:1603-1607.
105. Heimbach DM, Crout JR. Treatment of paralytic ileus with adrenergic neuronal blocking drugs. Surgery. 1971;69:582-587.
106. Furness JB, Costa M. Adynamic ileus, its pathogenesis and treatment. Med Biol. 1974;52:82-89.
107. Kleinfeld D. Edrophonium used for vagotonic action. JAMA. 1973;223:922-923.
108. Burks TF. Neurotransmission and neurotransmitters. In: Johnson LR, Alpers DM, Christensen J, Jacobson ED, Walsh JH, eds. Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract. Vol 1. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1994.
109. Kreis ME, Kasparek M, Zittel TT, Becker HD, Jehle EC. Neostigmine increases postoperative colonic motility in patients undergoing colorectal surgery. Surgery. 2001;130:449-456.
110. Jepsen S, Klaerke A, Nielsen PH, Simonsen O. Negative effect of metoclopramide in postoperative adynamic ileus: a prospective, randomized, double blind study. Br J Surg. 1986;73:290-291.
111. Cheape JD, Wexner SD, James K, Jagelman DG. Does metoclopramide reduce the length of ileus after colorectal surgery? a prospective randomized trial. Dis Colon Rectum. 1991;34:437-441.
112. Tollesson PO, Cassuto J, Faxen A, Rimback G, Mattsson E, Rosen S. Lack of effect of metoclopramide on colonic motility after cholecystectomy. Eur J Surg. 1991;157:355-358.
113. Breivik H, Lind B. Anti-emetic and propulsive peristaltic properties of metoclopramide. Br J Anaesth. 1971;43:400-403.
114. Davidson ED, Hersh T, Brinner RA, Barnett SM, Boyle LP. The effects of metoclopramide on postoperative ileus: a randomized double blind study. Ann Surg. 1979;190:27-30.
115. Kivalo I, Miettinen K. The effects of metoclopramide on postoperative nausea and bowel function. Ann Chir Gynaecol Fenn. 1970;59:155-158.
116. Seta ML, Kale-Pradham PB. Efficacy of metoclopramide in postoperative ileus after exploratory laparotomy. Pharmacotherapy. 2001;10:1181-1186.
117. Smith AJ, Nissan A, Lanouette NM, et al. Prokinetic effect of erythromycin after colorectal surgery: randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43:333-337.
118. Bonacini M, Quiason S, Reynolds M, Gaddis M, Pemberton B, Smith O. Effect of erythromycin on postoperative ileus. Am J Gastroenterol. 1993;88:208-211.
119. Tollesson PO, Cassuto J, Rimback G, Faxen A, Bergman L, Mattsson E. Treatment of postoperative paralytic ileus with cisapride. Scand J Gastroenterol. 1991; 26:477-482.
120. Brown TA, McDonald J, Williard W. A prospective, randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of cisapride after colorectal surgery. Am J Surg. 1999;177:399-401.
121. Boghaert B, Haesaert G, Mourisse P, Verlinden M. Placebo-controlled trial of cisapride in postoperative ileus. Acta Anaesthesiol Belg. 1987;38:195-199.
122. Verlinden M, Michiels G, Boghaert A, de Coster M, Dehertog P. Treatment of postoperative gastrointestinal atony. Br J Surg. 1987;74:614-617.
123. von Ritter C, Hunter S, Hinder RA. Cisapride does not reduce postoperative ileus. S Afr J Surg. 1987;25:19-21.
124. Lander B, Redkar R, Nicholls G, et al. Cisapride reduces neonatal postoperative ileus: randomised placebo controlled trial. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 1997; 77:F119-F122.
125. Barone JA, Jessen LM, Colaizzi JL, Bierman RH. Cisapride: a gastrointestinal prokinetic drug. Ann Pharmacother. 1994;28:488-500.
126. Hallerback H, Bergman B, Bong H, et al. Cisapride in the treatment of postoperative ileus. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1991;5:503-511.
127. Roberts JP, Benson MJ, Rodgers J, Deeks JJ, Wingate DL, Williams NS. Effect of cisapride on distal colonic motility in the early postoperative period following left colonic anastomosis. Dis Colon Rectum. 1995;38:139-145.
128. Sadek SA, Cranford C, Eriksen C, et al. Pharmacological manipulation of adynamic ileus: controlled randomized double-blind study of ceruletide on intestinal motor activity after elective abdominal surgery. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 1988;2:47-54.
129. Madsen PV, Lykkegaard-Nielsen M, Nielsen OV. Ceruletide reduces postoperative intestinal paralysis: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Dis Colon Rectum. 1983;26:159-160.
130. Cullen JJ, Eagon JC, Kelly KA. Gastrointestinal peptide hormones during postoperative ileus: effect of octreotide. Dig Dis Sci. 1994;39:1179-1184.
131. Asao T, Kuwano H, Nakamura J, Moringa N, Hirayama I, Ide M. Gum chewing enhances early recovery from postoperative ileus after laparoscopic colectomy. J Am Coll Surg. 2002;195:30-32.
132. Soffer EE, Adrian TE. Effect of meal composition and sham feeding on duodenonjejunal motility in humans. Dig Dis Sci. 1992;37:1009-1014.
133. Katschinski M, Dahmen G, Reinshagen M, et al. Cephalic stimulation of GI secretory and motor response in humans. Gastroenterology. 1992;103:383-391.
134. Lobo DN, Bostock KA, Neal KR, Perkins AC, Rowlands BJ, Allison SP. Effect of salt and water balance on gastrointestinal function after elective colon resection. Lancet. 2002;359:1812-1818.
135. Basse L, Madsen JL, Kehlet H. Normal gastrointestinal transit after colonic resection using epidural analgesia, enforced oral nutrition and laxative. Br J Surg. 2001;88:1498-1500.
136. Waldenhausen JH, Schirmer BD. The effect of ambulation on recovery from postoperative J ileus. Ann Surg. 1990;212:671-677.
137. Basse L, Jacobsen D, Billesbolle P, et al. A clinical pathway to accelerate recovery after colonic resection. Ann Surg. 2000;232:51-57.